Articles containing the keyword 'biodiversity'

The study proposes a technique which enables the computation of user-defined indices for species diversity. These indices are derived from characteristics, called diversity indicators, of inventory plots, stand compartments, and the whole forest holding. The study discusses the modifications required to be made to typical forest planning systems due to this kind of biodiversity computation. A case study illustrating the use of the indices and a modified forest planning system is provided. In the case study, forest-level species diversity index was computed from the volume of dead wood, volume of broadleaved trees, area of old forest, and between-stand variety.

At the stand level, the area of old forest was replaced by stand age, and variety was described by within-stand variety. All but one of the indicators were further partitioned into two to four sub-indicators. For example, the volume of broadleaved trees was divided into volumes of birch, aspen, willow, and other tree species. The partial contribution of an indicator to the diversity index was obtained from a sub-priority function, determined separately for each indicator. The diversity index was obtained when the partial contributions were multiplied by the weights of the corresponding indicators and then were summed. The production frontiers computed for the harvested volume and diversity indices were concave, especially for the forest-level diversity index, indicating that diversity can be maintained at satisfactory level with medium harvest levels.

• Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
• Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
• Kniivilä, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
• Tiainen, E-mail: at@mm.unknown

Distribution and occurrence of bark beetles and other forest insects in relation to environmental variation were analysed by multivariate methods. Eight different forest edges were studied using 10 x 10 m sample plots that formed 200 m linear transects perpendicular to the forest edge. Forest edge affected the distribution of insect species only in the edges between mature, non-managed spruce stands and clear cuts or young seedling stands, but not in the pine stands. The occurrence of the selected forest insects mainly depended on variables associated with the amount and quality of suitable woody material. The most significant environmental variables were forest site type, crown canopy coverage, tree species, number of stumps, number of dead spruce trunks and amount of logging waste at site. Quantitative classification of species and sample plots showed that some specialized species (Xylechinus pilosus, Cryphalus saltuarius, Polygraphus poligraphus and P. subopacus) adapted to mature spruce forests, tended to withdraw from the forest edge to interior stand sites. By contrast many generalized species (Pityogenes chalcographus, P. quadridens, Pissodes spp., Hylurgops palliatus, Tomicus piniperda, Dryocoetes spp. and Trypodendron lineatum) benefitted from cuttings and spread over stand borders into mature forest.

• Peltonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown

Four governmental efforts are underway to reach consensus on indicators of sustainable forestry. Through the Helsinki process, European countries have developed and reached a pan-European, binding consensus, The Montreal process includes non-European Temperate and boreal forest countries, the International Tropical Timber Organization (lTTO) have developed guidelines for the sustainable management of natural tropical forests, and the countries around the Amazon basis have developed a joint initiative for creating guidelines of sustainable forest management of the Amazonian tropical rain forests. It is estimated that as many as 15–20 distinct processes are under way in the private sector by non-profit organizations and for-profit companies, some domestic and other international in scope. Perhaps the most wide-ranging definition work of non-governmental organizations is the undertake by the Forest Stewardship Council, FSC. The paper discusses the Helsinki and Montreal processes and the tasks for research.

• Parviainen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown

Nearly every forest land in Finland has been burnt down by a wildfire at least once during the past 400–500 years. Slash and burn cultivation (1700–1920) was practised on 50–75 percent of Finland's forests, while prescribed burning (1920–1990) has been applied to 2–3 percent of the country's forests. Because of land-use changes and efficient fire prevention and control systems, the occurrence of wildfires in Finland has decreased considerably during the past few decades. Owing to the biodiversity and ecologically favourable influence of fire, the current tendency is to revive the use of controlled fire in forestry in Finland. Prescribed burning is used in forest regeneration and endeavours are being made to revert old conservation forests to the starting point of succession through forest fires.

• Parviainen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown

Distribution, biodiversity and reforestation dynamics of the platyphyllous forests in the Northwest European Russia were investigated. Data assembled from 21 landscape regions (250–350 km² each) show special features of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill., Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), mountain elm (Ulmus glabra Mill.) and English oak (Qurecus robur L.) reforestation during the last two decades. New tendencies were found for the taiga areas with natural Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) vegetation. Natural platyphyllous reforestation in cut spruce areas poses as supposed a special question for forest management policy in the relationship to global climate changes. Feasible unsustainability of the common types of succession (Norway spruce - European birch (Betula pendula Roth); Norway spruce - European aspen (Populus tremula L.)) is discussed. Biodiversity of herbs, shrubs and tree species of platyphyllous forests is high and complex and is situated in 4–15 old-growth relics in each landscape region. Low-level genotype heterogeneity of nemoral flora species of such isolated populations is presumed. Special biodiversity conservation regulations are proposed.

