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Silva Fennica 1926-1997
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Acta Forestalia Fennica
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Articles containing the keyword 'simulation'

Category : Article

article id 5636, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Jyrki Kangas, Matleena Kniivilä, Anne-Mari Tiainen. (1997). Integrating forest-level and compartment-level indices of species diversity with numerical forest planning. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5636. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8538
Keywords: simulation; heuristics; biodiversity conservation; forestry decision-making; environmental planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study proposes a technique which enables the computation of user-defined indices for species diversity. These indices are derived from characteristics, called diversity indicators, of inventory plots, stand compartments, and the whole forest holding. The study discusses the modifications required to be made to typical forest planning systems due to this kind of biodiversity computation. A case study illustrating the use of the indices and a modified forest planning system is provided. In the case study, forest-level species diversity index was computed from the volume of dead wood, volume of broadleaved trees, area of old forest, and between-stand variety.

At the stand level, the area of old forest was replaced by stand age, and variety was described by within-stand variety. All but one of the indicators were further partitioned into two to four sub-indicators. For example, the volume of broadleaved trees was divided into volumes of birch, aspen, willow, and other tree species. The partial contribution of an indicator to the diversity index was obtained from a sub-priority function, determined separately for each indicator. The diversity index was obtained when the partial contributions were multiplied by the weights of the corresponding indicators and then were summed. The production frontiers computed for the harvested volume and diversity indices were concave, especially for the forest-level diversity index, indicating that diversity can be maintained at satisfactory level with medium harvest levels.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Kniivilä, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
  • Tiainen, E-mail: at@mm.unknown
article id 5632, category Article
Annikki Mäkelä, Veli-Pekka Ikonen, Petteri Vanninen. (1997). An application of process-based modelling to the development of branchiness in Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5632. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8534
Original keywords: puutavara; mänty; kasvu; hiili; läpimitta; biomassa; oksat; laatu; latvus; simulointi; kasvumallit; mallit; hiilitase; oksaisus
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; carbon balance; simulation; pipe model; timber quality; growth model; branching; crown structure; whorl
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A process-oriented tree and stand growth model is extended to be applicable to the analysis of timber quality, and how it is influenced by silvicultural treatments. The tree-level model is based on the carbon balance and it incorporates the dynamics of five biomass variables as well as tree height, crown base, and breast height diameter. Allocation of carbon is based on the conservation of structural relationships, in particular, the pipe model. The pipe-model relationships are extended to the whorl level, but in order to avoid a 3-dimensional model of entire crown structure, the branch module is largely stochastic and aggregated. In model construction, a top-down hierarchy is used where at each step down, the upper level sets constraints for the lower level. Some advantages of this approach are model consistency and efficiency of calculations, but probably at the cost of reduced flexibility. The detailed structure related with the branching module is preliminary and will be improved when more data becomes available. Model parameters are identified for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Southern Finland, and example simulations are carried out to compare the development of quality characteristics in different stocking densities.

  • Mäkelä, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ikonen, E-mail: vi@mm.unknown
  • Vanninen, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown
article id 5630, category Article
John H. M. Thornley. (1997). Modelling allocation with transport/conversion processes. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5630. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8532
Keywords: simulation; modelling; partitioning; shoot-root ratio; plant growth
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A shoot-root carbon:nitrogen allocation model, based on the two processes of transport and chemical conversion, is described and explored. The view is proposed that all allocation models, whether built for the purposes of theoretical investigation or practical application, should start with this irreducible framework. In the present implementation, the processes operate according to: for substrate sources, dependence on shoot and root sizes, with possible product inhibition; for transport, movement down a substrate concentration gradient; for substrate sinks or utilization, linear bisubstrate kinetics. The dynamic and equilibrium properties of the model are explored. Failure of this approach to allocation will indicate to the modeller that additional mechanisms to control the processes are needed, and the mode of failure will indicate the type of mechanisms required. Additional mechanisms are discussed which may involve hormones or teleonomic (goal-seeking) controls, and may be added to the irreducible framework. However, these additions should not replace the irreducible framework of transport and chemical conversion, because they do not in reality. Modifications to the basic model to reflect some possibilities such as ontogenesis with the transition from exponential growth towards a steady state or with the scaling of within-plant transport resistances, the influence of hormones, and active transport, are described.

  • Thornley, E-mail: jt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5628, category Article
Séverine Le Dizès, Philippe Balandier, Pierre Cruiziat, Patrick Jacquet, André Lacointe, Xavier Le Roux, Hervé Sinoquet. (1997). A model for simulating structure-function relationships in walnut tree growth processes. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5628. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8530
Keywords: carbon; simulation; pruning; growth; Juglans regia; structure-function relationships; frame-based representation; rule-based representation; walnut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An ecophysiological growth process model, called INCA, for simulating the growth and development of a young walnut tree (Juglans regia L.) during three or four years, is presented. This tool, currently under development, aims at integrating architectural and physiological knowledge of the processes involved, in order to give a more rational understanding of the pruning operation. The model describes a simple three-dimensional representation of tree crown, solar radiation interception, photosynthesis, respiration, growth and partitioning of assimilates to leaves, stems, branches and roots. It supports the hypothesis that the tree grows as a collection of semiautonomous, interacting organs that compete for resources, based on daily sink strengths and proximity to sources. The actual growth rate of organs is not predetermined by empirical data, but reflects the pattern of available resources. The major driving variables are solar radiation, temperature, topological, geometrical and physiological factors. Outputs are hourly and daily photosynthate production and respiration, daily dimensional growth, starch storage, biomass production and total number of different types of organ. The user can interact or override any or all of the input variables to examine the effects of such changes on photosynthate production and growth. Within INCA, the tree entities and the surrounding environment are structured in a frame-based representation whereas the processes are coded in a rule-based language. The simulation mechanism is primarily based on the rule chaining capabilities of an inference engine.

  • Le Dizès, E-mail: sl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Balandier, E-mail: pb@mm.unknown
  • Cruiziat, E-mail: pc@mm.unknown
  • Jacquet, E-mail: pj@mm.unknown
  • Lacointe, E-mail: al@mm.unknown
  • Le Roux, E-mail: xl@mm.unknown
  • Sinoquet, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 5627, category Article
Philippe de Reffye, Daniel Barthélémy, Frédéric Blaise, Thierry Fourcaud, François Houllier. (1997). A functional model of tree growth and tree architecture. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5627. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8529
Keywords: growth; water transport; ecophysiology; plant architecture; assimilate production; mathemetical models; computer simulations; growth simulation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A new approach for modelling plant growth using the software AMAPpara is presented. This software takes into consideration knowledge about plant architecture which has been accumulated at the Plant Modelling Unit of CIRAD for several years, and introduces physiological concepts in order to simulate the dynamic functioning of trees. The plant is considered as a serial connection of vegetative organs which conduct water from the roots to the leaves. Another simple description of the plant as a network of parallel pipes is also presented which allows an analytical formulation of growth to be written. This recurring formula is used for very simple architectures and is useful to understand the role of each organ in water transport and assimilate production. Growth simulations are presented which show the influence of modifications in architecture on plant development.

  • de Reffye, E-mail: pd@mm.unknown (email)
  • Barthélémy, E-mail: db@mm.unknown
  • Blaise, E-mail: fb@mm.unknown
  • Fourcaud, E-mail: tf@mm.unknown
  • Houllier, E-mail: fh@mm.unknown
article id 5592, category Article
Ari Talkkari. (1996). Regional predictions concerning the effects of climate change on forests in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5592. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9237
Keywords: climate change; Finland; simulation; growing stock; wood production; Gap model; regional predictions; cutting yield
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A gap-model was used with forest inventory data in taking ground-true site, soil and tree characteristics into account in predicting the effects of climate change on forests. A total of 910 permanent sample plots established in the course of national forest inventory (NFI) in Finland and located on mineral soil sites in southern Finland were selected as the input data. The climatological input used in the simulations consisted of interpolated means of and deviations from long-term local temperature and precipitation records. The policy-oriented climate scenarios of SILMU (Finnish Research Programme on Climate Change) were used to describe the climate change. The temperature changes in the climate scenarios were increases of ca. +1.1 °C (low), +4.4 °C (medium) and +6.6 °C (high) compared to the current climate in 110 years. The simulation period was 110 years covering the time years 1990–2100.

Southern Finland, divided into fifteen forestry board districts, was used as the study region. Regional development of stand volume, cutting yield, and total wood production of forests under different climate scenarios were examined. The annual average growth in simulations under current climate was close to that observed in NFL Forests benefited from a modest temperature increase (Scenario 2), but under Scenario 1 the growing stock remained at a lower level than under the current climate in all parts of the study region. In wood production and cutting yield there were regional differences. In the southern part of the study regional wood production under Scenario 1 was ca. 10% lower than under the current climate, but in the eastern and western parts wood production was 5–15% higher under Scenario 1 than under the current climate. The relative values of total wood production and cutting yield indicated that the response of forests to climate change varied by geographical location and the magnitude of climate change. This may be a consequence of not just varying climatic (e.g. temperature and precipitation) and site conditions, but of varying responses by different kind of forests (e.g. forests differing in tree species composition and age).

  • Talkkari, E-mail: at@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5591, category Article
Egbert Beuker, Seppo Kellomäki, Marja Kolström. (1996). Changes in wood production of Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris under a warmer climate: comparison of field measurements and results of a mathematical model. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5591. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9236
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; climate change; Picea abies; simulation model; global warming; provenance trials
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To project the changes in wood production of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Finland as a result of climate change, two separate studies were made. The first study, at the Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, based its projections on mathematical models; the second one, at the Finnish Forest Research Institute, based projections on measurements of wood production in two series of aged provenance experiments. The results of the two studies were similar for both species: after a 4°C increase of the annual mean temperature a drastic increase in wood production in northern Finland, but little effect, or even some decrease in the southern part of the country. However, the assumptions used in the two studies differed. One important difference was that in the models the temperature is assumed to be increasing gradually over the years, whereas in the provenance experiments, climate changed immediately when the seedlings were transferred to the planting sites. Another problem with the provenance experiments is that when material is moved in a north-south direction in Finland, not only temperature but also photoperiod changes markedly. To compare these two studies, site factors (e.g. soil type, temperature, precipitation) and silvicultural factors (e.g. plant spacing, survival, time of thinning, thinning intensity) from the provenance experiments were included a variable in the mathematical models.

  • Beuker, E-mail: eb@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
article id 5547, category Article
Tiina Tolvanen-Sikanen, Pertti Harstela, Lauri Sikanen. (1995). A game theoretic simulation model for quality oriented timber supply to sawmills. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 1 article id 5547. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9198
Keywords: simulation; quality; timber procurement; supply; sawmills; statistical analysis; probability
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first aim of this study was to develop a simulation model describing the flow of different timber qualities to different firms. The second aim was to study preliminary the factors which affect timber distributions. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that in a small sawmill firm the traditional way of organizing timber procurement does not direct effectively good quality logs to the special production. The game theoretic approaching and the principles of Monte-Carlo simulation were applied in development of the simulation model. The most important factors of the model were tried to find for further studies with sensitive analysis. Empirical validation brought forth promising results in the area of one municipality. The buyer’s awareness of a marked stand, the seller’s willingness to sell a marked stand, the buyer’s ability to pay for wood and the proportion of first quality pine logs in a marked stand affected the distribution of pine logs. The results also supported the hypothesis that the traditional system, in which sawmills or their own forest departments procure themselves all timber needed, is not the most effective way to direct enough good quality timber to the special production.

  • Tolvanen-Sikanen, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown (email)
  • Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Sikanen, E-mail: ls@mm.unknown
article id 5514, category Article
Walter Sekot. (1993). Forest dynamics. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5514. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15675
Keywords: forestry; simulation; forest decline; operations research; risks
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the application of forest dynamics. Reference is made to two studies, which have been carried out at a national level. The simulations of forest decline as well as the production of exceedingly thick timber of spruce and fir provide various examples of the major problems of forest simulation and of some possible solutions. It is pointed out that the statistical analysis of empirical data is most important for modelling and it might bring about even more valuable results than the ultimate simulation itself.

