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Articles by Miina Rautiainen

Category : Research article

article id 22014, category Research article
Nea Kuusinen, Aarne Hovi, Miina Rautiainen. (2023). Estimation of boreal forest floor lichen cover using hyperspectral airborne and field data. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 1 article id 22014. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22014
Keywords: remote sensing; Cladonia; spectroscopy
Highlights: A pilot study on estimating forest floor lichen cover from hyperspectral data; Multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis applied to field and airborne data; Accuracy of lichen cover estimates was good; Tree cover and presence of dwarf shrubs may influence lichen cover estimation.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Lichens are sensitive to competition from vascular plants, intensive silviculture, pollution and reindeer and caribou grazing, and can therefore serve as indicators of environmental changes. Hyperspectral remote sensing data has been proved promising for estimation of plant diversity, but its potential for forest floor lichen cover estimation has not yet been studied. In this study, we investigated the use of hyperspectral data in estimating ground lichen cover in boreal forest stands in Finland. We acquired airborne and in situ hyperspectral data of lichen-covered forest plots, and applied multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis to estimate the fractional cover of ground lichens in these plots. Estimation of lichen cover based on in situ spectral data was very accurate (coefficient of determination (r2) 0.95, root mean square error (RMSE) 6.2). Estimation of lichen cover based on airborne data, on the other hand, was fairly good (r2 0.77, RMSE 11.7), but depended on the choice of spectral bands. When the hyperspectral data were resampled to the spectral resolution of Sentinel-2, slightly weaker results were obtained. Tree canopy cover near the flight plots was weakly related to the difference between estimated and measured lichen cover. The results also implied that the presence of dwarf shrubs could influence the lichen cover estimates.
  • Kuusinen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8063-1739 E-mail: nea.kuusinen@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hovi, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10331, category Research article
Jussi Juola, Aarne Hovi, Miina Rautiainen. (2020). Multiangular spectra of tree bark for common boreal tree species in Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 4 article id 10331. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10331
Keywords: classification; reflectance; hyperspectral; imaging spectrometer; near-infrared; SVM; visible
Highlights: Novel multiangular measurement set-up for hyperspectral imaging; Multiangular spectra of silver birch (Betula pendula), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) stem bark samples were collected; Intra- and interspecific variations in reflectance were analyzed; Demonstration of tree species identification based on stem bark spectra; Collected spectra openly available in SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Despite the importance of spectral properties of woody tree structures, they are seldom represented in research related to forests, remote sensing, and reflectance modeling. This study presents a novel imaging multiangular measurement set-up that utilizes a mobile handheld hyperspectral camera (Specim IQ, 400–1000 nm), and can measure stem bark spectra in a controlled laboratory setting. We measured multiangular reflectance spectra of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stem bark, and demonstrated the potential of using bark spectra in identifying tree species using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) based approach. Intraspecific reflectance variability was the lowest in visible (400–700 nm), and the highest in near-infrared (700–1000 nm) wavelength regions. Interspecific variation was the largest in the red, red-edge and near-infrared spectral bands. Spatial variation of reflectance along the tree height and different sides of the stem (north and south) were found. Both birch and pine had increased reflectance in the forward-scattering directions for visible to near-infrared wavelength regions, whilst spruce displayed the same only for the visible wavelength region. In addition, spruce had increased reflectance in the backward-scattering directions. In spite of the intraspecific variations, SVM could identify tree species with 88.8% overall accuracy when using pixel-specific spectra, and with 97.2% overall accuracy when using mean spectra per image. Based on our results it is possible to identify common boreal tree species based on their stem bark spectra using images from mobile hyperspectral cameras.

  • Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6050-7247 E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10270, category Research article
Aarne Hovi, Matti Mõttus, Jussi Juola, Farshid Manoocheri, Erkki Ikonen, Miina Rautiainen. (2020). Evaluating the performance of a double integrating sphere in measurement of reflectance, transmittance, and albedo of coniferous needles. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 10270. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10270
Keywords: vegetation; albedo; reflectance; transmittance; needle carrier; spectra
Highlights: Adaptation of a compact double integrating sphere for spectral measurements of coniferous needles; Double integrating sphere is fast to operate and suitable for monitoring purposes and collection of large spectral databases; Measured spectra showed negative bias, which could potentially be reduced by building an optimized measurement setup.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Leaf reflectance and transmittance spectra are essential information in many applications such as developing remote sensing methods, computing shortwave energy balance (albedo) of forest canopies, and monitoring health or stress of trees. Measurement of coniferous needle spectra has usually been carried out with single integrating spheres, which has involved a lot of tedious manual work. A small double integrating sphere would make the measurements considerably faster, because of its ease of operation and small sample sizes required. Here we applied a compact double integrating sphere setup, used previously for measurement of broad leaves, for measurement of coniferous needles. Test measurements with the double integrating sphere showed relative underestimation of needle albedo by 5–39% compared to a well-established single integrating sphere setup. A small part of the bias can be explained by the bias of the single sphere. Yet the observed bias is quite significant if absolute accuracy of measurements is required. For relative measurements, e.g. for monitoring development of needle spectra over time, the double sphere system provides notable improvement. Furthermore, it might be possible to reduce the bias by building an optimized measurement setup that minimizes absorption losses in the sample port. Our study indicates that double spheres, after some technical improvement, may provide a new and fast way to collect extensive spectral libraries of tree species.

  • Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi (email)
  • Mõttus, VTT Technical Research Centre Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2745-1966 E-mail: matti.mottus@gmail.com
  • Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi
  • Manoocheri, Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Metrology Research Institute, Maarintie 8, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3935-3930 E-mail: farshid.manoocheri@aalto.fi
  • Ikonen, VTT Technical Research Centre Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Metrology Research Institute, Maarintie 8, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6444-5330 E-mail: erkki.ikonen@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O.Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10150, category Research article
Petri Forsström, Jouni Peltoniemi, Miina Rautiainen. (2019). Seasonal dynamics of lingonberry and blueberry spectra. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 10150. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10150
Keywords: understory; remote sensing; boreal forest vegetation; berries; flowers; goniometer; FIGIFIGO
Highlights: Seasonal series of multiangular spectra for lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.); Decidous blueberry has strong seasonal pattern while temporal variations of evergreen lingonberry were linked to phenological stages of flowering and berrying; Detection of flowers and berries from shrub spectra was possible; Collected spectral data are openly available through SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Accurate mapping of the spatial distribution of understory species from spectral images requires ground reference data which represent the prevailing phenological stage at the time of image acquisition. We measured the spectral bidirectional reflectance factors (BRFs, 350–2500 nm) at varying view angles for lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) throughout the growing season of 2017 using Finnish Geospatial Research Institute’s FIGIFIGO field goniometer. Additionally, we measured spectra of leaves and berries of both species, and flowers of lingonberry. Both lingonberry and blueberry showed seasonality in visible and near-infrared spectral regions which was linked to occurrences of leaf growth, flowering, berrying, and leaf senescence. The seasonality of spectra differed between species due to different phenologies (evergreen vs. deciduous). Vegetation indices, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), moisture stress index (MSI), plant senescence reflectance index (PSRI), and red-edge inflection point (REIP2), showed characteristic seasonal trends. NDVI and PSRI were sensitive to the presence of flowers and berries of lingonberry, while with blueberry the effects were less evident. Off-nadir observations supported differentiating the dwarf shrub species from each other but showed little improvement for detection of flowers and berries. Lingonberry and blueberry can be identified by their spectral signatures if ground reference data are available over the entire growing season. The spectral data measured in this study are reposited in the publicly open SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.

  • Forsström, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2357-2517 E-mail: petri.forsstrom@aalto.fi (email)
  • Peltoniemi, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Department of Geodesy and Geodynamics, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4701-128X E-mail: jouni.peltoniemi@nls.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 7753, category Research article
Aarne Hovi, Pekka Raitio, Miina Rautiainen. (2017). A spectral analysis of 25 boreal tree species. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 7753. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7753
Keywords: albedo; leaf; needle; reflectance; transmittance; integrating sphere; spectrometer
Highlights: An extensive spectral library containing leaf and needle reflectance and transmittance spectra was collected; The spectra openly available in SPECCHIO Spectral Information System; Effects of tree species, leaf/needle side, canopy position, and needle age on spectra were quantified; Seasonal variations were measured for four species; Spectra analysis highlights the importance of shortwave-infrared region in separating tree species.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Spectral libraries have a fundamental role in the development of interpretation methods for airborne and satellite-borne remote sensing data. This paper presents to-date the largest spectral measurement campaign of boreal tree species. Reflectance and transmittance spectra of over 600 leaf and needle samples from 25 species were measured in the Helsinki area (Finland) using integrating sphere systems attached to an ASD FieldSpec 4 spectroradiometer. Factors influencing the spectra and red edge inflection point (REIP) were quantified using one-way analysis of variance. Tree species differed most in the shortwave-infrared (1500–2500 nm) and least in the visible (400–700 nm) wavelength region. Species belonging to same genera showed similar spectral characteristics. Upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) leaf sides differed most in the visible region. Canopy position (sunlit/shaded) had a minor role in explaining spectral variation. For evergreen conifers, current and previous year needles differed in their spectra, current-year needles resembling those of broadleaved and deciduous conifers. Two broadleaved species were monitored throughout the growing season (May–October), and two conifers were measured twice during summer (June, September). Rapid changes were observed in the spectra in early spring and late autumn, whereas seasonal variations during summer months were relatively small for both broadleaved and coniferous species. Based on our results, shortwave-infrared seems promising in separating tree species, although it is to-date least studied. The spectral library reported here (Version 1.0) is publicly available through the SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.