• Chtchoukine, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown

Postfire recovery of species diversity (including a number of species, entropy of species relative coverage (Shannon index of species diversity) was studied in lichen and green moss site types of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the central part of the Kola Peninsula. The results obtained indicate the difference in the dynamics of characteristics of biodiversity of forest components during postfire recovery. The stabilization of separate components of forest community varies in time from 5–15 to 120–140 years after the fire. Characteristics of the dwarf shrub and herb stratum recovered and stabilized 5–15 years after fire, while the complete stabilization of characteristics of moss-lichen cover is observed in community with fire ages of 90–140 years. Species richness of tree stratum recovered 120–140 years after fire. Time of complete stabilization of species richness of the community was estimated 120–140 years after fire. The size of the area over which characteristics of the biodiversity were estimated effected the mean values and, in most cases, the character of variation of studied characteristics. Over an area of 1 x 1 m dynamics of characteristics of species diversity coincide in forests of the studied types. Regardless of forest type within the area of 100 m² species richness recovered 30 years after the fire (i.e. 3–5 times earlier than the establishment of the complete stabilization of the forest structure). That means that floristic composition of the forest remained unchanged from 30 to 210 years after the fire.

• Gorshkov, E-mail: vg@mm.unknown
• Bakkal, E-mail: ib@mm.unknown

The horizontal and vertical stand structure of living trees was examined in a managed and in a primeval Norway spruce-dominated forest in Southern Finland. Tree size distributions (DBHs, tree height) were compared using frequency histograms. The vertical distribution of tree heights was illustrated as tree height plots and quantified as the tree height diversity (THD) using the Shannon-Weaver formula. The horizontal spatial pattern of trees was described with stem maps and quantified with Ripley's K-function. The spatial autocorrelation of tree sizes was examined with semivariogram analysis. In the managed forest the DBH and height distributions of trees were bimodal, indicating a two-layered vertical structure with a single dominant tree layer and abundant regeneration in the understory. The primeval forest had a much higher total number of trees which were rather evenly distributed in different diameter and tree height classes. The K-function summaries for trees taller than 15 m indicated that the primeval stand was close to complete random pattern. The managed stand was regular at small distances (up to 4 m). The semivariograms of tree sizes (DBH tree height) showed that the managed forest had a clear spatial dependence in tree sizes up to inter-tree distances of about 12 meters. In contrast, the primeval spruce forest had a variance peak at very short inter-tree distances (< 1 m) and only weak spatial autocorrelation at short inter-tree distances (1–5 m). Excluding the understory trees (h < 15 m) from the analysis drastically changed the spatial structure of the forest as revealed by semivariograms. ln general, the structure of the primeval forest was both horizontally and vertically more variable and heterogeneous compared to the managed forest. The applicability of the used methods in describing fine-scale forest structure i discussed.

• Kuuluvainen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
• Leinonen, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown
• Nygren, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown
• Penttinen, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

Comparisons were made between artificially and naturally regenerated stands in the south-eastern part of North Karelia, Finland, and naturally regenerated stands in the western parts of the Republic of Karelia, Russian Federation. The effect of soil fertility and silvicultural operations on the stand structure was also investigated.

The results of the study show clearly that when forests are artificially regenerated the stand structure includes less variation when compared with the stands naturally regenerated. Differences between the regeneration methods are clearer the more fertile the forest site is. Within the regeneration method there is also a clear trend in stand structure, with the variation decreasing the poorer the site. The effect of silvicultural operations, i.e. the cleaning of the sapling stand, has disappeared by the time of first thinning, although it appears to have a permanent effect on the dynamics of the tree species within a stand.

The variation of the stand structure can be regarded as an essential factor for the potential biodiversity of the stand also at its young vegetation succession stage. This capacity for maintaining the forest biodiversity, developed at the young vegetation succession stage, becomes increasingly important in subsequent vegetation succession stages. Natural regeneration provides improved possibilities for the operations preserving forest biodiversity, as it generates more dense stands with a wider variation in stand structure, compared to artificial regeneration.