  • Sekot, E-mail: ws@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5492, category Article
Ismo Nousiainen, Timo Pukkala. (1992). Use of computer graphics for predicting the amenity of forest trails. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15653
Keywords: forest management; forest planning; simulation; landscape; recreation; amenity value of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Ten trails, one kilometre each, were evaluated by 15 persons for scenic beauty, recreational value and variety. All trails passed through commercially managed forests dominated by conifers. The trails were first evaluated by viewing computer simulations based on a series of graphical illustrations of forest landscapes, then from a slide show, and finally in the field. In the computer simulation and slide show, landscape pictures along the trail at an interval of 35–40 m were presented for 3–4 seconds. The ranks between slide show and field were slightly more similar than those between simulation and field. The mean correlation of 12 persons between the field ranking and assessment of either computer simulations or slide shows or graphics than scenic beauty or recreational value. Spearman’s rank correlations computed from median scores of a group of 12 peers were clearly better than the average of individual persons varying from 0.6 to 0.9.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish

  • Nousiainen, E-mail: in@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5491, category Article
Kari T. Korhonen. (1992). Calibration of upper diameter models in large scale forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15652
Keywords: models; forest inventories; simulation; diameter; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models for estimating the upper diameter of trees were constructed using sample tree data measured in the 7th National Forest Inventory in Finland. Calibration of the models was tested with data from the 8th National Forest Inventory. The results showed that using mixed estimation for combining the two data sets improves the reliability of the models. Models and methods used in this study can be recommended for use in forest inventories.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Korhonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5490, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Jari Karsikko, Taneli Kolström. (1992). A spatial model for the diameter of thickest branch of Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5490. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15651
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; simulation; timber quality; competition; stand density; spatial pattern
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The model predicts the base diameter of the thickest living branch of a tree growing in a planted or naturally regenerated even-aged stand. A mixed model type was used in which the residual variation was divided into within-stand and between-stand components. The study material consisted of 779 trees measured in 12 plots located in 20 to 35 years old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands (breast height age 10 to 20 years). Branch diameter was closely connected to the breast height diameter of the stem. In a stand of a certain age, competition by close neighbours slightly decreased branch diameter in a given diameter class. According to the model, the greatest difference is between trees subjected to very little competition and those subjected to normal competition. The model was used in simulated stands with varying age, density, and tree arrangement. The simulations showed that trees with rapid diameter growth at young age had thicker branches at a given breast height diameter than trees with slower diameter growth. However, a very slow growth rate did not produce trees with branches thinner than those possessing a medium growth rate.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Karsikko, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5478, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Marja Kolström. (1992). Computations on the management of seedling stands of Scots pine under the influence of changing climate in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 5478. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15639
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; models; Betula pendula; Scots pine; silver birch; simulation; climatic change; seedling stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Model computations on the management of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at the seedling stage showed that a rising temperature due to the suggested climate change could increase the competition capacity of birch species (Betula pendula) more than Scots pine, whose growth could even decline during the course of a rise in temperature. A temperature rise could, thus, bring the time of removal of birches forward when aiming at Scots pine timber stands composed of these tree species. The increasing proportion of birches makes the removal of birches even more urgent and emphasizes the need for careful management of Scots pine stands under rising temperatures. The first thinning of Scots pine is generally brought forward; this is particularly the case when wide spacing is applied in planting. A furthrer rise in temperature magnifies the above patterns by reducing further the competitive capacity of Scots pine in relation to birches.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kolström, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
article id 5468, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Heikki Hänninen, Taneli Kolström, Risto Lauhanen, Ulla Mattila, Brita Pajari, Hannu Väisänen. (1992). A simulation model for the succession of the boreal forest ecosystem. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 1 article id 5468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15626
Keywords: succession; gap dynamics; ecosystems; simulation models; forest ecology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A model for the succession of the forest ecosystem is described. The growth and development of trees and ground cover are controlled by temperature and light conditions and the availability of nitrogen and water. In addition, the effects of the annual cycle of trees including the risk of frost damage, wild fire, and wind damages are contained in the model as factors which control the survival and productivity of trees. The model also makes it possible to evaluated the risk of insect attack assuming that this risk is inversely related to the growth efficiency of trees.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
  • Lauhanen, E-mail: rl@mm.unknown
  • Mattila, E-mail: um@mm.unknown
  • Pajari, E-mail: bp@mm.unknown
  • Väisänen, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown
article id 5449, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Taneli Kolström. (1991). Effect of spatial pattern of trees on the growth of Norway spruce stand. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 3 article id 5449. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15603
Keywords: Picea abies; thinnings; growth; spatial distribution; simulation models; biological competition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The simulation model consists of a method to generate theoretical Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands, and a spatial growth model to predict the growth of these stands. The stand generation procedure first predicts the tree diameters from a few stand characteristics and from tree locations. Tree age and height are predicted using spatial models. Spatial growth models were made for both diameter growth and basal area growth. Past growth was used as a predictor in one pair of models and omitted in another pair. The stand generation method and the growth models were utilized in studying the effect of tree arrangement and thinning method on the growth of a Norway spruce stand.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5419, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Owen Mubita, Jussi Saramäki. (1990). Management planning system for tree plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5419. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15573
Keywords: diameter distribution; plantations; yield model; Zambia; simulation model; Pinus kesiya; timber management planning; multiobjective optimization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents a simple model of long-term forest management planning in tree plantations. The model is particularly suitable for developing countries where the research resources are limited. The management plan is prepared in two steps. First, one or several treatment schedules are simulated for each calculation unit (age class, compartment, etc.) over the selected planning period. Second, an optimal combination treatment schedules according to the selected objectives and constraints is searched by mathematical programming. The simulation of growth is based on the prediction of the diameter distribution at the desired time point. All stand characteristics are derived from this distribution. The models needed in the yield simulation can be estimated from temporary sample plots. A case study management plan for 13,000 ha of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) plantations in Zambia is presented to demonstrate the system.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Mubita, E-mail: om@mm.unknown
  • Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 5375, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1989). Prediction of tree diameter and height in a Scots pine stand as a function of the spatial pattern of trees. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5375. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15532
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; diameter distribution; competition; spatial distribution; simulations studies; tree models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents two methods of predicting tree dimensions in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand if only the location of trees is known. The first method predicts the tree diameter from the spatial location of neighbours. In the second method the diameter distribution of a subarea is estimated from the local stand density. This distribution is then sampled to obtain diameters. In both methods the tree height is predicted with a spatial model on the basis of diameters and locations of trees. The main purpose of the presented models is to generate realistic stands for simulation studies.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5363, category Article
Veli Pohjonen, Timo Pukkala. (1988). Profitability of establishing Eucalyptus globulus plantations in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5363. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15520
Keywords: reforestation; Ethiopia; Eucalyptus globulus; simulation of growth; economic analysis; land use planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The economic analysis is based on computer simulations which covered a seedling rotation and three successive coppice rotations. Calculations were carried out for the four site productivity classes in Eucalyptus globulus plantations. The rotation length that maximized the land expectation value is 12–20 years for seedling rotation and 8–16 years for coppice rotations with discounting rates 2–8%. The mean wood production is over 40 m3/ha/a in the best site class and about 10 m3/ha/a in the poorest class with rotation lengths ranging from 10 to over 20 years. Thinnings increase the wood production and land expectation value by a few percentage points. In areas suitable to Eucalyptus globulus growth, the land expectation value is considerably higher in forestry than in agriculture, except in very poor areas or with very high rate of interest.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pohjonen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5362, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Heikki Hänninen, Taneli Kolström. (1988). Model computations on the impacts of the climatic change on the productivity and silvicultural management of the forest ecosystem. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5362. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15519
Keywords: boreal forests; adaptation; simulation; climatic change; future silviculture; changing environment; pest management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The model computations indicate that the climatic change in the form of higher temperatures and more precipitation could increase the productivity of the forest ecosystem and lead to higher rates of regeneration and growth. More frequent and intensive thinnings are needed to avoid the mortality of trees induced by accelerated maturation and attacks of fungi and insects. The climatic change could support the dominance of deciduous tree species and necessitate an intensification of the tending of seedling stands of conifers. The rise of air temperature during autumn and winter could change also the annual growth rhythm of trees and result in dehardening and subsequent frost damages and attacks of insects and fungi. The pest management could be the greatest challenge to the future silviculture, which could be modified most in Northern Finland.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5357, category Article
Heikki Hänninen, Paavo Pelkonen. (1988). Effects of temperature on dormancy release in Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 3 article id 5357. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15514
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; bud burst; dormancy release; annual cycle of development; chilling requirement; rest period; simulation model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models concerning the effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants were tested using two-year old seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Chilling experiments suggest that the rest period has a distinct end point. Before the attainment of this end point high temperatures do not promote bud development towards dormancy release, and after it further chilling does not affect the subsequent bud development. A new hypothesis of dormancy release is suggested on the basis of a comparison between present and earlier findings. No difference in the proportion of growth commencing seedlings were detected between the forcing temperatures of 17°C and 22°C. The rest break of 50% of Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings required six and eight weeks of chilling, respectively. Great variation in the chilling requirement was found, especially for Scots pine.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pelkonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
article id 5346, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1988). Methods to incorporate the amenity of landscape into forest management planning. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 5346. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15503
Keywords: forest management; landscape management; multipurpose forestry; multiobjective planning; computer simulation; mathematical optimization; management plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents methods that incorporate the amenity of a forest area into the management planning. The management plan is based on treatment schedules simulated for each compartment over the 20-year planning period. The best combination of treatment schedules is selected by multi-objective optimization. The amenity is divided into two parts: (1) within-stand amenity and (2) the amenity of landscape when viewed afar (distant scene). The within-stand amenity is expressed in terms of adjective sum which is estimated from stand characteristics. The adjective sum of the whole area in a selected year can be taken as an objective or constraining variable of optimization. The assessment of the distant scene is based on computer illustrations which show the predicted temporal change of landscape according to a particular management plan.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5338, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1988). Effect of spatial distribution of trees on the volume increment of a young Scots pine stand. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5338. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15495
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; simulation; competition; spatial distribution; growth model; spatial pattern
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of grouping on 5-year old volume increment was studied by a simulation technique using spatial growth models estimated in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in the phase of the first commercial thinning. A total of 24 model stands were regenerated by applying 12 spatial processes for two different diameter distributions. In addition to model stands, 6 different thinnings were simulated in two real stands. The clustering of trees was described with Fisher’s grouping index and by estimating the relative interception of diffuse radiation. In model stands with constant diameter distribution the correlation between the grouping index and volume increment ranged from -0.81 to -0.91. The correlation between volume increment and interception was 0.81–0.83 with one diameter distribution and 0.70 if both distributions were combined. In one thinned stand the correlation between the growth estimate and grouping index varied between -0.33 and 0.76. The correlation between interception and growth was about 0.30 in one stand and 0.72 if both stands were combined. Small irregularities do not decrease the volume production of a young Scots pine stand, but if the clustering is considerable or there are reasonably wide harvest strips, growth will be reduced by 10–20%.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5319, category Article
Heikki Hänninen. (1987). Effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5319. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15476
Keywords: temperature; bud burst; dormancy; annual cycle of development; dormancy breaking; chilling requirement; rate of development; rest period; simulation model; stage of development
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Logical structure of three simulation models and one conceptual model concerning effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants was examined. The three basic types of simulation models differed in their underlying assumptions. Contrasting implications of the models were inferred by deduction. With the aid of these implications, the model types can be tested using experiments with continuous and interrupted chilling. Similarly, implications of the conceptual model of rest phases were inferred, by which the model can be tested using experiments with continuous chilling and forcing in multiple temperatures. The possibilities to synthetize the conceptual model with any of the three simulation model types, as well as the biological interpretation of the model variables, were discussed.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5316, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Timo Kuuluvainen. (1987). Effect of canopy structure on the diurnal interception of direct solar radiation and photosynthesis in a tree stand. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5316. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15473
Keywords: canopy; simulation; shading; crown type; interception; tree ideotype; radiation regime
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The utilization of direct radiation was studied in five model stands of Poisson-type tree distribution and cone-shaped crowns. The radiation extinction depended on the self-shading of the crown and the shading caused by other trees. The results indicate that at low sun elevation a stand populated by very narrow-crowned trees is most effective in light interception and photosynthesis. At high sun elevation a broad-crowned canopy is best illuminated and most favourable for photosynthesis. A stand with a two-storey canopy is effective in all latitudes when the crowns are moderately narrow. In two-storey canopies the foliage of the lower storey can be better illuminated than in the lower parts of the upper storey, because of the smaller self-shading in the small crowns of the lower storey. A canopy where the crown volume is concentrated on few big crowns is less effective than a canopy consisting of many small crowns.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kuuluvainen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5315, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Matti Seppälä. (1987). Simulations on the effects of timber harvesting and forest management on the nutrient cycle and productivity of Scots pine stands. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 2 article id 5315. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15472
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; productivity; fertilization; nitrogen; simulation; rotation; timber harvest; nitrogen cycle
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Effects of varying rotation, thinning, fertilization and harvest intensity on the productivity and nitrogen cycle of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand were studied on the basis of computer simulation. The increasing intensity of management increased the loss of nitrogen in the cycle. Short rotation, associated with early thinning by means of the whole tree harvest, proved to be especially detrimental regarding the productivity of the forest ecosystem. Fertilization associated with thinnings is of great importance in maintaining the productivity of a forest ecosystem during an intensive timber harvest.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5306, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Taneli Kolström. (1987). Competition indices and the prediction of radial growth in Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 1 article id 5306. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15463
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; stand characteristics; simulation; tree growth; competition; radial growth
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of competition on the radial growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was studied in three naturally regenerated stands located in North Karelia, Finland. The competition situation of an individual tree was described with various competition indices which depended on the sizes and distances from the neighbouring trees. One competition index explained about 50% of the variation in 5-year radial growth in one stand. If all stands were combined, one index explained 43.5%, two indices 48.9% and three indices 51.2% of the variation. In one stand, the best competition indices accounted for about 20% of that variation which could not be explained by tree diameter. If all three stands were combined, the best index explained 11% of the residual variation. About 40% of the variation in 5-year radial growth could not be explained by the diameter and competition indices.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5305, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1987). Simulation model for natural regeneration of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Betula pendula and Betula pubescens. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 1 article id 5305. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15462
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; germination; Betula pubescens; mortality; seed crop; computer model; stochastic simulation; birth model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the model the regeneration process is derived into three subprocesses: birth, growth and mortality of seedlings. The main emphasis is on the birth process where the following phases are simulated: seed crop, quality of seeds, maturity of seeds, predation of seeds and germination. The parameters are based on data published in Finland. Part of the parameters are obtained directly from the investigations and part is proposed by the author. The model can be calibrated by changing parameter values. The simulation is made with the help of random numbers which have the same means as the estimates and the same distributions as the residuals of the equations used in simulation. The time step of the model is one year. The number of emerged seedlings in one year is obtained by multiplying the seed crop with the probabilities that the seed passes different phases of the birth process. Because of stochasticity the regeneration period is simulated several times. From the results it is possible to evaluate the risk and succeeding probability of the regeneration. The main drawbacks of the simulation method are the lack of empirical parameters and the difficulty of testing. The model could be further developed by including spatiality into the model.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5301, category Article
Birger Solberg. (1986). Forest sector simulation models as methodological tools in forest policy analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5301. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27757
Keywords: forest policy; Norway; simulation models; forest sector models; forest policy analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The usefulness of forest sector models in forest policy analysis is discussed, mainly based on experiences from Norway. Forest sector modelling is contrasted to two alternative approaches: (i) Intuitive, verbal analysis, and (ii) econometric models. It is concluded that forest sector models, properly developed in contact with the policy makers, should be of considerable value in forest policy analysis.