  • Hovi, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi (email)
  • Raitio, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: pekka.raitio@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 261, category Research article
Miina Rautiainen, Matti Mõttus, Pauline Stenberg, Sanna Ervasti. (2008). Crown envelope shape measurements and models. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 261. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.261
Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; crown profile; reflectance model; remote sensing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper addresses tree crown envelope shape modeling from the perspective of optical passive remote sensing. The aims are 1) to review the specific requirements of crown shape models and ground measurement techniques in optical remote sensing, and 2) to present preliminary results from empirical, parametric crown shape and volume modeling of Scots pine and Norway spruce applicable in Finland. Results indicated that the basic dimensions (maximum radius, its height and crown length) of tree crowns were better predicted for pines, but the profile shape of the upper part of the crowns varied more than in spruce. Pine crowns were also slightly less concave than spruce crowns. No regularities were observed concerning the lower part of the crowns. The asymmetry of crowns increased as a function of tree age for both species, spruce crowns being more asymmetric than pine crowns. A comparison of measured crown volume with several simple geometrical crown shape envelopes showed that using a cone as a crown shape model for Scots pine and Norway spruce underestimates crown volume most severely. Other crown envelope shape models (e.g. ellipsoids) rendered crown volumes closer to the measured volume and did not differ considerably from each other.
  • Rautiainen, Tartu Observatory, 61602 Tõravere, Estonia, and Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: miina.rautiainen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mõttus, Tartu Observatory, 61602 Tõravere, Estonia E-mail: mm@nn.ee
  • Stenberg, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
  • Ervasti, City of Vantaa, Land Use and Environment / Green Area Unit, Kielotie 13, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: se@nn.fi
article id 275, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Kari T. Korhonen, Pauline Stenberg, Matti Maltamo, Miina Rautiainen. (2007). Local models for forest canopy cover with beta regression. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 275. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.275
Keywords: beta regression; canopy cover; forest canopy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Accurate field measurement of the forest canopy cover is too laborious to be used in extensive forest inventories. A possible alternative to the separate canopy cover measurements is to utilize the correlations between the percent canopy cover and easier-to-measure forest variables, especially the basal area. A fairly new analysis technique, the beta regression, is specially designed for modelling percentages. As an extension to the generalized linear models, the beta regression takes into account the distribution of the model residuals, and uses a logistic link function to ensure logical predictions. In this study, the beta regression method was found to perform well in conifer dominated study area located in central Finland. The same model shape, with basal area, tree height and an additional predictor (Scots pine: site fertility, Norway spruce: percentage of hardwoods) as independent variables, produced good results for both pine and spruce dominated sites. The models had reasonably high pseudo R-squared values (pine: 0.91, spruce: 0.87) and low standard errors (pine: 6.3%, spruce: 5.9%) for the fitting data, and also performed well in a cross validation test. The models were also tested on separate test plots located in a different geographical area, where the prediction errors were slightly larger (pine: 8.8%, spruce: 7.4%). In pine plots, the model fit was further improved by introducing additional predictors such as stand age and density. This improved also the performance of the models in the cross validation test, but weakened the results for the external data set. Our results indicated that the beta regression method offers a noteworthy alternative to separate canopy cover measurements, especially if time is limited and the models can be applied in the same region where the modelling data were collected.
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Stenberg, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Rautiainen, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
article id 315, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Kari T. Korhonen, Miina Rautiainen, Pauline Stenberg. (2006). Estimation of forest canopy cover: a comparison of field measurement techniques. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 315. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.315
Keywords: canopy cover; forest canopy; canopy closure; Cajanus tube; line intersect sampling; spherical densiometer; digital photographs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Estimation of forest canopy cover has recently been included in many forest inventory programmes. In this study, after discussing how canopy cover is defined, different ground-based canopy cover estimation techniques are compared to determine which would be the most feasible for a large scale forest inventory. Canopy cover was estimated in 19 Scots pine or Norway spruce dominated plots using the Cajanus tube, line intersect sampling, modified spherical densiometer, digital photographs, and ocular estimation. The comparisons were based on the differences in values acquired with selected techniques and control values acquired with the Cajanus tube. The statistical significance of the differences between the techniques was tested with the nonparametric Kruskall-Wallis analysis of variance and multiple comparisons. The results indicate that different techniques yield considerably different canopy cover estimates. In general, labour intensive techniques (the Cajanus tube, line intersect sampling) provide unbiased and more precise estimates, whereas the estimates provided by fast techniques (digital photographs, ocular estimation) have larger variances and may also be seriously biased.
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Rautiainen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
  • Stenberg, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
article id 431, category Research article
Pauline Stenberg, Miina Rautiainen, Terhikki Manninen, Pekka Voipio, Heikki Smolander. (2004). Reduced simple ratio better than NDVI for estimating LAI in Finnish pine and spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 1 article id 431. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.431
Keywords: Landsat ETM ; Leaf Area Index; spectral vegetation indices; boreal coniferous forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Estimation of leaf area index (LAI) using spectral vegetation indices (SVIs) was studied based on data from 683 plots on two Scots pine and Norway spruce dominated sites in Finland. The SVIs studied included the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), the simple ratio (SR), and the reduced simple ratio (RSR), and were calculated from Landsat ETM images of the two sites. Regular grids of size 1 km2 with gridpoints placed at 50 m intervals were established at the sites and measurements of LAI using the LAI-2000 instrument were taken at the gridpoints. SVI-LAI relationships were examined at plot scale, where the plots were defined as circular areas of radius 70 m around each gridpoint. Plotwise mean LAI was computed as a weighted average of LAI readings taken around the gridpoints belonging to the plot. Mean LAI for the plots ranged from 0.36 to 3.72 (hemisurface area). All of the studied SVIs showed fair positive correlation with LAI but RSR responded more dynamically to LAI than did SR or NDVI. Especially NDVI showed poor sensitivity to changes in LAI. RSR explained 63% of the variation in LAI when all plots were included (n = 683) and the coefficient of determination rose to 75% when data was restricted to homogeneous plots (n = 381). Maps of estimated LAI using RSR showed good agreement with maps of measured LAI for the two sites.
  • Stenberg, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pauline.stenberg@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Rautiainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
  • Manninen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Meteorological research, Ozone and UV radiation research, P.O. Box 503, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
  • Voipio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: pv@nn.fi
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi

Category : Research note

article id 10683, category Research note
Aarne Hovi, Petr Lukeš, Lucie Homolová, Jussi Juola, Miina Rautiainen. (2022). Small geographical variability observed in Norway spruce needle spectra across Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10683. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10683
Keywords: albedo; remote sensing; reflectance; transmittance; land surface modeling; leaf optical properties; radiative transfer modeling
Highlights: Spectra of Norway spruce needles were collected from three sites in Europe (49°–62°N); The same acquisition and processing parameters were applied throughout the campaign; Geographical variability in the needle spectra was small; Comparison of the spectra of coniferous needles and broadleaved tree foliage is also presented.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Foliage spectra form an important input to physically-based forest reflectance models. However, little is known about geographical variability of coniferous needle spectra. In this research note, we present an assessment of the geographical variability of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) needle albedo, reflectance, and transmittance spectra across three study sites covering latitudes of 49–62°N in Europe. All spectra were measured and processed using exactly the same methodology and parameters, which guarantees reliable conclusions about geographical variability. Small geographical variability in Norway spruce needle spectra was observed, when compared to variability observed between previous measurement campaigns (employing slightly varying measurement and processing parameters), or to variability between plant functional types (broadleaved vs. coniferous). Our results suggest that variability of needle spectra is not a major factor introducing geographical variability to forest reflectance. The results also highlight the importance of harmonizing measurement protocols when collecting needle spectral libraries. Furthermore, the data collected for this study can be useful in studies where accurate information on spectral differences between broadleaved and coniferous tree foliage is needed.

  • Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi (email)
  • Lukeš, Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3707-6557 E-mail: lukes.p@czechglobe.cz
  • Homolová, Global Change Research Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7455-2834 E-mail: homolova.l@czechglobe.cz
  • Juola, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6050-7247 E-mail: jussi.juola@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00760 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10600, category Research note
Nea Kuusinen, Aarne Hovi, Miina Rautiainen. (2021). Contribution of woody elements to tree level reflectance in boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 5 article id 10600. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10600
Keywords: reflectance model; bark; hyperspectral; spectral mixture analysis
Highlights: Contribution of woody elements to reflectance of boreal tree species was estimated using spectral mixture analysis and airborne hyperspectral data; Mean woody element contribution varied between 0.14–0.19 (Scots pine), 0.12–0.20 (birches) and 0.09–0.10 (Norway spruce).
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Spectral mixture analysis was used to estimate the contribution of woody elements to tree level reflectance from airborne hyperspectral data in boreal forest stands in Finland. Knowledge of the contribution of woody elements to tree or forest reflectance is important in the context of lea area index (LAI) estimation and, e.g., in the estimation of defoliation due to insect outbreaks, from remote sensing data. Field measurements from four Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), five Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and four birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) dominated plots, spectral measurements of needles, leaves, bark, and forest floor, airborne hyperspectral as well as airborne laser scanning data were used together with a physically-based forest reflectance model. We compared the results based on simple linear combinations of measured bark and needle/leaf spectra to those obtained by accounting for multiple scattering of radiation within the canopy using a physically-based forest reflectance model. The contribution of forest floor to reflectance was additionally considered. The resulted mean woody element contribution estimates varied from 0.140 to 0.186 for Scots pine, from 0.116 to 0.196 for birches and from 0.090 to 0.095 for Norway spruce, depending on the model used. The contribution of woody elements to tree reflectance had a weak connection to plot level forest variables.

  • Kuusinen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: nea.kuusinen@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hovi, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10533, category Research note
Daniel Schraik, Aarne Hovi, Miina Rautiainen. (2021). Estimating cover fraction from TLS return intensity in coniferous and broadleaved tree shoots. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10533. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10533
Keywords: terrestrial laser scanning; leaf area; lidar intensity; physically-based; voxel
Highlights: We developed a method to obtain the fraction of TLS pulses’ footprint area covered by a target’s projection area; We tested our method with shoots of Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch; We provide a physically-based framework related to unmeasured variables, and provide a robust statistical framework to deal with uncertainty.
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Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) provides a unique opportunity to study forest canopy structure and its spatial patterns such as foliage quantity and dispersal. Using TLS point clouds for estimating leaf area density with voxel-based methods is biased by the physical dimensions of laser beams, which violates the common assumption of beams being infinitely thin. Real laser beams have a footprint size larger than several millimeters. This leads to difficulties in estimating leaf area density from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) in vegetation, where the target objects can be of similar or even smaller size than the beam footprint. To compensate for this bias, we propose a method to estimate the per-pulse cover fraction, defined as the fraction of laser beams’ footprint area that is covered by vegetation targets, using the LiDAR return intensity and an experimental calibration measurement. We applied this method to a Leica P40 single-return instrument, and report our experimental results. We found that conifer foliage had a lower average per-pulse cover fraction than broadleaved foliage, indicating an increased number of partial hits in conifer foliage. We further discuss limitations of our method that stem from unknown target properties that influence the LiDAR return intensity and highlight potential ways to overcome the limitations and manage the remaining uncertainty. Our method’s output, the per-beam cover fraction, may be useful in a weight function for methods that estimate leaf area density from LiDAR point clouds.

  • Schraik, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7794-3918 E-mail: daniel.schraik@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 402, category Research note
Miina Rautiainen, Pauline Stenberg, Tiit Nilson. (2005). Estimating canopy cover in Scots pine stands. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 1 article id 402. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.402
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Cajanus tube; LAI-2000 Plant Canopy Analyzer
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The way canopy cover is defined and measured influences the obtained canopy cover percentage. Estimates of canopy cover are needed, for example, in canopy radiation modelling and remote sensing applications and as a tool for political decision-making. In this paper, we demonstrated the use of two methods, the LAI-2000 Plant Canopy Analyzer instrument and the Cajanus tube, in Scots pine stands for canopy cover estimation, and also assessed the number of measurement points required for reliable estimates. The Cajanus tube yielded slightly larger canopy closure values than the LAI-2000 instrument, but the values were nevertheless in good agreement. Both of the methods required approximately 250 measurement points for canopy closure estimates of a stand to become relatively stable. We also present the first measured effective canopy transmittance values for Scots pine stands in Finland and an example of tree pattern mapping with the Cajanus tube.
  • Rautiainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: miina.rautiainen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Stenberg, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
  • Nilson, Tartu Observatory, EE-61602 Tõravere, Tartumaa, Estonia E-mail: tn@nn.ee

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