• Uuttera, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown
• Maltamo, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown

The presence/absence data of 27 forest insect taxa (Retinia resinella, Formica spp., Pissodes spp., several scolytids) and recorded environmental variation were used to investigate the applicability of modelling insect occurrence based on satellite imagery. The sampling was based on 1,800 sample plots (25 m by 25 m) placed along the sides of 30 equilateral triangles (side 1 km) in a fragmented forest area (approximately 100 km²) in Evo, Southern Finland. The triangles were overlaid on land use maps interpreted from satellite images (Landsat TM 30 m multispectral scanner imagery 1991) and digitized geological maps. Insect occurrence was explained using either environmental variables measured in the field or those interpreted from the land use and geological maps. The fit of logistic regression models carried between species, possibly because some species may be associated with characteristics of single trees while other species with stand characteristics. The occurrence of certain insect species at least, especially those associated with Scots pine, could be relatively accurately assessed indirectly on the basis of satellite imagery and geological maps. Models based on both remotely sensed and geological data better predicted the distribution of forest insects except in the case of Xylechinus pilosus, Dryocetes sp. and Trypodendron lineatum, where the differences were relatively small in favour of the models based on field measurements. The number of species was related to habitat compartment size and distance from the habitat edge calculated from the land use maps, but logistic regressions suggested that other environmental variables in general masked the effect of these variables in species occurrence at the present scale.

• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown

Biogeographical patterns of the Scolytidae in Fennoscandia and Denmark, based on species incidence data from the approximately 70 km x 70 km quadrats (n = 221) used by Lekander et al. (1977), were classified to environmental variables using multivariate methods (two-way indicator species analysis, detrended correspondence analysis, canonical correspondence analysis).

The distributional patterns of scolytid species composition showed similar features to earlier presented zonations based on vegetation composition. One major difference, however, was that the region was more clearly divided in an east-west direction. Temperature variables associated with the location of the quadrat had the highest canonical coefficient values on the first axis of the CCA. Although these variables were the most important determinants of the biogeographical variation in the beetle species assemblages, annual precipitation and the distribution of Picea abies also improved the fit of the species data.

Samples with the most deviant rarity and typicality indices for the scolytid species assempblages in each quadrat were concentrated in several southern Scandinavian quadrats, in some quadrats in northern Sweden, and especially on the Swedish islands (Öland, Gotland, Gotska Sandön) in the Baltic Sea. The use of rarity indices which do not take the number of species per quadrat, also resulted high values for areas near Stockholm and Helsinki with well-known faunas. Methodological tests in which the real changes in the distribution of Ips acuminatus and I. amitinus were used as indicators showed that the currently available multivariate methods are sensitive to small faunal shifts even, and thus permit analysis of the fauna in relation to environmental changes. However, this requires more detailed monitoring of the species’ distributions over longer time spans.

Distribution of seven species (Scolytus intricatus, S. laevis, Hylurgops glabratus, Crypturgus cinereus, Pityogenes salasi, Ips typographus, and Cyleborus dispar) were predicted by logistic regression models using climatic variables. In spite of the deficiencies in the data and the environmental variables selected, the models were relatively good for several but not for all species. The potential effects of climate change on bark beetles are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
• Immonen, E-mail: ai@mm.unknown

Evaluating the potential of a harvester-mounted LiDAR system in monitoring biodiversity indicators such as low vegetation during forest harvesting could enhance sustainable forest management and habitat conservation including dense forest areas for game. However, there is a lack of understanding on the capabilities and limitations of these systems to detect low vegetation characteristics. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated the performance of a harvester-mounted LiDAR system for measuring low vegetation (height <5 m) attributes in a boreal forest in Finland, by comparing it with handheld mobile laser scanning (HMLS) and drone laser scanning (DLS) systems. LiDAR point cloud data was collected in September 2023 to quantify the low vegetation height (maximum, mean, and percentiles), volume (voxel-based and mean height-based) and cover (grid method). Depending on the system, LiDAR point cloud data was collected either before (HMLS and DLS), during (harvester LiDAR) or after (HMLS and DLS) harvesting operations. A total of 46 fixed-sized (5 m × 5 m) grid cells were studied and analyzed. Results showed harvester-mounted LiDAR provided consistent estimates with HMLS and DLS for maximum height, 99th height percentile, and volume across various grids (5 cm, 10 cm, 20 cm) and voxel (20 cm) sizes. High correlation was observed between the systems used for these attributes. This study demonstrated that harvester-mounted LiDAR is comparable to HMLS and DLS for assessing low vegetation height and volume. The findings could assist forest harvester operators in identifying potential low vegetation and dense areas for conservation and game management.