  • Solberg, E-mail: bs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5300, category Article
Takuro Kishine. (1986). Optimizing simulation model on forest policy. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5300. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27756
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; welfare; environment; Japan; simulation system model; policy formation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper designs an Economy-Welfare-Environment Adjustment System model (EWEAS model or EWE model in short) which consists of the circular flow of the economic, the welfare, and the environment system of forestry. That is, this model builds the relationship between the systems for material wealth and that for mental wealth.

The EWE model is designed as a complete open system model which describes the economy-welfare-environment circular system in forestry by linking up the internal system of forestry with the surrounding external systems. The EWE model can be manipulated as a policy formation or a policy decision model, and it is available for policy evaluation in the economic, the welfare and the environmental phase of forestry. The model is a basic simulation system model which is reliable in its reproductive fitness, stability and universality. Thus, this model ought to be useful in any country in the world as well as in Japan.

  • Kishine, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5291, category Article
David J. Brooks. (1986). Evaluating the regional and distributional impacts of forestry cost-share payments. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5291. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27747
Keywords: forest policy; timber supply; timber market; United States; welfare economics; market simulation; cost-share payments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Standard methods of welfare economics are used in a market simulating framework to evaluate policy measures designed to increase future timber supplies. Forest management cost-share programs are examined using this methodology. The differential regional impact of cost-share payments is considered, as is the distribution of these benefits between stumpage producers (owners of forest land) and stumpage consumers (producers of forest products). Previous estimates of the welfare gains that would result from a higher level of forest management cost-share payments in the southern United States are revised to account for the loss of public revenue resulting from lower future prices. A methodology for comparing alternative policy instruments is discussed, and a preliminary, qualitative comparison is made between the use of cost-share payments and alternative policy measures.

  • Brooks, E-mail: db@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5267, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1986). Mänty- ja kuusirunkojen arvosuhteet. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 2 article id 5267. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15446
English title: Value relations of Scots pine and Norway spruce stems.
Original keywords: kuusi; paperiteollisuus; mänty; sahatavara; sahateollisuus; raaka-aine; rungon koko
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; simulation; pulping; sawn goods; sawmill industry; pulp industry; raw material; stem size
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A mathematical model was developed for determining the value of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stems on the basis of sawing and pulping. The model was based on selling prices of sawn goods, pulp and other products as well as processing costs. Sawing was applied to large-dimension parts of stems and pulping to other parts and small stems. Bark and other residues were burned. The quality of pine stems was described by the distance of the lowest dead branch. In spruce only stem size affected the quality-

According to the results, the size of stem affects considerably the value of pine stems and clearly that of spruce stems. The main reason is an increase in the productivity of frame sawing as the stem size increases. In pine another factor is the higher price of sawn goods. The effect of pulp price increases as the stem size decreases. Even in large sized stems the effect of pulp was notable as the value of chips and saw dust was determined on the basis of product values in export. The competition ability of mechanical pulp was greatly affected by the price of electricity.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5266, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1986). Malli männyn, kuusen ja koivun puuaineen oksaisuudesta. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 2 article id 5266. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15445
English title: Model of knottiness of wood material in pine, spruce and birch.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; oksaisuus; rauduskoivu; hieskoivu; simulointi; aihion poikkileikkaus; puutavaran laatu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; birch; Betula; Picea abies; Scots pine; simulation; knots; timber quality; knottiness
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A computer model was developed for predicting knottiness of wood material of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and birch (Betula sp). The prediction included location of knots, their size and quality, i.e. if they are dead or living knots. The model suits best for tree species where branches are born at the base of shoots, in Finland such tree species is Scots pine.

The usefulness of the model was tested in the prediction of knots in wooden elements of joinery industry. According to the results, the shape of cross section affects the surface quality of elements. Especially useful is a quadratic cross section as it increases the probability to get a knotless surface.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5261, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1986). Koivuvaneritukkien ja -runkojen arvosuhteet. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 1 article id 5261. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15440
English title: Value relations of birch veneer logs and stems in Finland.
Original keywords: koivu; järeys; vaneri; mallinnus; koivuvaneritukki; viilun sorvaus; puustamaksukyky
English keywords: Betula pendula; Betula pubescens; simulation; plywood; log size; birch veneer; veneer logs; value of raw material
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A model was developed in order to describe the peeling of veneer for determining value relationship for birch veneer logs and stems. The model was based on selling prices of veneer and other products as well as processing costs. The model was utilized for determining the effect of various input variables on the log value.

According to the results, the effect of tree size was important for the value of raw material. Even knottiness had an effect although only in the higher manufacturing costs of knotty veneer were taken into account. Pruning was a method to increase substantially the proportion of knotless veneer.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Article

article id 7522, category Article
Timo Kareinen, Ari Nissinen, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (1998). Analysis of forest soil chemistry and hydrology with a dynamic model ACIDIC. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 262 article id 7522. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7522
Keywords: simulation; modelling; aluminium; leaching; water flow; cation exchange; macropores; micropores; flow paths
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this study we analyse how the ion concentrations in forest soil solution are determined by hydrological and biogeochemical processes. A dynamic mode ACIDIC was developed, including processes common to dynamic soil acidification models. The model treats one to eight interacting layers and simulates soil hydrology, transpiration, root water and nutrient uptake, cation exchange, dissolutions and reaction of Al hydroxides in solution, and the formation of carbonic acid and its dissociation products. It includes also a possibility to a simultaneous use of preferential and matrix flow paths, enabling the throughfall water to enter the deeper soil layers in macropores without first reacting with the upper layers. Three different combinations of routing the throughfall water via macro- and micropores through the soil profile is presented. The large vertical gradient in the observed total charge was simulated successfully. According to the simulations, gradient is mostly caused by differences in the intensity of water uptake, sulphate adsorption and organic anion retention at the various depths. The temporal variations in Ca and Mg concentrations were simulated fairly well in all soil layers. For H+, Al and K there were much more variation in the observed than in the simulated concentrations. Flow in macropores is a possible explanation for the apparent disequilibrium of the cation exchange for H+ ad K, as the solution H+ and K concentrations have great vertical gradients in soil. The amount of exchangeable H+ increased in O and E horizons and decreased in the Bs1 and Bs2 horizons, the net change in whole soil profile being a decrease. A large part of the decrease of the exchangeable H+ in the illuvial B horizon was caused by sulphate adsorption. The model produces soil water amounts and solution ion concentrations which are comparable to the measured values, and it can be used in both hydrological and chemical studies of soils.

  • Kareinen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Nissinen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown
  • Ilvesniemi, E-mail: hi@mm.unknown
article id 7676, category Article
Jussi Saramäki. (1992). A growth and yield prediction model of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) in Zambia. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 230 article id 7676. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7676
Keywords: diameter distribution; Weibull function; simulation models; Pinus kesiya; thinning reaction
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents a growth and yield prediction model for a Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) stand by diameter classes. The material consists of temporary sample plots taken from a plantation inventory, of permanent sample plots established in commercial compartments and of an espacement trial. The mean basal area of the stand, variance and skewness of the diameter distribution are predicted. From these variables the parameters of the Weibull function are derived. Site class is assumed to be known or is calculated from measured information. Mortality is also predicted by estimating the number and mean size of dead trees. Thinnings are defined by the number of trees removed and by their relative size. If measured tree level data at the initial situation is available it can be utilized in the predictions, however, simulations can also be performed with stand level information. The minimum information needed for the prediction is planting density, site class as well as the times and removals of thinnings.

The calculations show that by decreasing the planting density of P. Kesiya from the present 1,330 stems/ha or by conducting early precommercial thinning both the relative and absolute amount of large sawlogs in the total production increase. An increase in the present planting density only slightly increases total yield. It is obvious that the presently recommended rotation of 25 years is too short for producing large sawlogs, especially on poor sites. This rotation period is suitable for small sawlog production while for pulpwood regimes shorter rotation periods can be used. If thinnings are done before the maximum current annual growth is reached stands will react well, but later on the ability to respond to thinnings decreases rapidly. Thinnings from below accelerates the production of large sawlogs more than thinning from above or systematic thinning. If all sawlog sizes are considered no great differences between thinning type exist. The study recommends different thinning regimes according to site class. Separate programs are recommended for the production of sawlogs and pulpwood.

The used thinning reaction model needs refinement and further studies with annual measured thinning trial material.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7579, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Markku Siitonen. (1975). Metsikön puuston simulointimenetelmä ja simuloituun aineistoon perustuvien puustotunnusmallien laskenta. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 145 article id 7579. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7579
English title: Simulation of artificial stands and derivation of growing stock models from this material.
Original keywords: puulajit; menetelmät; metsikkö; puusto; simulointi; puustotunnukset
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; birch; Picea abies; stand characteristics; tree species; growing stock; methods; simulation of stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was that of providing a long-term timber production model (Kilkki and Pökkälä 1975) with growing stock models. The paper is divided into two parts; the first is concerned with generation of the stand data through Monte-Carlo simulation. The growing stock of each stand was described by a DBH-height distribution. The necessary information on the relationships between the stand characteristics was derived from sample plots measured in the national forest inventory of Finland. A total of 1,500 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst), and birch (Betula sp.) stands, each comprising 100 trees were provided by simulation.