• Kafle, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland (UEF), Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0744-3480 E-mail: binod.kafle@uef.fi
• Kankare, Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turun yliopisto, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6038-1579 E-mail: viveka@utu.fi
• Kaartinen, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Opastinsilta 12 C, FI-00520 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4796-3942 E-mail: harri.kaartinen@nls.fi
• Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6886-0432 E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi
• Hyyti, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Opastinsilta 12 C, FI-00520 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4664-6221 E-mail: heikki.hyyti@nls.fi
• Faitli, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Opastinsilta 12 C, FI-00520 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5334-5537 E-mail: tamas.faitli@nls.fi
• Hyyppä, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Opastinsilta 12 C, FI-00520 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juha.coelasr@gmail.com
• Kukko, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Opastinsilta 12 C, FI-00520 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3841-6533 E-mail: antero.kukko@nls.fi
• Kärhä, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland (UEF), Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kalle.karha@uef.fi

In 2019–2023 the 13th Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI) was implemented by measuring a total of 62 266 sample plots across the country. The methodology of the sampling and measurements was similar as in the previous inventory, but the proportion and number of remeasured permanent plots was increased to improve the monitoring of annual increment and other changes in the forests. Only 6.2 M ha (14%) of Finland’s total land area (30.4 M ha) is other land than forestry land. Productive and poorly productive forests cover 22.9 M ha (75%) of the total land area.  The forest area has remained stable in recent decades but the forest area available for wood supply (FAWS) has decreased due to increased forest protection – 23% of the forestry land and 10% of the productive forest are not available for wood supply. Compared to the previous inventory, forest resources have continued to increase but the average annual increment has declined from 107.8 M m³ to 103.0 M m³. The quality of forests from the timber production point of view has remained relatively good or improved slightly. The area of observed forest damage on FAWS is 8.4 M ha (46% of FAWS area), half of these minor damages with no impact on stand quality. Although the area of forest damage has not increased, the amount of mortality has continued to increase, and is now 8.8 M m³ year^–1. The amount of dead wood has continued to increase in South Finland, while in North Finland the declining trend has turned into a slight increase. Since the 1920s, the area of forestry land has remained stable, but the area of productive forest has increased due to the drainage of poorly productive or treeless peatlands. The total volume of growing stock has increased by 84% and annual increment has more than doubled.

• Korhonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6198-853X E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@luke.fi
• Räty, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9898-8712 E-mail: minna.raty@luke.fi
• Haakana, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: helena.haakana@luke.fi
• Heikkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3527-774X E-mail: juha.heikkinen@luke.fi
• Hotanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@luke.fi
• Kuronen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8089-7895 E-mail: mikko.kuronen@luke.fi
• Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O.Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7583-6297 E-mail: juho.pitkanen@luke.fi

The Finnish red list shows that the epiphytic lichen flora of Finnish forests is highly threatened and declining steeply. Red lists provide limited information on the habitat associations of threatened species, which could be relevant in informing management and conservation measures. We used documented empirical data and expert assessments to determine for each red-listed (IUCN categories Near Threatened, NT; Vulnerable, VU; Endangered, EN; Critically Endangered, CR; Regionally Extinct, RE) epiphytic lichen species of Finland the following key habitat associations: host tree species, substrate type, habitat type, geographical distribution, preferred microclimate, and minimum required forest and tree age. The most important host tree species were Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. and Populus tremula L. Other tree species of high importance included Sorbus aucuparia L. and Salix caprea L. One fourth of red-listed epiphytic lichens were primarily lignicolous. Most species required old-growth forests (required by 41% of species) or old trees (52%), but many species required only mature forests (36%) or trees (35%). The microclimatic preferences of most red-listed epiphytic lichens consisted of high or intermediate light availability and humidity. Most species whose status had deteriorated were dependent on deciduous trees. The continuous availability of old deciduous trees (especially Populus, Salix and Sorbus) requires special attention in both managed and protected forests. Red-listed epiphytic lichens would be aided by increased forest protection or transitioning to less intensive management regimes.

• Nirhamo, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1487-533X E-mail: aleksi.nirhamo@uef.fi
• Pykälä, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7566-9310 E-mail: juha.pykala@syke.fi
• Jääskeläinen, Kuopio Museum of Natural History, Kuopio, Finland E-mail: jaaskimmo@gmail.com
• Kouki, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2624-8592 E-mail: jari.kouki@uef.fi

We describe the methodology applied in the 12th national forest inventory of Finland (NFI12) and describe the state of Finland’s forests as well as the development of some key parameters since 1920s. According to the NFI12, the area of forestry land (consisting of productive and poorly productive forest, unproductive land, and other forestry land) is 26.2 M ha. The area of forestry land has decreased from 1920s to 1960s due to expansion of agriculture and built-up land. 20% of the forestry land is not available for wood supply and 13% is only partly available for wood supply. The area of peatlands is 8.8 M ha, which is one third of the forestry land. 53% of the current area of peatlands is drained. The volume of growing stock, 2500 M m³, is 1.7 times the volume estimated in NFI1 in the 1920s for the current territory of Finland. The estimated annual volume increment is 107.8 M m³. The increment estimate has doubled since the estimate of NFI2 implemented in late 1930s. The annual mortality is estimated to 7 M m³, which is 0.5 M m³ more than according to the previous inventory. Serious or complete damage was observed on 2% of the productive forest available for wood supply. The amount of dead wood is on average 5.8 m³ ha^–1 in productive forests. Since the NFI9 (1996–2003) the amount of dead wood has increased in South Finland and decreased in North Finland both in protected forests and forests available for wood supply (FAWS). The area of natural or almost natural forests on productive forest is 380 000 ha, out of this, 42 000 ha are in FAWS and 340 000 ha in protected forests.

• Korhonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@luke.fi
• Ahola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: arto.ahola@luke.fi
• Heikkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juha.heikkinen@luke.fi
• Henttonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: helena.henttonen@luke.fi
• Hotanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@luke.fi
• Ihalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anttivj.ihalainen@elisanet.fi
• Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi
• Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.pitkanen@luke.fi
• Räty, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: minna.raty@luke.fi
• Sirviö, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: maria.sirvio@uudenmaanliitto.fi
• Strandström, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mikael.strandstrom@luke.fi

Using fine-resolution satellite imagery from multiple satellite data products, we assessed the change in forest cover of a state-managed Reserve Forest (RF) located in India’s Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hot-spot. 4.6% of forest cover was lost from Papum RF between 2013 and 2017 at the rate of 8.2 km² year^–1. Three species of hornbills: Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis Linnaeus, 1758, Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus (Shaw, 1811) and Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris (Shaw, 1808), that are functionally important are found here with nesting habitat in the areas affected by illegal logging. Therefore, we assessed the habitat loss within a 1 km radius around 29 nest trees. From 2011 to 2019, forest cover declined from 38.55 km² to 21.94 km² around these hornbill nest trees. Illegal logging is the main driver that is depleting forest cover within this important bird area. Our results highlight the ongoing threats to biologically-rich forests and the need for urgent measures to halt this loss. We suggest that this study has practical implications for the monitoring and governance of state-managed forests in Arunachal Pradesh.

• Sheth, #4 Ananda Nilaya, 4th Main Road, Siddhivinayaka Layout, Bengaluru 560097, Karnataka, India E-mail: chintz604@gmail.com
• Datta, Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311,“Amritha”, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysore 570017, Karnataka, India E-mail: aparajita@ncf-india.org
• Parashuram, Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311,“Amritha”, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysore 570017, Karnataka, India; Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EN, United Kingdom E-mail: dp608@cam.ac.uk

In the forest areas of eastern China, there is a change from forest dominated by deciduous broad-leaved trees to forest dominated by evergreen broad-leaved trees as the latitude or altitude decreases. Different life forms have different survival strategies to deal with climate change, and studying the life form dynamics of the tree layers in the mixed forest in eastern China, with increasing temperature, can help us understand how the forest responds. This study was performed in a 1 ha plot in evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest in Tianmu Mountain National Nature Reserve. Based on the data from two surveys (1996 and 2017), the changes in life form composition and biodiversity over the past 21 years were analyzed. We obtained the following results: (1) The proportion of evergreen trees increased from 55.0% in 1996 to 67.5% in 2017, and the dominance of evergreen species was enhanced. (2) The diversity of both life forms increased, and the tree species were more abundant. (3) The average annual recruitment rate of the evergreen species was 2.1% greater than their mortality rate, and the average annual recruitment rate of the deciduous species was 0.5% less than their mortality rate. (4) The competition among the trees in the small-diameter class (10 cm ≤ DBH < 20 cm) was fierce for many tree species. The proportion of the evergreen species in the small-diameter class was high. The life forms making up the mixed climax forest community has changed over the past 21 years, with the proportion and dominance of evergreen trees increasing significantly.

• Bai, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China E-mail: baicheng111@gmail.com
• You, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310011, China E-mail: sxyou@zju.edu.cn
• Ku, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China E-mail: 2732684475@qq.com
• Dai, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China E-mail: 757692949@qq.com
• Wang, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China E-mail: 237600341@qq.com
• Zhao, Management Bureau of Tianmu Mountain National Nature Reserve, Hangzhou 311311, China E-mail: 973659738@qq.com
• Yu, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China E-mail: yushq@zafu.edu.cn

Despite the influence of cavities on the survival and distribution of cavity-dependent fauna, the variation in the density and characteristics of tree cavities across different habitat types in tropical forests is unknown. In this study, we surveyed 26 312 living trees from 376 species and compared cavity density and characteristics (height, size, type, and orientation) across five habitat types (valley, low-slope, high-slope, high-gully, and high-plateau) in a 20-hectare tropical rainforest in southwest China. From a total of 2047 cavities, we found that cavity density was mainly driven by habitat rather than tree species richness or diameter at breast height (DBH), and the characteristics of cavities were not uniformly distributed across habitats. Cavities were significantly more abundant in high- and low-slope than high-plateau habitats. Compared with other habitats, more “butt hollow” cavity types were found in high-slope habitat and they occurred at a lower tree height, whereas more “crack” cavities were found in low-slope habitat and they had a narrower entrance diameter. Although the mean orientation of cavities faced towards the northeast, cavity orientation varied significantly across habitat types. Our results indicate that certain types of cavities are concentrated in specific habitat types, which can provide avenues for forest management and biodiversity conservation. We highlight the importance of habitat heterogeneity in providing resources for cavity nesters.

• Liu, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China; Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China E-mail: liujunyan2300@163.com
• Tang, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China E-mail: jft@nn.ch
• Chen, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place, West Sussex RH17 6TN, UK; Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Swiss Institute for Dryland Environmental and Energy Research, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Beer-Sheva 8499000, Israel E-mail: chensichong0528@gmail.com
• Ma, Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Forests and Wetlands Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Forestry, Chengdu 610081, China E-mail: mawenbao_2000@126.com
• Zheng, Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China E-mail: dioeco@outlook.com
• Dong, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China E-mail: dongtf@aliyun.com

Herb-rich forests are often considered biodiversity hotspots in the boreal zone but their fungal assemblages, particularly those of wood-decaying fungi, remain poorly known. We studied herb-rich forests as habitats for polypores, a distinct group of wood-decaying fungi, and assessed the importance of tree- and stand-scale variables for polypore species richness, abundance, and diversity, including red-listed species. The data include 71 herb-rich forest stands in Finland and 4797 dead wood items, on which we made 2832 observations of 101 polypore species. Dead-wood diversity was the most important variable explaining polypore species richness and diversity, whereas increasing latitude had a negative effect. Red-listed species showed a positive response to the abundance of large-diameter dead wood, which, especially birch, supported also high general abundance of polypores. The composition of polypore assemblages reflected their host-tree species. The red-listed species did not show explicit patterns in the ordination space. Compared to old-growth spruce forests, herb-rich forests seem to host lower polypore species richness and less red-listed species. However, because of high proportion of deciduous trees in the dead wood profile, herb-rich forests have a clear complementary effect on polypore assemblages in boreal forest landscapes.

• Hämäläinen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: karoham@uef.fi
• Tahvanainen, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: teemu.tahvanainen@uef.fi
• Junninen, Metsähallitus Parks & Wildlife Finland, c/o UEF/Borealis, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kaisa.junninen@metsa.fi

Different environmental factors were studied to determine which factors influence the species richness, composition and structure of vascular plants in Pinus sylvestris L. forests in a fixed dune landscape in south-western Estonia. In addition to site topographic factors, different environmental parameters were investigated. Thirty-four vascular plant species were recorded in 232 quadrats. The most abundant species was Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., which was in 82.8% of quadrats, followed by Vaccinium myrtillus L. (74.1%), Melampyrum pratense L. (71.1%) and Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. (69.8%). The multiple response permutation procedure (MRPP) showed considerable differences in species composition at the bottoms of dunes compared with that on the slopes and at the tops of dunes. Indicator species analysis (ISA) determined species exhibited characteristics specific to zone: V. myrtillus had the highest indicator value at the bottoms of dunes; Calluna vulgaris L., at the tops. Soils were Haplic Podzols, and the presence of humus horizon depended on zone. Soil conditions on the dunes were variable and site specific, in general, soils at the bottoms of the dunes were more acidic and moist compared with those of the slopes and tops of the dunes, and the nutrient content decreased toward the dune tops. According to non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and linear mixed model analyses, species coverage, composition and richness were controlled by site-specific factors such as absolute height, location and aspect of the quadrat on the dune; soil nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus contents; soil pH and moisture; light conditions; and the thickness of the litter horizon.

• Tilk, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014; Tallinn Botanic Garden, Kloostrimetsa Road 52, Tallinn, Estonia, 11913 E-mail: Mari.Tilk@botaanikaaed.ee
• Tullus, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014 E-mail: Tea.Tullus@emu.ee
• Ots, Department of Silviculture, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, 51014 E-mail: Katri.Ots@emu.ee