In the second part, models predicting the form factor, timber assortment distribution, and value of the growing stock were derived through regression analysis for each species of tree. The predicting variables included the form factor of the basal area median tree, basal area median diameter, and height in the form factor models. In the timber assortment and value models, the only predicting variable was the volume of the basal area median tree. The Matchcurve-technique (Jensen 1973) was employed in derivation of the regression models.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Siitonen, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown

Category : Research article

article id 23045, category Research article
Laura Pikkarainen, Harri Strandman, Eerik Vento, Aaron Petty, Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Antti Kilpeläinen, Heli Peltola. (2024). Effects of forest conservation and management on timber, ecosystem carbon, dead wood and habitat suitability area in a boreal forest under climate change. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 2 article id 23045. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23045
Keywords: saproxylic species; simulation; carbon storage; forest fertilization; Fennoscandia; forest ecosystems services; improved regeneration material
Highlights: Increasing forest conservation areas increased all other ecosystem services except timber yield. Intensive forest management enhanced this increase; Increased conservation area decreased timber yield, but intensive forest management reduced this effect and even overcompensated it at the end of simulation period in the 10% conservation scenario with intensified forest management; Climate change increased all other ecosystem services, except carbon stocks.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

We used forest ecosystem model simulations to study how forest conservation and management intensity affected timber yield, ecosystem carbon stocks, amount of dead wood, and habitat suitability area in a middle boreal forest region of Finland under changing climate over a 90-year simulation period. We used the following forest conservation and management scenarios: baseline forest management (BM), BM with 10 or 20% increase of conservation area with or without intensified forest management (i.e. improved forest regeneration material and forest fertilization). The simulations were done under current climate (reference period of 1981–2010), and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) climate change projections under the RCP2.6 and RCP4.5 forcing scenarios. Overall, increasing the forest conservation area decreased timber yield and increased the ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and consequently the area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. The use of intensified forest management reduced the loss of timber yield, increased ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. At the end of simulation period, the use of intensified forest management even overcompensated (4–6% higher) the timber loss from 10% increase of conservation area. Under changing climate, timber yield, the amount of dead wood and the area of suitable habitats for saproxylic species increased. To conclude, with intensified forest management it is possible, in the short term, to decrease the loss of timber yield through increased forest conservation area and in the long term maintain or even increase it compared to baseline forest management.

  • Pikkarainen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5301-3639 E-mail: laura.pikkarainen@uef.fi (email)
  • Strandman, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9400-6424 E-mail: harri.strandman@uef.fi
  • Vento, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eerik.vento@gmail.com
  • Petty, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6595-1386 E-mail: aaron.petty@uef.fi
  • Tikkanen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3875-2772 E-mail: olli-pekka.tikkanen@uef.fi
  • Kilpeläinen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-0578 E-mail: antti.kilpelainen@uef.fi
  • Peltola, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@uef.fi
article id 23012, category Research article
Jari Vauhkonen, Juho Matala, Ari Nikula. (2023). Future browsing damage in seedling stands according to projected forest resources and moose population density. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 23012. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23012
Keywords: forest management planning; forest development simulation; forest projection; Markov chain; scenario analysis; transition matrix model
Highlights: Projections of forest resources and seedling stands damaged by moose browsing; Damaged seedling stand area modelled by moose population and forest characteristics; Moose damage predicted by the age class structure of simulated future forests.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
An important modifier of forests and forestry practices is browsing by cervids. As high populations of moose (Alces alces L.) cause extensive forest damage in the Fennoscandian boreal forests, models should be able to predict the susceptibility of projected forest structures to browse damage. We augmented the European Forestry Dynamics Model (EFDM) for the area of seedling stands damaged by moose. The augmented model was tested in projecting both forest resources and moose damage for 18 million hectares of forest land in Finland, based on input data from the National Forest Inventory (NFI). Modeling the area of seedling stands damaged as a function of moose population density, forest characteristics, and region-specific interactions of these variables was found to work realistically for 30 years, predicting that the area of seedling stands damaged by moose would increase by up to a third from the last NFI observation. Our work lays the groundwork for modeling consequential, large-scale ecological and socio-economic effects of moose browsing.
  • Vauhkonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Latokartanonkaari 7, FI-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: jari.vauhkonen@uef.fi
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Nikula, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8372-8440 E-mail: ari.nikula@luke.fi
article id 22027, category Research article
Timo Saksa, Jari Miina, Olli Luukkonen. (2023). Uprooting as a pre-commercial thinning operation in young Norway spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22027. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22027
Keywords: Picea abies; simulation; precommercial thinning; mechanical young stand management
Highlights: The number of competing birches varied considerably according to the operating conditions; The main factors reducing the quality of uprooting were early operation timing, soil moisture and site fertility; With careful selection of the timing and conditions for uprooting, the quality obtained by uprooting can be improved.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Uprooting, as a mechanical pre-commercial thinning operation (PCT), removes competitive, undesired trees with roots to prevent or reduce the need for a second PCT. The state of 66 young Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands was explored 3–5 years after uprooting to assess the quality of uprooting in terms of the number of competing birches (Betula spp.) and the probability of freely growing crop tree spruce (no competing trees taller than 2/3 of the crop tree’s height). In the uprooted spruce stands, the number of birches was, on average, about 3800 stems ha−1, and in every fifth stand, it was less than 2000 stems ha−1. The number of birches increased with increasing site wetness (TWI), site fertility and thickness of the humus layer. In 80% of the stands, there were at least 1000 freely growing spruces ha−1, which is approximately the stem number to be left growing after first thinning in a spruce stand. If the height of crop tree spruces was 125 cm at uprooting, the probability of freely growing stems varied from 0.6 to 0.8 in typical cases. According to simulations at the first thinning stage, in most stands, birch was less than 10% taller than spruce, and the volume of birches was low enough that, in the future, spruce and birch would grow in the same crown layer as a mixed spruce–birch stand. The results showed that uprooting can serve as the only PCT operation in a planted spruce stand. The quality obtained by uprooting can be improved with careful selection of timing and conditions for uprooting; the optimal uprooting time is when crop tree spruces have reached about breast height.
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, 77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1776-2357 E-mail: ext.timo.saksa@luke.fi
  • Miina, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6 B, 80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8639-4383 E-mail: jari.miina@luke.fi
  • Luukkonen, Metsäsydän Oy, Junninmäentie 53, 52200 Puumala, Finland E-mail: olli.p.j.luukkonen@gmail.com
article id 22026, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Mari Myllymäki, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2023). Understanding uncertainty in forest resources maps. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22026. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22026
Keywords: autocorrelation; ensemble modelling; kriging; quantile; random forest; sequential Gaussian simulation
Highlights: Forest resources maps without uncertainty assessment may lead to false impression of precision; Suitable tools for visualization of map products are lacking; Kriging method provided accurate uncertainty assessment for pixel-level predictions; Quantile random forest algorithm slightly underestimated the pixel-level uncertainties; With simulation it is possible to assess the uncertainty also for landscape-level characteristics.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Maps of forest resources and other ecosystem services are needed for decision making at different levels. However, such maps are typically presented without addressing the uncertainties. Thus, the users of the maps have vague or no understanding of the uncertainties and can easily make wrong conclusions. Attempts to visualize the uncertainties are also rare, even though the visualization would be highly likely to improve understanding. One complication is that it has been difficult to address the predictions and their uncertainties simultaneously. In this article, the methods for addressing the map uncertainty and visualize them are first reviewed. Then, the methods are tested using laser scanning data with simulated response variable values to illustrate their possibilities. Analytical kriging approach captured the uncertainty of predictions at pixel level in our test case, where the estimated models had similar log-linear shape than the true model. Ensemble modelling with random forest led to slight underestimation of the uncertainties. Simulation is needed when uncertainty estimates are required for landscape level features more complicated than small areas.
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
  • Myllymäki, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2713-7088 E-mail: mari.myllymaki@luke.fi
  • Mehtätalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8128-0598 E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@luke.fi
article id 10468, category Research article
Arto Haara, Juho Matala, Markus Melin, Janne Miettinen, Kari T. Korhonen, Tuula Packalen, Jari Varjo. (2021). Economic effects of grouse-friendly forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 10468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10468
Keywords: grouse; simulation; trade-offs; game keeping; interest rate
Highlights: The economic effects of grouse friendly forest management were evaluated by simulating alternative forest management approaches on four large forest holdings in different parts of Finland; The grouse-friendly management of forest holdings was possible with minor effects on the economics in most cases: only in one case was the reduction of NPV more than 5% during a 30-year simulation period; The interest rates had an impact on the differences between the economic effects of the forest management approaches.
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Traditional timber production may have negative effects on other ecosystem services. Therefore, new forest management guidelines have been developed in order to enhance a habitat suitable for wildlife. In Finland, a recent example of this is grouse-friendly forest management (GFFM) which emphasises the preservation of grouse species (Tetronidae) habitats. This study aimed to analyse the economic effects of these guidelines. An analysis was made on how the application of GFFM affected the Net Present Value (NPV) in a 30-year simulation of forest management of four large forest holdings located from south to north in Finland. In the simulations, traditional forest management practices were compared to two levels of GFFM. Five levels of interest rate were used, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%. In most of the simulations, the NPV was reduced by about 1% or less due to the application of GFFM in comparison to the traditional reference forest management. Only in one case with more intensive GFFM, was the reduction of NPV more than 5%. The interest rates had an impact on the differences between the management approaches. For example, a low interest rate resulted in a higher thinning intensity in GFFM in comparison to traditional forest management, which lead to a higher NPV in GFFM. To sum up, it seems that it would be possible to manage forest holdings in a grouse-friendly manner with minor effects on the economics.

  • Haara, LUKE ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6895-5300 E-mail: arto.haara@luke.fi (email)
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yli opistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi
  • Miettinen, Finnish Wildlife Agency, Ratatie 41, FI-91501 Muhos, Finland E-mail: janne.miettinen@riista.fi
  • Korhonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yli opistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@luke.fi
  • Packalen, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 30, FI-00023 GOVERNMENT, Finland E-mail: tuula.packalen@mmm.fi
  • Varjo, Finnish Wildlife Agency, Sompiontie 1, FI-00730 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jari.varjo@riista.fi
article id 10414, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Micky Allen, Urban Nilsson, Andreas Brunner, Saija Huuskonen, Soili Haikarainen, Narayanan Subramanian, Clara Antón-Fernández, Emma Holmström, Kjell Andreassen, Jari Hynynen. (2020). Stand-level mortality models for Nordic boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10414. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10414
Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; simulation; broadleaved species; logistic function; period length; plot size
Highlights: Models were developed for predicting stand-level mortality from a large representative NFI data set; The logistic function was used for modelling the probability of no mortality and the proportion of basal area in surviving trees; The models take into account the variation in prediction period length and in plot size; The models showed good fit with respect to stand density, developmental stage and species structure, and showed satisfying fit in the independent data set of unmanaged spruce stands.
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New mortality models were developed for the purpose of improving long-term growth and yield simulations in Finland, Norway, and Sweden and were based on permanent national forest inventory plots from Sweden and Norway. Mortality was modelled in two steps. The first model predicts the probability of survival, while the second model predicts the proportion of basal area in surviving trees for plots where mortality has occurred. In both models, the logistic function was used. The models incorporate the variation in prediction period length and in plot size. Validation of both models indicated unbiased mortality rates with respect to various stand characteristics such as stand density, average tree diameter, stand age, and the proportion of different tree species, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), and broadleaves. When testing against an independent dataset of unmanaged spruce-dominated stands in Finland, the models provided unbiased prediction with respect to stand age.

  • Siipilehto, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi (email)
  • Allen, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway; Larson and McGowin Inc., Mobile, AL 36607, USA ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7824-2849 E-mail: micky.allen@nibio.no
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7624-4031 E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se
  • Brunner, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1668-9714 E-mail: andreas.brunner@nmbu.no
  • Huuskonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8630-3982 E-mail: saija.huuskonen@luke.fi
  • Haikarainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8703-3689 E-mail: soili.haikarainen@luke.fi
  • Subramanian, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-3241 E-mail: narayanan.subramanian@slu.se
  • Antón-Fernández, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5545-3320 E-mail: clara.anton.fernandez@nibio.no
  • Holmström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2025-1942 E-mail: emma.holmstrom@slu.se
  • Andreassen, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4272-3744 E-mail: kjellandreassen@gmail.com
  • Hynynen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jari.hynynen@luke.fi
article id 10309, category Research article
Petteri Seppänen, Antti Mäkinen. (2020). Comprehensive yield model for plantation teak in Panama. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10309. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10309
Keywords: simulation; teak; decision support system; Tectona grandis; Panama; taper curve; volume equation; yield model
Highlights: Tree level teak stem volume models, taper model and three sets of stand level yield models were developed using large empirical datasets; Tree volume models were satisfactorily validated against independent measurement data and other published models; Tree height as input parameter improved the stem volume model marginally; Stand level yield models produced comparable harvest volumes with models published in the literature; Stand level timber product outputs were found like actual harvests with an exception that the models marginally underestimate the share of logs in very large diameter classes.
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The purpose of this study was to prepare a comprehensive, computerized teak (Tectona grandis L.f) plantation yield model system that can be used to describe the forest dynamics, predict growth and yield and support forest planning and decision-making. Extensive individual tree and permanent sample plot data were used to develop tree-level volume models, taper curve models and stand-level yield models for teak plantations in Panama. Tree volume models were satisfactorily validated against independent measurement data and other published models. Tree height as input parameter improved the stem volume model marginally. Stand level yield models produced comparable harvest volumes with models published in the literature. Stand level volume product outputs were found like actual harvests with an exception that the models marginally underestimate the share of logs in very large diameter classes. The kind of comprehensive model developed in this study and implemented in an easy to use software package provides a very powerful decision support tool. Optimal forest management regimes can be found by simulating different planting densities, thinning regimes and final harvest ages. Forest practitioners can apply growth and yield models in the appropriate stand level inventory data and perform long term harvest scheduling at property level or even at an entire timberland portfolio level. Harvest schedules can be optimized using the applicable financial parameters (silviculture costs, harvesting costs, wood prices and discount rates) and constraints (market size and operational capacity).

  • Seppänen, Verdas Oy, Kihlinkuja 7, FI-50600 Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: petteri@verdas.fi (email)
  • Mäkinen,  Simosol Oy. Hämeenkatu 10, FI-11100 Riihimäki, Finland E-mail: antti.makinen@simosol.fi
article id 10247, category Research article
Agnese Marcelli, Walter Mattioli, Nicola Puletti, Francesco Chianucci, Damiano Gianelle, Mirko Grotti, Gherardo Chirici, Giovanni D' Amico, Saverio Francini, Davide Travaglini, Lorenzo Fattorini, Piermaria Corona. (2020). Large-scale two-phase estimation of wood production by poplar plantations exploiting Sentinel-2 data as auxiliary information. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 10247. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10247
Keywords: national forest inventories; Sentinel-2; design-based inference; first-phase tessellation stratified sampling; regression estimator; second-phase stratified sampling; simulation study
Highlights: A two-phase sampling for large-scale assessment of fast-growing forest crops is developed; Vegetation indices from Sentinel-2 are exploited in a linear regression estimator; The linear regression estimator turns out to be better than the estimator based on the sole sample information; The approach represents a reference for supporting outside-forest resource monitoring and assessment.
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Growing demand for wood products, combined with efforts to conserve natural forests, have supported a steady increase in the global extent of planted forests. Here, a two-phase sampling strategy for large-scale assessment of the total area and the total wood volume of fast-growing forest tree crops within agricultural land is presented. The first phase is performed using tessellation stratified sampling on high-resolution remotely sensed imagery and is sufficient for estimating the total area of plantations by means of a Monte Carlo integration estimator. The second phase is performed using stratified sampling of the plantations selected in the first phase and is aimed at estimating total wood volume by means of an approximation of the first-phase Horvitz-Thompson estimator. Vegetation indices from Sentinel-2 are exploited as freely available auxiliary information in a linear regression estimator to improve the design-based precision of the estimator based on the sole sample data. Estimators of the totals and of the design-based variances of total estimators are presented. A simulation study is developed in order to check the design-based performance of the two alternative estimators under several artificial distributions supposed for poplar plantations (random, clustered, spatially trended). An application in Northern Italy is also reported. The regression estimator turns out to be invariably better than that based on the sole sample information. Possible integrations of the proposed sampling scheme with conventional national forest inventories adopting tessellation stratified sampling in the first phase are discussed.

  • Marcelli, University of Tuscia, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems, Viterbo, Italy; Fondazione Edmund Mach, Department of Sustainable Agro-Ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, Italy E-mail: agnese.marcelli@student.unisi.it (email)
  • Mattioli, University of Tuscia, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems, Viterbo, Italy; CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: walter.mattioli@crea.gov.it
  • Puletti, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: nicola.puletti@crea.gov.it
  • Chianucci, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: fchianucci@gmail.com
  • Gianelle, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Department of Sustainable Agro-Ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, Italy E-mail: damiano.gianelle@fmach.it
  • Grotti, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy; University of Roma La Sapienza, Department of Architecture and Design, Rome, Italy E-mail: mirkogrotti@gmail.com
  • Chirici, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: gherardo.chirici@unifi.it
  • D' Amico, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: giovanni.damico@unifi.it
  • Francini, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy; University of Molise, Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Campobasso, Italy E-mail: saverio.francini@gmail.com
  • Travaglini, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: davide.travaglini@unifi.it
  • Fattorini, University of Siena, Department of Economics and Statistics, Siena, Italy E-mail: lorenzo.fattorini@unisi.it
  • Corona, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: piermaria.corona@crea.gov.it
article id 10147, category Research article
Mika Aalto, Olli-Jussi Korpinen, Tapio Ranta. (2019). Feedstock availability and moisture content data processing for multi-year simulation of forest biomass supply in energy production. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 4 article id 10147. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10147
Keywords: bioenergy; simulation; forest resources; data analysis; geographic information system
Highlights: A method for allocating forest biomass availability for a multi-year simulation model was developed; The possibility to take the quality change of feedstock into account by moisture estimations was studied; A method to estimate weather data for moisture estimation equations with fewer parameters was presented.
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Simulation and modeling have become more common in forest biomass studies. Dynamic simulation has been used to study the supply chain of forest biomass with numerous different models. A robust predictive multi-year model requires biomass availability data, where annual variation is included spatially and temporally. This can be done by using data from enterprises, but in some cases relevant data is not accessible. Another option is to use forest inventory data to estimate biomass availability, but this data must be processed in the correct form to be utilized in the model. This study developed a method for preparing forest inventory data for a multi-year simulation supply model using the theoretical availability of feedstock. Methods for estimating quality changes during roadside storage are also presented, including a possible parameter estimation to decrease the amount of data needed. The methods were tested case by case using the inventory database “Biomass Atlas” and weather data from a weather station in Mikkeli, Finland. The data processing method for biomass allocation produced a reasonable quantity of stands and feedstock, having a realistic annual supply with variation for the demand point. The results of the study indicate that it is possible to estimate moisture content changes using weather data. The estimations decreased the accuracy of the model and, therefore, estimations should be kept minimal. The presented data preparation method can generate a supply of forest biomass for the simulation model, but the validity of the data must be ensured for correct model behavior.

  • Aalto, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7768-1145 E-mail: mika.aalto@lut.fi (email)
  • Korpinen, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: olli-jussi.korpinen@lut.fi
  • Ranta, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5464-5136 E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi
article id 7710, category Research article
Pekka Hyvönen, Jaakko Heinonen. (2018). Estimating storm damage with the help of low-altitude photographs and different sampling designs and estimators. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 7710. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7710
Keywords: simulation; simple random sampling estimator; ratio estimator; Lindeberg; flight line
Highlights: Digital photographs taken from low altitudes are usable for monitoring storm damage; Simple random sampling and ratio estimators resulted in similar standard errors; Characteristics of the storm influence the optimal flight plan and which variance estimator should be used; The developed model for simulations can be modified and utilized with future storms.
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Climate change has been estimated to increase the risk of storm damage in forests in Finland. There is a growing need for methods to obtain information on the extent and severity of storm damage after a storm occurrence. The first objective of this study was to test whether digital photographs taken from aircrafts flying at low-altitude can be utilized in locating storm-damaged areas and estimating the need for harvesting of wind-thrown trees. The second objective was to test the performance of selected estimators. Depending on distances between flight lines, plots on lines and the used estimator, the relative standard errors of storm area estimates varied between 7.7 and 48.7%. For the area for harvesting and volume of wind-thrown trees, the relative standard errors of estimates varied between 16.8 and 167.3%. Using forest area information from Multisource National Forest Inventory data improved the accuracy of the estimates. However, performance of a simple random sampling estimator and ratio estimator were quite similar. Lindeberg’s method for variance estimation based on adjacent lines was sensitive to line directions in relation to possible trends in storm-damaged area locations. Our results showed that the tested method could be used in estimating storm-damaged area provided that the network of flight lines and photographs on lines are sufficiently dense. The developed model for simulations can be utilized also with forthcoming storms as model’s parameters can be freely adjusted to meet, e.g., the intensity and extent of the storm.

  • Hyvönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pekka.hyvonen@luke.fi (email)
  • Heinonen, E-mail: jaakkoheinonen@gmail.com
article id 1521, category Research article
Kalle Karttunen, Juha Laitila, Tapio Ranta. (2016). First-thinning harvesting alternatives for industrial or energy purposes based on regional Scots pine stand simulations in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1521. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1521
Keywords: harvesting; energy wood; stand simulation; stumpage price; small-diameter wood
Highlights: Small-diameter delimbed wood from Scots pine stands delivered directly for energy use was the most cost-efficient option in terms of the total supply-chain cost in comparison with corresponding industrial use or a whole-tree supply chain for energy use; Forest-management and harvesting decisions influenced the removal of forest biomass and stumpage price as well as the total supply-chain costs for forest biomass; The greatest cost-reduction potential (10.0%, 4.00 € m–3) was achieved for the delimbed energy wood’s supply chain in the regional case of South Savo in eastern Finland.
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Combining research into forest management stand conditions and wood supply chain processes has been missing from earlier forestry studies. There is a clear need to develop more cost-efficient small-diameter wood production, harvesting and transportation methods from first thinning, which could be used for either industrial or energy wood purposes. This study considers the total cost for small-diameter wood originating from young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated stands. Pine pulpwood is the most harvested and most used roundwood assortment, use of which is expected to rise following new pulp-mill investments in Finland. In addition, utilisation of small-diameter trees directly for energy purposes has been increasing steadily in recent years. The aim of the study was to determine the cost-reduction potential of alternative forest management options and supply chains for small diameter-wood in the regional case of South Savo in eastern Finland. The total costs of three distinct scenarios were studied on the basis of forest management, first-thinning harvesting methods, and transportation: 1) industrial wood, 2) delimbed energy wood, and 3) whole trees for energy purposes. The cost-reduction potential for energy-wood supply chains from first thinning was compared to the industrial supply chain. Small-diameter delimbed wood delivered straight for energy purposes was found to be the most cost-efficient as far as the total cost of the supply chain is concerned. More cost-efficient small-diameter wood processes can be found by linking forest stand simulations with supply chain analysis.

  • Karttunen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: kalle.karttunen@lut.fi
  • Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi
  • Ranta, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi (email)
article id 1386, category Research article
Håkan Lideskog, Magnus Karlberg. (2016). Simulated continuous mounding improvements through ideal machine vision and control. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1386. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1386
Keywords: site preparation; silviculture; remote sensing; scarification; clearcut obstacles; mounding simulation; work procedures
Highlights: Different strategies for how to utilise machine vision to streamline the mounding head movements were developed and evaluated; The theoretical minimum rate of encountered obstacles while utilising machine vision in continuous mounding is presented, provided that an optimal continuous mounding has been performed; The needed minimum resolution of a machine vision system at work on a clearcut area was found.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To promote the growth and survival of regenerated forests, site preparation prior to tree planting on clearcuts is necessary. This is often performed with scarifiers, either through trenching or mounding. Mounding is generally considered better in a plant survival perspective but is inefficient on obstacle-rich clearcuts. By utilising machine vision through e.g. remote sensing methods, new strategies can enable efficient mound positioning. In this paper, three realistic strategies utilizing ideal clearcut object identification through machine vision have been developed that can be used for more efficient mounding. The results show that mounding efficiency can be significantly improved with a new mound positioning strategy that employs ideal object identification, especially on obstacle-rich clearcuts.

 

 

  • Lideskog, Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Product and Production Development, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: hakan.lideskog@ltu.se (email)
  • Karlberg, Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Product and Production Development, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: magnus.karlberg@ltu.se
article id 1293, category Research article
Jukka Malinen, Mika Haring, Harri Kilpeläinen, Erkki Verkasalo. (2015). Comparison of alternative roundwood pricing systems – a simulation approach. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1293. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1293
Keywords: simulation; pricing; roundwood
Highlights: A discrete event simulation model was developed for studying roundwood pricing systems; For a single buyer, pricing based on residual value appraisal produced (RVA) 4.87 per cent higher wood paying capability and 3.70 per cent higher stumpage price than pricing based on average unit prices; As the number of buyers using RVA increases, the competition increased and the advantage decreased.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In a closed market, roundwood buyers pricing system affect the roundwood flow from the stands to different roundwood users. If a buyer is capable to discriminate higher value stands from low quality stands better than its competitors, the buyer should be able to buy better raw material. In the study, a discrete event simulation was used to examine the effect of residual value appraisal (RVA) -based pricing of roundwood by log dimensions and grades compared to the traditional pricing based on average unit prices (UP) of roundwood assortments on roundwood flow. The core of the simulation model was the data containing 51 pine dominated stands from southern Finland. Sample trees were theoretically bucked by the bucking simulator in order to estimate the volumes, dimensions and grades of the logs and roundwood assortments. The simulation model of roundwood markets included four roundwood buyers, two corporations and two saw milling enterprises. The main finding of the study was that the buyers who use RVA gains an advantage and receives better quality compared to buyers who use UP. As the number of buyers using RVA increases, the competition increased and the advantage decreased.