Environmental planning for of the maintenance of different conservation objectives should take into account multiple contrasting criteria based on alternative uses of the landscape. We develop new concepts and approaches to describe and measure conflicts among conservation objectives and for resolving them via multiobjective optimization. To measure conflicts we introduce a compatibility index that quantifies how much targeting a certain conservation objective affects the capacity of the landscape for providing another objective. To resolve such conflicts we find compromise solutions defined in terms of minimax regret, i.e. minimizing the maximum percentage of deterioration among conservation objectives. Finally, we apply our approach for a case study of management for biodiversity conservation and development in a forest landscape. We study conflicts between six different forest species, and we identify management solutions for simultaneously maintaining multiple species’ habitat while obtaining timber harvest revenues. We employ the method for resolving conflicts at a large landscape level across a long 50-years forest planning horizon. Our multiobjective approach can be an instrument for guiding hard choices in the conservation-development nexus with a perspective of developing decision support tools for land use planning. In our case study multiple use management and careful landscape level planning using our approach can reduce conflicts among biodiversity objectives and offer room for synergies in forest ecosystems.

• Mazziotta, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Center for Macroecology Evolution and Climate, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Kräftriket 2b, 11429 Stockholm, Sweden http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2088-3798 E-mail: a_mazziotta@hotmail.com
• Podkopaev, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Newelska 6, 01-447 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: dmitry.podkopaev@ibspan.waw.pl
• Triviño, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: maria.trivino@jyu.fi
• Miettinen, University of Jyväskylä, Faculty of Information Technology, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: kaisa.miettinen@jyu.fi
• Pohjanmies, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: tahti.t.pohjanmies@jyu.fi
• Mönkkönen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: mikko.monkkonen@jyu.fi

Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to biodiversity worldwide. For example, nearly 80% of peatlands in southern Finland have been drained. There is thus a need to safeguard the remaining pristine mires and to restore degraded ones. Ants play a pivotal role in many ecosystems and like many keystone plant species, shape ecosystem conditions for other biota. The effects of mire restoration and subsequent vegetation succession on ants, however, are poorly understood. We inventoried tree stands, vegetation, water-table level, and ants (with pitfall traps) in nine mires in southern Finland to explore differences in habitats, vegetation and ant assemblages among pristine, drained (30–40 years ago) and recently restored (1–3 years ago) pine mires. We expected that restoring the water-table level by ditch filling and reconstructing sparse tree stands by cuttings will recover mire vegetation and ants. We found predictable responses in habitat structure, floristic composition and ant assemblage structure both to drainage and restoration. However, for mire-specialist ants the results were variable and longer-term monitoring is needed to confirm the success of restoration since these social insects establish perennial colonies with long colony cycles. We conclude that restoring the water-table level and tree stand structure seem to recover the characteristic vegetation and ant assemblages in the short term. This recovery was likely enhanced because drained mires still had both acrotelm and catotelm, and connectedness was still reasonable for mire organisms to recolonize the restored mires either from local refugia or from populations of nearby mires.

• Punttila, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pekka.punttila@ymparisto.fi
• Autio, Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment in South Ostrobothnia, P.O. Box 252, FI-65101 Vaasa, Finland E-mail: olli.autio@ely-keskus.fi
• Kotiaho, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biology & Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: janne.kotiaho@jyu.fi
• Kotze, University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: johan.kotze@helsinki.fi
• Loukola, University of Oulu, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland E-mail: olli.loukola@gmail.com
• Noreika, University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki, Department of Biosciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: norbertas.noreika@gmail.com
• Vuori, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biology & Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: anna@kureniemi.fi
• Vepsäläinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Biosciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.vepsalainen@helsinki.fi

• Woziwoda, Department of Geobotany and Plant Ecology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland E-mail: woziwoda@biol.uni.lodz.pl
• Parzych, Environmental Chemistry Research Unit, Institute of Biology and Environmental Protection, Pomeranian University in Słupsk, Arciszewskiego 22b, 76-200 Słupsk, Poland E-mail: parzycha1@op.pl
• Kopeć, Department of Geobotany and Plant Ecology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland E-mail: domin@biol.uni.lodz.pl

• Dragotescu, Université du Québec à Montréal, Centre d’Étude de la Forêt (CEF), Montreal, Quebec, Canada E-mail: idragot@hotmail.com
• Kneeshaw, Université du Québec à Montréal, Centre d’Étude de la Forêt (CEF), Montreal, Quebec, Canada E-mail: ddk@nn.ca

• Jonsell, Swedish University of Agrarian Sciences, Dept of Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mats.jonsell@ekol.slu.se
• Hansson, Swedish University of Agrarian Sciences, Dept of Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: jh@nn.se

• Légaré, Université Laval, Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, Québec, Canada E-mail: jpl@nn.ca
• Hébert, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du P.E.P.S., P.O. Box 10380, Stn. Sainte-Foy, Québec (Québec), G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: christian.hebert@rncan.gc.ca
• Ruel, Université Laval, Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, Québec, Canada E-mail: jcr@nn.ca