  • Malinen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jukka.malinen@uef.fi (email)
  • Haring, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mika.haring@gmail.com
  • Kilpeläinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: harri.kilpelainen@luke.fi
  • Verkasalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: erkki.verkasalo@luke.fi
article id 1087, category Research article
Ilkka Korpela, Lauri Mehtätalo, Lauri Markelin, Anne Seppänen, Annika Kangas. (2014). Tree species identification in aerial image data using directional reflectance signatures. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1087. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1087
Keywords: forestry; reflectance calibration; BRDF; mixed-effects modeling; Monte-Carlo simulation
Highlights: Multispectral reflectance data showed a strong and spectrally correlated tree effect; There was no gain in species classification from using species-specific differences of directional reflectance in real data and only a marginal improvement in simulated data; The directional signatures extracted in multiple images are obscured by the intrinsic within-species variation, correlated observations and inherent reflectance calibration errors.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Tree species identification using optical remote sensing is challenging. Modern digital photogrammetric cameras enable radiometrically quantitative remote sensing and the estimation of reflectance images, in which the observations depend largely on the reflectance properties of targets. Previous research has shown that there are species-specific differences in how the brightness observed changes when the viewing direction in an aerial image is altered. We investigated if accounting for such directional signatures enhances species classification, using atmospherically corrected, real and simulated multispectral Leica ADS40 line-camera data. Canopy in direct and diffuse illumination were differentiated and species-specific variance-covariance structures were analyzed in real reflectance data, using mixed-effects modeling. Species classification simulations aimed at elucidating the level of accuracy that can be achieved by using images of different quality, number and view-illumination geometry. In real data, a substantial variance component was explained by tree effect, which demonstrates that observations from a tree correlate between observation geometries as well as spectrally. Near-infrared band showed the strongest tree effect, while the directionality was weak in that band. The gain from directional signatures was insignificant in real data, while simulations showed a potential gain of 1–3 percentage points in species classification accuracy. The quality of reflectance calibration was found to be important as well as the image acquisition geometry. We conclude that increasing the number of image observations cancels out random observation noise and reflectance calibration errors, but fails to eliminate the tree effect and systematic calibration inaccuracy. Directional reflectance constitutes a marginal improvement in tree species classification.
  • Korpela, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland E-mail: ilkka.korpela@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mehtätalo, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@uef.fi
  • Markelin, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geodetic Institute, P.O. Box 15, FI-02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: lauri.markelin@fgi.fi
  • Seppänen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: anne.seppanen@arbonaut.com
  • Kangas, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi
article id 1013, category Research article
Nils Fahlvik, Björn Elfving, Peder Wikström. (2014). Evaluation of growth functions used in the Swedish Forest Planning System Heureka. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 1013. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1013
Keywords: basal area; simulation; validation; volume; empirical
Highlights: Growth models based on historical growth data gave reliable growth predictions up to the century shift; Detailed single tree growth models had lower precision for estimation of total growth than one single stand-based model; The prediction error was in average about 15% and did not increase with extended prediction period.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The performance of growth models implemented in the Swedish Forest Planning System Heureka was evaluated. Four basal area growth models were evaluated by comparing their predictions to data from five-year growth records for 1711 permanent sample plots of the National Forest Inventory (NFI-data). Also, two alternative implementations of Heureka, including a combined stand- and tree-level basal area growth model and a single tree-level model, respectively, were evaluated using data from 57 blocks in a thinning experiment (GG-data) involving Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) in which the trees were monitored for 30 years after the first thinning. The predicted volume growth was also compared to observed values. Growth models based on data from 1970’s and 1980’s overestimated growth in the NFI test plots from the early 2000’s by about 3%. Stand-level models had larger precision than tree-level models. Basal area growth was underestimated in dense NFI-plots and overestimated in non-thinned GG-plots, illustrating an un-solved modelling problem. Basal area growth was overestimated by 2–5% also in the GG-plots over the whole observation period. Volume growth was however accurately predicted for pine and underestimated by 2% for spruce. The relative prediction error did not increase with increasing length of prediction period. Thinning response models calibrated with GG-data worked well in the total application and produced growth levels for different thinning alternatives in line with observations.
  • Fahlvik, Department of Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: nils.fahlvik@slu.se (email)
  • Elfving, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: bjorn.elfving@slu.se
  • Wikström, Peder Wikström Skogsanalys AB, c/o Peder Wikström, Huldrans väg 1, SE-907 52 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: peder.wikstrom@slu.se
article id 937, category Research article
Rene Zamora-Cristales, Kevin Boston, John Sessions, Glen Murphy. (2013). Stochastic simulation and optimization of mobile chipping economics in processing and transport of forest biomass from residues. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 5 article id 937. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.937
Keywords: forest planning; simulation; optimization; economics; decision analysis; forest biomass; renewable energy
Highlights: A stochastic simulation model is proposed to analyze forest biomass operations; The cost of chipper and truck waiting times was estimated in forest biomass recovery operations; The economic effect of truck-machine interactions under uncertainty was analyzed; Road characteristics and processing location have an economic impact in truck and chipper waiting times
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We analyzed the economics of mobile chipping and transport of biomass from forest residues for energy purposes under uncertainty. A discrete-event simulation model was developed and utilized to quantify the impacts of controllable and environmental variables on productivity in order to determine the most cost effective transportation options under steep terrain conditions. Truck-chipper interactions were analyzed to show their effect on truck and chipper standing time. A costing model was developed to account for operating and standing time cost (for the chipper and trucks). The model used information from time studies of each activity in the productive cycle and spatial-temporal information obtained from geographic information system (GIS) devices, and tracking analysis of machine and truck movements. The model was validated in field operations, and proved to be accurate in providing the expected productivity. A cost distribution was elaborated to support operational decisions of forest managers, landowners and risk-averse contractors. Different scenarios were developed to illustrate the economic effects due to changes in road characteristics such as in-highway transport distance, in-forest internal road distance and pile to trailer chipper traveling distances.
  • Zamora-Cristales, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: rene.zamora@oregonstate.edu (email)
  • Boston, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: kevin.boston@oregonstate.edu
  • Sessions, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: john.sessions@oregonstate.edu
  • Murphy, Waiariki Institute of Technology, Rotorua, New Zealand E-mail: glen.murphy@waiariki.ac.nz
article id 958, category Research article
Back Tomas Ersson, Linus Jundén, Urban Bergsten, Martin Servin. (2013). Simulated productivity of one- and two-armed tree planting machines. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 958. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.958
Keywords: discrete-event simulation; mechanized planting; forestry; silviculture; automation; terrain model; root model
Highlights: Using discrete-event simulation and detailed terrain and machine models, the productivities of excavator-based one- and two-armed tree planting machines were simulated; The machines’ arms were equipped with one-and two-headed planting devices; Two planting heads per arm rather than two arms per base machine is better for increasing the productivity of intermittently advancing planting machines on Nordic clearcuts.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
To increase mechanized planting, planting machine productivity must increase in order to improve cost-efficiency. To determine if excavators with two crane arms could potentially help to increase planting machine productivity under Nordic clearcut conditions, we modelled one-armed and semi-automated two-armed excavators with one- and two-headed planting devices. Using a recently developed tool for discrete-event simulation, these machine models then mounded and planted seedlings on terrain models with moraine soil having various frequencies of obstacles (stumps, roots and stones). Compared to if the two heads were mounted pairwise on only one arm, the results showed that productivity did not increase if two planting heads were attached individually to two separate crane arms. But productivity did increase if the planting machine had four planting heads mounted pairwise on two separate arms. However, despite assuming automated mounding and crane motion between planting spots, the two-armed, four-headed model never achieved high enough productivity levels to make it more cost-efficient than one-armed machines. The simulations illustrate that our terrain models generate realistic root architecture and boulder content distributions in moraine soil, while our machine models functionally describe mechanized planting work. Based on our assumptions, we conclude that further development work on two-armed excavator-based planting machines for Nordic clearcut conditions is not warranted. Our simulations reveal that increasing the number of planting heads per crane arm rather than number of crane arms per base machine offers the greatest potential to raise the productivity of intermittently advancing planting machines.
  • Ersson,  Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se (email)
  • Jundén,  UMIT Research Lab, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: linus.junden@gmail.com
  • Bergsten,  Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: urban.bergsten@slu.se
  • Servin,  UMIT Research Lab, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: martin.servin@physics.umu.se
article id 49, category Research article
Kalle Karttunen, Kari Väätäinen, Antti Asikainen, Tapio Ranta. (2012). The operational efficiency of waterway transport of forest chips on Finland’s Lake Saimaa. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 3 article id 49. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.49
Keywords: barges; discrete-event simulation; forest fuels; logistics; supply chains; tugboats
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
New and cost-efficient methods for use in supply chains for energy wood should be found, to reach the targets of the renewable energy utilisation set by the European Union. The long-distance waterway transportation of forest fuels should be thoroughly investigated, especially in areas where the transport distance is long and waterways could provide a feasible method of conveying forest fuel. In comparison to transport of forest chips by truck, barge-based waterway transport shows a competitive advantage due to the larger loads and higher bulk density of chips it allows. The cost-efficiency of waterway transportation operations related to forest chips in Finland’s Lake Saimaa region was studied using practical demonstrations and discrete-event simulation. The varying demand for fuel wood in three separate bio-power plants on the Saimaa lakeside (near the cities of Varkaus, Mikkeli, and Savonlinna) was addressed in several barge transportation scenarios. Finally, the economy of barge transportation was compared to the economy of truck transportation as a function of transportation distance and in terms of the annual performance of the transportation methods examined. The waterway supply chain of forest chips was cost-competitive to road transport by truck after 100–150 km. According to the simulation study, the most economical waterway transport options were based on fixed barge system and shift-independent harbor logistics where loading and unloading of barges were carried-out with a wheeled loader and a belt conveyor. Total supply chain costs including the best waterway logistics from road side storage to power plant ranged from 10.75 euros to 11.64 euros/MWh in distances of 100–150 km by waterways. The energy-density of forest chips in the barge load was found to be, on average, 25% higher than that in truck hauling, because of the better compaction of chips. Waterway transport is a viable option for long-distance transportation of forest chips in Eastern Finland.
  • Karttunen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: kalle.karttunen@lut.fi (email)
  • Väätäinen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.vaatainen@metla.fi
  • Asikainen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.asikainen@metla.fi
  • Ranta, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi
article id 159, category Research article
Johan Stendahl, Maj-Britt Johansson, Erik Eriksson, Åke Nilsson, Ola Langvall. (2010). Soil organic carbon in Swedish spruce and pine forests – differences in stock levels and regional patterns. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 159. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.159
Keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Scots pine; soil carbon; temperature sum; tree species; simulation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The selection of tree species is one factor to consider if we want to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere through forest management. The objectives of this study were to estimate the differences in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks under Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests and to examine causes of differences in the accumulation of carbon in the forest soil. Large-scale inventory data was used to quantify variations in SOC stock in relation to stand type and the accumulation of carbon for spruce and pine stands was analysed by simulation. Based on field data, the national mean SOC stock was 9.2 kg m–2 in spruce dominated stands and 5.7 kg m–2 in pine dominated stands. For both species, the SOC stock, measured in the field inventory, increased significantly with increasing temperature, although at different rates. The SOC stock was larger for spruce under all temperature conditions, but the difference between species diminished with increasing temperature. The simulations indicated that the build-up of SOC over several rotations was 22% higher in spruce stands than in pine stands under similar environmental conditions. The main difference was found to be the greater input of harvest residues for spruce. Further, the simulations showed that ground vegetation contributed considerably more to the litter production under pine than under spruce. On sites where both Scots pine and Norway spruce are considered suitable, the latter should be selected if the aim of the forest management policy is to maximize the accumulation of SOC in the forest. Further, spruce is more favourable for SOC accumulation in areas with cold temperatures and on sites with low productivity.
  • Stendahl, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: johan.stendahl@mark.slu.se (email)
  • Johansson, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mbj@nn.se
  • Eriksson, Department of Energy and Technology, P.O. Box 7061, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ee@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
  • Langvall, Unit for Field-based Forest Research, Asa Experimental Forest and Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-36030 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: ol@nn.se
article id 176, category Research article
María Pasalodos-Tato, Timo Pukkala, Antonio Rigueiro-Rodríguez, Esther Fernández-Nunez, María Rosa Mosquera-Losada. (2009). Optimal management of Pinus radiata silvopastoral systems established on abandoned agricultural land in Galicia (north-western Spain). Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 176. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.176
Keywords: simulation; economic profitability; optimization; risk reduction; salvage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Timber production has been the main objective in forest production in Galicia for a long time. Nevertheless, factors such as fire risk and the need to obtain non-timber benefits make other production alternatives like silvopastoral systems worth of consideration. Integration of grazing in the production system not only diversifies products and benefits, but also decreases fire risk by enhancing fuel control. Nonetheless, few studies have examined the economic profitability of these systems. This article analyses the economics of silvopastoral systems established on abandoned agricultural soils afforested with Pinus radiata D. Don. Different tree planting densities, discounting rates, grass values and fire risk scenarios were analysed. The technique employed is based on the combination of an optimization algorithm and a simulator of stand growth and grass yield. The most profitable schedules were obtained with initial stand densities of 1500 trees per hectare. However, with high unit values of pasture production (high value of grass), schedules with an initial stand density of 500 trees per hectare were the most profitable. When the risk of fire was included in the analyses, silvopastoral systems were always more profitable than timber production systems. With an assumption that grazing reduces fire risk thinnings should be done earlier and heavier to reduce the expected losses due to fire and to promote grass production. This lengthens the pasture period. In general, rotation lengt
  • Pasalodos-Tato, INIA, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria. Madrid, Spain E-mail: pasalodos.maria@inia.es (email)
  • Pukkala, University of East Finland, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Rigueiro-Rodríguez, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain E-mail: arr@nn.es
  • Fernández-Nunez, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain E-mail: efn@nn.es
  • Mosquera-Losada, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain E-mail: mrml@nn.es
article id 175, category Research article
Heikki Hänninen, Jaana Luoranen, Risto Rikala, Heikki Smolander. (2009). Late termination of freezer storage increases the risk of autumn frost damage to Norway spruce seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 175. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.175
Keywords: Norway spruce; simulation; autumn frost damage; day degrees; freezer storage; growing season
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Over the last few years it has become increasingly common in artificial forest regeneration to extend the planting period by using freezer-stored seedlings for early summer plantings. Developmentally, however, planted freezer-stored seedlings lag behind seedlings planted earlier in the spring. As freezer-stored seedlings also start hardening later, they are more susceptible to early autumn frosts, especially in years when the thermal growing season ends and the first autumn frosts come earlier than usual. By means of computer simulations with a simple temperature sum model and long-term air-temperature data from three locations in Finland, we examined the effect of the freezer-storage termination date on the risk of autumn frost damage to the seedlings. The long-term simulations revealed a drastic effect of year-to-year variation in the thermal conditions during the growing season on the occurrence of autumn frost damage. Such results provide crucial information complementary to those obtained in field experiments, which are always restricted to a relatively short time period. Together with earlier field data, the present results suggest that at an average regeneration site in central Finland, the planting of seedlings whose storage has terminated on 15 June and 22 June involve autumn frost damage every tenth and every fifth year, respectively. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the temperature sum requirement of maturation has a great effect on the risk of autumn frost damage, thus pinpointing the need for experimental studies addressing this ecophysiological trait of the seedlings.
  • Hänninen, Plant Ecophysiology and Climate Change Group (PECC), Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: heikki.hanninen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Luoranen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
  • Rikala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: rr@nn.fi
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 219, category Research article
Arto Haara, Pekka Leskinen. (2009). The assessment of the uncertainty of updated stand-level inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 219. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.219
Keywords: uncertainty; measurement error; simulation; non-parametric methods; observed error; stand-level inventory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Predictions of growth and yield are essential in forest management planning. Growth predictions are usually obtained by applying complex simulation systems, whose accuracy is difficult to assess. Moreover, the computerised updating of old inventory data is increasing in the management of forest planning systems. A common characteristic of prediction models is that the uncertainties involved are usually not considered in the decision-making process. In this paper, two methods for assessing the uncertainty of updated forest inventory data were studied. The considered methods were (i) the models of observed errors and (ii) the k-nearest neighbour method. The derived assessments of uncertainty were compared with the empirical estimates of uncertainty. The practical utilisation of both methods was considered as well. The uncertainty assessments of updated stand-level inventory data using both methods were found to be feasible. The main advantages of the two studied methods include that bias as well as accuracy can be assessed.
  • Haara, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: arto.haara@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Leskinen, Finnish Environment Institute, Research Programme for Production and Consumption, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pl@nn.fi
article id 435, category Research article
Rebecca Ralston, Joseph Buongiorno, Jeremy S. Fried. (2004). Potential yield, return, and tree diversity of managed, uneven-aged Douglas-fir stands. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 1 article id 435. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.435
Keywords: diversity; simulation; uneven-aged management; Douglas-fir; WestPro; economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of different management regimes on uneven-aged Douglas-fir stands in the Pacific Northwest of the United States were predicted with a simulation model. Management alternatives were defined by residual stand structure and cutting cycle. The residual stand structure was set by basal area–diameter-q-ratio (BDq) distributions, diameter-limit cuts (assuming concurrent stand improvement), or the current diameter distribution. Cutting cycles of 10 or 20 years were applied for 200 years. The current diameter distribution was defined as the average of the uneven-aged Douglas-fir stands sampled in the most recent Forest Inventory and Analysis conducted in Oregon and Washington. Simulation results were compared in terms of financial returns, timber productivity, species group diversity (hardwoods vs softwoods), size class diversity, and stand structure. Other things being equal, there was little difference between 10- and 20-year cutting cycles. The highest financial returns were obtained with either a 58.4 cm diameter-limit cut, or a BDq distribution with 8.4 m2 of residual basal area, a 71.1 cm maximum diameter, and a q-ratio of 1.2. Using the current stand state as the residual distribution was the best way to obtain high tree size diversity, and high species group diversity. Several uneven-aged regimes gave net present values comparable to that obtained by converting the initial, uneven-aged stand to an even-aged, commercially thinned, plantation.
  • Ralston, Dept of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA E-mail: rr@nn.us
  • Buongiorno, Dept of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA E-mail: jbuongio@facstaff.wisc.edu (email)
  • Fried, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis Program, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208, USA E-mail: jsf@nn.us
article id 486, category Research article
Arto Haara. (2003). Comparing simulation methods for modelling the errors of stand inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 486. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.486
Keywords: measurement error; simulation; stand-level inventory; non-parametric estimation; Monte Carlo methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest management planning requires information about the uncertainty inherent in the available data. Inventory data, including simulated errors, are infrequently utilised in forest planning studies for analysing the effects of uncertainty on planning. Usually the errors in the source material are ignored or not taken into account properly. The aim of this study was to compare different methods for generating errors into the stand-level inventory data and to study the effect of erroneous data on the calculation of specieswise and standwise inventory results. The material of the study consisted of 1842 stands located in northern Finland and 41 stands located in eastern Finland. Stand-level ocular inventory and checking inventory were carried out in all study stands by professional surveyors. In simulation experiments the methods considered for error generation were the 1nn-method, the empirical errors method and the Monte Carlo method with log-normal and multivariate log-normal error distributions. The Monte Carlo method with multivariate error distributions was found to be the most flexible simulation method. This method produced the required variation and relations between the errors of the median basal area tree characteristics. However, if the reference data are extensive the 1nn-method, and in certain conditions also the empirical errors method, offer a useful tool for producing error structures which reflect reality.
  • Haara, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: arto.haara@metla.fi (email)
article id 504, category Research article
Sylvain Jutras, Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Hannu Salminen. (2003). Modeling mortality of individual trees in drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 504. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.504
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pubescens; simulation; peatlands; mortality; generalized linear mixed models; multilevel models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Multilevel logistic regression models were constructed to predict the 5-year mortality of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) growing in drained peatland stands in northern and central Finland. Data concerning tree mortality were obtained from two successive measurements of the National Forest Inventory-based permanent sample plot data base covering pure and mixed stands of Scots pine and pubescent birch. In the modeling data, Scots pine showed an average observed mortality of 2.73% compared to 2.98% for pubescent birch. In the model construction, stepwise logistic regression and multilevel models methods were applied, the latter making it possible to address the hierarchical data, thus obtaining unbiased estimates for model parameters. For both species, mortality was explained by tree size, competitive position, stand density, species admixture, and site quality. The expected need for ditch network maintenance or re-paludification did not influence mortality. The multilevel models showed the lowest bias in the modeling data. The models were further validated against independent test data and by embedding them in a stand simulator. In 100-year simulations with different initial stand conditions, the models resulted in a 72% and 66% higher total mortality rate for the stem numbers of pine and birch, respectively, compared to previously used mortality models. The developed models are expected to improve the accuracy of stand forecasts in drained peatland sites.
  • Jutras, Département des sciences du bois et de la forêt, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, Québec, G1K 7P4, Canada E-mail: sj@nn.ca
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Alenius, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: va@nn.fi
  • Salminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 510, category Research article
Helge Dzierzon, Risto Sievänen, Winfried Kurth, Jari Perttunen, Branislav Sloboda. (2003). Enhanced possibilities for analyzing tree structure as provided by an interface between different modelling systems. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 510. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.510
Keywords: tree growth; mathematical models; simulation systems; forest growth; analysis tools
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In recent years, many different advanced mathematical models and simulation systems for tree and forest growth have been developed. We show a possibility to extend analysis tools for measured and simulated plants using a data interface between the simulation model LIGNUM and the multifunctional software system GROGRA. Both systems were developed by different teams. To demonstrate the enhanced possibilities for analyzing a LIGNUM tree, several examples are given. In these examples three different approaches for analysis are applied to measured and simulated trees: Fractal dimension, deduction of tapering laws, and water potential patterns obtained from simulation of waterflow by the specialized software HYDRA. Conclusions for the interfacing and comparison of different modelling tools are drawn.
  • Dzierzon, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: hdzierz@gwdg.de (email)
  • Sievänen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
  • Kurth, Institut für Informatik, Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, P.O. Box 101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany E-mail: wk@nn.de
  • Perttunen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
  • Sloboda, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: bs@nn.de
article id 543, category Research article
Maarten Nieuwenhuis. (2002). The development and validation of pre-harvest inventory methodologies for timber procurement in Ireland. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 2 article id 543. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.543
Keywords: pre-harvest inventory; simulation; dynamic programming; value maximisation; optimal crosscutting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This article describes the development and validation of a decision-support system for sawmill wood procurement, dealing specifically with the integration of the pre-harvest inventory procedures, site-specific dbh/height models and a generic taper equation, with a crosscutting simulator. The crosscutting simulation program faithfully mimics the process of cut-to-length harvesting and provides detailed information on the potential volume, logs count and diameter distributions for different log assortment specifications. Four data sets, consisting of a total of 4153 diameter and height measurements, were used in the validation process. The sites included two Sitka spruce clearfells, a Sitka spruce thinning and a Norway spruce clearfell. The evaluation process has shown that the developed decision-support system produced accurate results for a wide range of stand types, as long as sufficient large data sets were used, and that it provides the wood procurement manager of a sawmill with an efficient means of gaining a comprehensive insight into the yield potential of standing timber lots and, as such, represents a valuable aid to timber procurement and production planning.
  • Nieuwenhuis, University College Dublin, Dept. of Forestry, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: maarten.nieuwenhuis@ucd.ie (email)
article id 562, category Research article
Tero Kokkila, Annikki Mäkelä, Eero Nikinmaa. (2002). A method for generating stand structures using Gibbs marked point process. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 562. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.562
Keywords: spatial distribution; stand simulation; Gibbs point process; Markov chain Monte Carlo
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stand growth modelling based on single tree responses to their surroundings requires a description of the spatial structure of a stand. While such detailed information is rarely available from field measurements, a method to create it from more general stand variables is needed. A marked Gibbs point potential theory combined with Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) random process was used to create a spatial configuration for any given number of trees. The trees are considered as charges rejecting each other and building ‘potential energy’. As an analogue of the potential energy in physical systems, the potential of a stand is defined in terms of size-dependent tree-to-tree interactions that can be thought of as related to resource depletion and competition. The idea that bigger trees induce larger potentials brings 3-dimensional effects into the system. Any feasible spatial structure is a state of the system, and the related potential can be calculated. The probability that a certain state occurs is assumed to be a decreasing function of its potential. Because more regular structures have lower potentials, by adjusting the steepness of the probability distribution the spatial structure can be allowed to have a lot of randomness (naturally regenerated stands) or forced to be very regular (planted stands). The MCMC algorithm is a numerical method of finding stand configurations that correspond to the expected level of the potential, given the size distribution of trees and the shape of the probability density function. The method also allows us to take into account spatial variation in the terrain. Some spots can be defined to have lower basic potential than others (ditch, planting furrow, etc.) in order to create areas of higher than average stocking density. A preliminary test of the method was conducted on two measured stands. The results suggest that the method could provide an efficient and flexible means of mimicking variable stand structures.
  • Kokkila, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: tero.kokkila@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mäkelä, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
  • Nikinmaa, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: en@nn.fi
article id 595, category Research article
Kenneth Nyström, Göran Ståhl. (2001). Forecasting probability distributions of forest yield allowing for a Bayesian approach to management planning. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 595. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.595
Keywords: basal area growth model; mixed-model; uncertainty of predictions; Monte Carlo simulation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Probability distributions of stand basal area were predicted and evaluated in young mixed stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in Sweden. Based on an extensive survey of young stands, individual tree basal area growth models were estimated using a mixed model approach to account for dependencies in data and derive the variance/covariance components needed. While most of the stands were reinventoried only once, a subset of the stands was revisited a second time. This subset was used to evaluate the accuracy of the predicted stand basal area distributions. Predicting distributions of forest yield, rather than point estimates, allows for a Bayesian approach to planning and decisions can be made with due regard to the quality of the information.
  • Nyström, SLU, Department of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: kenneth.nystrom@resgeom.slu.se (email)
  • Ståhl, SLU, Department of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: gs@nn.se
article id 627, category Research article
Joseph Buongiorno, Audra Kolbe, Mike Vasievich. (2000). Economic and ecological effects of diameter-limit and BDq management regimes: simulation results for northern hardwoods. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 3 article id 627. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.627
Keywords: diversity; hardwoods; simulation; uneven-aged management; economics; mixed-species stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The long-term financial and ecological effects of diameter-limit regimes and basal-area-diameter-q-ratio (BDq) regimes were compared by simulation in the case of northern hardwood forests. Varying the cutting cycle between 10 and 20 years had little effect on returns or stand structure. A 28-cm diameter-limit cut gave the highest production and financial returns, and the highest species diversity, but considerably lower size diversity. A 38-cm diameter-limit cut and a heavy BDq selection harvest gave high returns, while maintaining high levels of diversity. On lands of equal site quality, Michigan’s stands were more productive than Wisconsin’s. The results suggest that it is possible to manage northern hardwood stands sustainably with diameter-limit cuts, combined with removal of poorly performing understory trees. Adjusting the diameter limit gave rise to stands similar in productivity and structure to those obtained by BDq cutting regimes. Given their simplicity of implementation and monitoring, more attention should be given to diameter-limit cutting regimes, with attendant stand improvement measures, as a practical means for uneven-aged management of northern hardwoods.
  • Buongiorno, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53705, USA E-mail: Jbuongio@facstaff.wisc.edu (email)
  • Kolbe, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53705, USA E-mail: ak@nn.us
  • Vasievich, USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, 1407 S. Harrison Road, Suite 220, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA E-mail: mv@nn.us
article id 637, category Research article
Hirofumi Kuboyama, Hiroyasu Oka. (2000). Climate risks and age-related damage probabilities – effects on the economically optimal rotation length for forest stand management in Japan. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 637. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.637
Keywords: simulation; climatic risks; damage probability; age class; optimal rotation period; land expectation value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We estimated the damage probability according to age class and major climatic disasters based on ‘Statistical Yearbook of National Forest Insurance’ from 1960 to 1996. The probability of snow damage is high for young stands, then gradually decreases with age. On the other hand, the risk of wind damage gradually increases with age. Decisions about rotation age should be based on the distribution of damage probability with stand age. Risk of damage has two contradictory effects on the optimal rotation period; one is that the rotation-shortening effect caused by risk of damage around harvest age; another is the rotation-extending effect due to decrease of rent by the risk of damage through the raising period. Change of optimal rotation depends on the relative magnitude of these effects. We examine this by calculating land expectation value (LEV) using a simulation model with the empirical damage probability, price and cost. Change of the optimal rotation period obtained from the national average damage probability is not significant. However, the optimal rotation is shorter in high wind risk areas and is longer in high snow risk areas. It is because the damage probability for a mature stand is high in the case of wind and low in the case of snow. In addition, the extent of decrease in LEV is smaller for wind than for snow. The results of simulation based on empirical data confirm that the optimal rotation period can become either shorter or longer through incorporating risk in decision making, depending on the damage probability distribution with stand age.
  • Kuboyama, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute Tohoku Center, Nabeyashiki 72, Shimo-Kuriyagawa, Morioka, Iwate, 020-0123 Japan E-mail: kuboyama@ffpri-thk.affrc.go.jp (email)
  • Oka, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute Tohoku Center, Nabeyashiki 72, Shimo-Kuriyagawa, Morioka, Iwate, 020-0123 Japan E-mail: ho@nn.jp
article id 640, category Research article
Jarkko Koskela. (2000). A process-based growth model for the grass stage pine seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 1 article id 640. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.640
Keywords: allocation; Monte Carlo simulation; grass stage; Pinus merkusii; dynamic model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A carbon- and nitrogen-balance model, applying pipe model theory and a modification of functional balance as growth-guiding rules, is presented for the grass stage pine seedlings. Three populations of Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese, originating from northern and northeastern Thailand, were grown under controlled environment for 47 weeks to obtain parameter information, to evaluate the model performance and to investigate genotypic variation in various characteristics among the populations. Monte Carlo simulations were used to evaluate the sensitivity of the model behaviour to varying parameter values and to calibrate the model for each population. With given sets of parameter values, the simulated biomass development fitted rather well the observed one during the experiment. The two most important parameters determining model performance were within-shoot shading and specific nitrogen uptake rate of fine roots. The fit of simulated versus measured fine roots had a major effect on acceptable model performance in Monte Carlo simulations. Significant variation in biomass growth, nitrogen use efficiency, height, stem diameter, total carbon concentrations of stem and fine roots, and total nitrogen concentrations of needles, transport roots and fine roots was found among the populations. The observed genotypic variation in seedling biomass and stem diameter was consistent with the geographical distribution of the populations while the variation in the rest of the measured characteristics was not. It seems that P. merkusii populations in Thailand are adapted to more site specific conditions rather than climatic conditions alone, and that the variation in biomass growth may result from variation in internal carbon and nitrogen dynamics among the populations.
  • Koskela, Department of Forest Ecology/Tropical Silviculture Unit, P.O. Box 28, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jarkko.koskela@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 652, category Research article
M. J. Youngman, G. D. Kulasiri, I. M. Woodhead, G. D. Buchan. (1999). Use of combined constant rate and diffusion model to simulate kiln-drying of Pinus radiata timber. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 4 article id 652. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.652
Keywords: simulation; timber drying; diffusion; constant drying-rate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper presents the use of a combined constant drying-rate and diffusion model to simulate the drying of Pinus radiata timber under kiln-drying conditions. The constant drying-rate and diffusion coefficients of the model, which control the drying rate of individual pieces of timber, were determined from calibrating the model against the experimental drying curves obtained under the kiln-drying conditions. The experimental drying curves were obtained from the gravimetric measurements of the moisture content of timber during kiln drying. Statistical relationships were developed for the constant drying-rate and the diffusion coefficients of the model as functions of kiln temperature and the dry basis density of timber. To determine the effects of variability of timber, a simulation scheme was developed based on the model, the probability distribution of the density of timber, the equations for the constant drying-rate coefficient and the diffusion coefficient. The model and the associated simulation method provides a simple way to estimate the drying time of a stack of timber using parameters determined from experimental results for the specific timber kiln.
  • Youngman, Lincoln University, Appl. Management and Computing Division, P.O. Box 84, Canterbury, New Zealand E-mail: mjy@nn.nz
  • Kulasiri, Lincoln University, Appl. Management and Computing Division, P.O. Box 84, Canterbury, New Zealand E-mail: kulasird@tui.lincoln.ac.nz (email)
  • Woodhead, Lincoln University, Appl. Management and Computing Division, P.O. Box 84, Canterbury, New Zealand E-mail: imw@nn.nz
  • Buchan, Lincoln University, Appl. Management and Computing Division, P.O. Box 84, Canterbury, New Zealand E-mail: gdb@nn.nz
article id 671, category Research article
Jouni Vettenranta, Jari Miina. (1999). Optimizing thinnings and rotation of Scots pine and Norway spruce mixtures. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 671. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.671
Keywords: mixed forests; optimal treatments; simulation models; Hooke and Jeeves’ method; thinning types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The study describes a simulation-optimization system which uses spatial models for diameter and height growth, crown ratio and tree mortality for Scots pine and Norway spruce mixtures. The optimal one- and two-thinning regimes of six initial stands with varing species composition were solved by using nonlinear optimization. The soil expectation value (SEV) at 3% interest rate was used as a management objective. The regimes are determined by taking into account the stand basal areas before the thinnings, the removal percentages for small, medium-sized and large pines and spruces, and the stand basal area before the final felling. The greatest SEV (8900 FIM ha–1) was attained with the initial stand where the proportion of pines was 65% of the number of the stems. In the two-thinning regime, the first thinning was conducted at the age of 39 years when the stand basal area was 37 m2 ha–1 and the dominant height was about 15 m. After the thinning, the basal area was 27 m2 ha–1. Spruces were thinned from below, but both small and large pines were removed. The second thinning was 8 years later and much heavier: the stand basal area was decreased from 35 m2 ha–1 to 18 m2 ha–1 by removing both small and large pines and spruces. When the optimal two-thinning regime was compared to the regime presented by Forest Centre Tapio, the loss of SEV was about 30% (6070 FIM ha–1) in the case of thinnings from below, and about 20% (7250 FIM ha–1) in the case of thinnings from above.
  • Vettenranta, Kivirinnanpolku 4, FIN-40950 Muurame, Finland E-mail: vettenr@cc.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Miina, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
article id 670, category Research article
Jouni Vettenranta. (1999). Distance-dependent models for predicting the development of mixed coniferous forests in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 670. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.670
Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; competition; growth models; Monte Carlo simulation; crown models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Distance-dependent growth models and crown models, based on extensive material, were built for Scots pine and Norway spruce growing in a mixed forest. The crown ratio was also used as a predictor in a diameter growth model to better describe the thinning reaction. The effect of crown ratio on the growth dynamics was studied in simulation examples. Monte Carlo simulation was used to correct the bias caused by nonlinear transformations of predictors and response. After thinnings the crown ratio as a predictor was found to be a clear growth-retarding factor. The growth retarding effect was stronger among pines with thinnings from below, whereas the estimated yield of spruces over rotation was slightly greater when the crown ratio was included than without it. With each type of thinning the effect of crown ratio on pine growth was almost the same, but the growth of spruces was clearly delayed when the stand was thinned from above. Simulation examples also showed that it is profitable to raise the proportion of spruces during rotation, since spruces maintain the growth more vigorous at older ages. The total yield during 90 years rotation was about 20% higher if the stand was transformed into a pure spruce stand instead of pine.
  • Vettenranta, Kivirinnanpolku 4, FIN-40950 Muurame, Finland E-mail: vettenr@cc.joensuu.fi (email)

Category : Review article

article id 9984, category Review article
Christoph Kogler, Peter Rauch. (2018). Discrete event simulation of multimodal and unimodal transportation in the wood supply chain: a literature review. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 9984. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9984
Keywords: logistics; supply chain management; forest products industry; decision support systems; validation and verification of simulation models; resilient risk management
Highlights: Focus on discrete event simulation, wood supply chain and multimodal transport; Analyses of 12 review articles and a core of 32 research papers, complemented by 48 related ones; Research focus from unimodal to multimodal transport to build efficient, resilient, green and socially sustainable supply chains; Development of robust risk management considering supply risks, demand risks and external risks is needed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This review systematically analyses and classifies research and review papers focusing on discrete event simulation applied to wood transport, and therefore illustrates the development of the research area from 1997 until 2017. Discrete event simulation allows complex supply chain models to be mapped in a straightforward manner to study supply chain dynamics, test alternative strategies, communicate findings and facilitate understanding of various stakeholders. The presented analyses confirm that discrete event simulation is well-suited for analyzing interconnected wood supply chain transportation issues on an operational and tactical level. Transport is the connective link between interrelated system components of the forest products industry. Therefore, a survey on transport logistics allows to analyze the significance of entire supply chain management considerations to improve the overall performance and not only one part in isolation. Thus far, research focuses mainly on biomass, unimodal truck transport and terminal operations. Common shortcomings identified include rough explanations of simulation models and sparse details provided about the verification and validation processes. Research gaps exist concerning simulations of entire, resilient and multimodal wood supply chains as well as supply and demand risks. Further studies should expand upon the few initial attempts to combine various simulation methods with optimization.

  • Kogler, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8811-152X E-mail: christoph.kogler@boku.ac.at (email)
  • Rauch, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-4415 E-mail: peter.rauch@boku.ac.at

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