• Sullivan, Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, University of BC, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: tom.sullivan@ubc.ca
• Sullivan, Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, University of BC, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: dss@nn.ca
• Lindgren, Applied Mammal Research Institute, 11010 Mitchell Avenue, Summerland, BC, Canada V0H 1Z8 E-mail: pmfl@nn.ca
• Ransome, Applied Mammal Research Institute, 11010 Mitchell Avenue, Summerland, BC, Canada V0H 1Z8 E-mail: dbr@nn.ca

• Kurttila, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kurttila@joensuu.fi
• Leskinen, Finnish Environment Institute, Research Programme for Production and Consumption, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pl@nn.fi
• Pykäläinen, Metsämonex Ltd., Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
• Ruuskanen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tr@nn.fi

• Joensuu, Dept. of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: johanna.joensuu@metsanhoitajat.fi
• Heliövaara, Dept. of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kh@nn.fi
• Savolainen, Kuopio Natural History Museum, Kuopio, Finland E-mail: es@nn.fi

• Lilja-Rothsten, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: saara.lilja@helsinki.fi
• Chantal, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: mdc@nn.fi
• Peterson, Dept. of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA E-mail: cp@nn.us
• Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
• Vanha-Majamaa, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, Finland E-mail: ivm@nn.fi
• Puttonen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, Finland E-mail: pp@nn.fi

• Hänninen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: riitta.hanninen@metla.fi
• Kallio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: maarit.kallio@metla.fi

• Gustafsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Conservation Biology, Box 7002, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lena.gustafsson@nvb.slu.se
• Appelgren, Belfragegatan 34H, SE-462 37 Vänersborg, Sweden E-mail: la@nn.se
• Nordin, Museum of Evolution, Botany, Norbyvägen 16, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se

• Uliczka, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Forest Faculty, Department of Conservation Biology, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, SE-730 91 Riddarhyttan, Sweden E-mail: helen.uliczka@nvb.slu.se

• Haeussler, C2 Site 81 RR#2 Monckton Rd., Smithers, B.C., Canada V0J 2N0 E-mail: skeena@bulkley.net
• Bedford, B.C. Ministry of Forests, P.O. Box 9513 Stn. Prov. Govt., Victoria, B.C., Canada, V8W 9C2 E-mail: lb@nn.ca
• Leduc, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888, Succursale A, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3P8 E-mail: al@nn.ca
• Bergeron, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888, Succursale A, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H3C 3P8 E-mail: yb@nn.ca
• Kranabetter, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Bag 5000, Smithers, B.C., Canada, V0J 2N0 E-mail: jmk@nn.ca

• Bergeron, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: bergeron.yves@uqam.ca
• Leduc, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: al@nn.ca
• Harvey, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: bdh@nn.ca
• Gauthier, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: sg@nn.ca

• Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi

• Felton, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: adam.felton@ess.slu.se
• Andersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ea@nn.se
• Ventorp, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: dv@nn.se
• Lindbladh, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ml@nn.se

• Rouvinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sr@nn.fi
• Kouki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.kouki@joensuu.fi

• Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, P.O.Box 27 FIN-00014, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi
• Aapala, Finnish Environment Institute, Expert Services Department, Nature Division, P.O. Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki E-mail: ka@nn.fi
• Ahlroth, University Museum, Section of Natural History, P.O. Box 35, FIN-40351, Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: pa@nn.fi
• Kuusinen, Ministry of the Environment, Land Use Department, P.O.Box 380, FIN-00131 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mk@nn.fi
• Lindholm, Finnish Environment Institute, Expert Services Department, Nature Division, P.O. Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki E-mail: tl@nn.fi
• Sallantaus, Pirkanmaa Regional Environment Centre, P.O. Box 297, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi
• Siitonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: juha.siitonen@metla.fi
• Tukia, Finnish Environment Institute, Expert Services Department, Nature Division, P.O. Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki E-mail: ht@nn.fi

• DeLong, Ministry of Forests, 1011 4th Ave, Prince George, BC, Canada V2L 3H9 E-mail: craig.delong@gems1.gov.bc.ca

• Jentsch, Conservation Biology and Ecological Modelling, UFZ – Centre for Environmental Research, Permoserstr. 15, D-04301 Leipzig, Germany E-mail: jentsch@pro.ufz.de
• Beierkuhnlein, Department of Landscape Ecology, University of Rostock, Justus-Liebig-Weg 6, D-18051 Rostock, Germany E-mail: cb@nn.de
• White, Department of Biology, Campus Box 3280, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA E-mail: psw@nn.us

• Mykrä, Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland E-mail: sakmyk@utu.fi
• Kurki, Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi

• Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi