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Articles containing the keyword 'distribution'

Category : Article

article id 5637, category Article
Janne Uuttera, Harri Hyppänen. (1997). Relationship between forest management planning units and spatial distribution of forest habitat components in Koli National Park. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5637. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8539
Keywords: Finland; forest management planning; forest habitat distribution; Geographic Information Systems; kriging-interpolation; Koli National park
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study examined the relationships between forest management planning units and patches formed by forest habitat components. The test area used was a part of Koli National Park in North Karelia, eastern Finland. Forest management planning units (i.e. forest compartments) were defined by using a traditional method of Finnish forestry which applies aerial photographs and compartment-wise field inventory. Patches of forest habitat components were divided according to subjective rules by using a chosen set of variables depicting the edaphic features and vegetation of a forest habitat. The spatial distribution of the habitat components was estimated with the kriging-interpolation based on systematically located sample plots. The comparisons of the two patch mosaics were made by using the standard tools of GIS. The results of the study show that forest compartment division does not correlate very strongly with the forest habitat pattern. On average, the mean patch size of the forest habitat components is greater and the number of these patches lower compared to forest compartment division. However, if the forest habitat component distribution had been considered, the number of the forest compartments would have at least doubled after intersection.

  • Uuttera, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hyppänen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
article id 5622, category Article
Christine Deleuze, François Houllier. (1997). A transport model for tree ring width. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 3 article id 5622. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8523
Keywords: carbon; optimization; tree growth; stem taper; allocation; environment; wood distribution; functional balance; Münch’s theory; partitioning; process-model; reaction-diffusion; Thornley's model; silvicultural treatments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Process-based tree growth models are recognized to be flexible tools which are valuable for investigating tree growth in relation to changing environment or silvicultural treatments. In the context of forestry, we address two key modelling problems: allocation of growth which determines total wood production, and distribution of wood along the stem which determines stem form and wood quality. Growth allocation and distribution are the outcome of carbon translocation, which may be described by the Munch theory. We propose a simpler gradient process to describe the carbon distribution in the phloem of conifers. This model is a reformulation of a carbon diffusion-like process proposed by Thornley in 1972. By taking into account the continuity of the cambium along the stem, we obtain a one-dimensional reaction-diffusion model which describes both growth allocation between foliage, stem and roots, and growth distribution along the stem. Distribution of wood along the stem is then regarded as an allocation process at a smaller scale. A preliminary sensitivity analysis is presented. The model predicts a strong relationship between morphology and foliage-root allocation. It also suggests how empirical data, such as stem analysis, could be used to calibrate and validate allocation rules in process-based growth models.

  • Deleuze, E-mail: cd@mm.unknown (email)
  • Houllier, E-mail: fh@mm.unknown
article id 5613, category Article
Mikko Peltonen, Kari Heliövaara, Rauno Väisänen. (1997). Forest insects and environmental variation in stand edges. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5613. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8514
Keywords: forest management; bark beetles; biodiversity; distribution; edge effect; forest ecology; occurrence
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Distribution and occurrence of bark beetles and other forest insects in relation to environmental variation were analysed by multivariate methods. Eight different forest edges were studied using 10 x 10 m sample plots that formed 200 m linear transects perpendicular to the forest edge. Forest edge affected the distribution of insect species only in the edges between mature, non-managed spruce stands and clear cuts or young seedling stands, but not in the pine stands. The occurrence of the selected forest insects mainly depended on variables associated with the amount and quality of suitable woody material. The most significant environmental variables were forest site type, crown canopy coverage, tree species, number of stumps, number of dead spruce trunks and amount of logging waste at site. Quantitative classification of species and sample plots showed that some specialized species (Xylechinus pilosus, Cryphalus saltuarius, Polygraphus poligraphus and P. subopacus) adapted to mature spruce forests, tended to withdraw from the forest edge to interior stand sites. By contrast many generalized species (Pityogenes chalcographus, P. quadridens, Pissodes spp., Hylurgops palliatus, Tomicus piniperda, Dryocoetes spp. and Trypodendron lineatum) benefitted from cuttings and spread over stand borders into mature forest.

  • Peltonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 5609, category Article
Matti Maltamo. (1997). Comparing basal area diameter distributions estimated by tree species and for the entire growing stock in a mixed stand. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5609. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8510
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; dbh distribution; parameter prediction; Weibull distributions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to compare the Weibull distributions estimated for the entire growing stock of a stand and separately for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in describing the basal area diameter distributions in mixed stands. The material for this study was obtained by measuring 553 stands located in eastern Finland. The parameters of the Weibull distribution were estimated using the method of maximum likelihood. The models for these parameters were derived using regression analysis. Also, some parameter models from previous studies were compared with the measured distribution. The obtained distributions were compared using the diameter sums of the entire growing stock, diameter sums by tree species and of the sawtimber part of the growing stock. The results showed that far more accurate results were obtained when the distributions were formed using parameter models separately for the different tree species than when using parameter models for the entire growing stock. This was already true when considering the entire growing stock of the stand and especially when the results were examined by tree species. When the models for the entire growing stock were applied by tree species in relation to basal areas, the results obtained were overestimates for Norway spruce and underestimates for Scots pine. The models from earlier studies, where parameter models were estimated separately for tree species from the National Forest Inventory data, showed good fits also in regard to the data of this study.

  • Maltamo, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5532, category Article
Anu Honkanen. (1994). Selection of Salix myrsinifolia clones for biomass forestry in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 3 article id 5532. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9172
Keywords: biomass; selection; diameter distribution; short rotation forestry; fuelwood; production; clones; Salix phylicifolia; Salix myrsinifolia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

For biomass forestry in the inland parts of Southern and Central Finland, the obvious choice of willow species is Salix myrsinifolia. However, selection of clones of indigenous species has not yet been completed and more research and selection is needed. In the Piipsanneva old peatland trial, indigenous species of willow, mostly clones of S. myrsinifolia and S. phylicifolia, were compared in terms of biomass production, coppicing, height growth and diameter distributions. In this trial, the mean annual biomass production was not particularly high; more important results were attained in the ranking of clones. The trial strengthens the hypothesis that, over the long-term, the biomass production of S. myrsinifolia is higher than that of S. phylicifolia. It was supposed that behind the highest yield there was a clone with uniform quality, one whose diameter distribution would be narrow and positively skewed. Comparisons of parameters of Weibull functions showed that the distributions of the best clones were wide, indicating that those clones use the whole growth space better than those with narrow distribution.

  • Honkanen, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5511, category Article
Veli Pohjonen, Timo Pukkala. (1993). Cupressus lusitanican tuotos Etiopiassa. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5511. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15672
English title: Yield of Cupressus lusitanica in Ethiopia.
Keywords: distribution; plantation; diameter; yield, models; yield tables; Cupressus lusitanica; thinning regimes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Yield of Cupressus lusitanica Mill. was modelled by predicting the diameter distribution of trees at given stand ages. The beta distribution was used as a theoretical distribution. The models used for the calculation of diameter distribution were based on 66 temporal sample plots with varying age, site and stand density. The growing sites of Cupressus lusitanica were divided into four classes on the basis of age and dominant height. Using the stand models developed in the study, the yield and profitability of different thinning schedules was evaluated by a simulation technique. In the simulated treatment regimes, the mean annual increment varied from 6.6 m3/ha in the poorest site class to 16.6 m3/ha in the best class with rotation lengths ranging from 25 years (best sites) to 34 years (poorest sites). With typical planting densities (1,600 trees/ha), thinnings increase the total harvest by a few percentage points and improved the profitability of plantation forestry.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pohjonen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5449, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Taneli Kolström. (1991). Effect of spatial pattern of trees on the growth of Norway spruce stand. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 3 article id 5449. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15603
Keywords: Picea abies; thinnings; growth; spatial distribution; simulation models; biological competition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The simulation model consists of a method to generate theoretical Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands, and a spatial growth model to predict the growth of these stands. The stand generation procedure first predicts the tree diameters from a few stand characteristics and from tree locations. Tree age and height are predicted using spatial models. Spatial growth models were made for both diameter growth and basal area growth. Past growth was used as a predictor in one pair of models and omitted in another pair. The stand generation method and the growth models were utilized in studying the effect of tree arrangement and thinning method on the growth of a Norway spruce stand.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5419, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Owen Mubita, Jussi Saramäki. (1990). Management planning system for tree plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5419. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15573
Keywords: diameter distribution; plantations; yield model; Zambia; simulation model; Pinus kesiya; timber management planning; multiobjective optimization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents a simple model of long-term forest management planning in tree plantations. The model is particularly suitable for developing countries where the research resources are limited. The management plan is prepared in two steps. First, one or several treatment schedules are simulated for each calculation unit (age class, compartment, etc.) over the selected planning period. Second, an optimal combination treatment schedules according to the selected objectives and constraints is searched by mathematical programming. The simulation of growth is based on the prediction of the diameter distribution at the desired time point. All stand characteristics are derived from this distribution. The models needed in the yield simulation can be estimated from temporary sample plots. A case study management plan for 13,000 ha of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) plantations in Zambia is presented to demonstrate the system.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Mubita, E-mail: om@mm.unknown
  • Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 5392, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Matti Maltamo, Reijo Mykkänen, Risto Päivinen. (1989). Use of the Weibull function in estimating the basal area dbh-distribution. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 4 article id 5392. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15550
Keywords: Picea abies; distribution; diameter; Weibull function; maximum likelihood; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper continues an earlier study by Kilkki and Päivinen concerning the use of the Weibull function in modelling the diameter distribution. The data consists of spruces (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) measured on angle count sample points of the National Forest Inventory of Finland. First, maximum likelihood estimation method was used to derive the Weibull parameters. Then, regression models to predict the values of these parameters with stand characteristics were calculated. Several methods to describe the Weibull function by a tree sample were tested. It is more efficient to sample the trees at equal frequency intervals than at equal diameter intervals. It also pays to take separate samples for pulpwood and saw timber.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Maltamo, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown
  • Mykkänen, E-mail: rm@mm.unknown
  • Päivinen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
article id 5380, category Article
Arto Rummukainen. (1989). Moreenimurskeella pinnoitettujen metsäteiden kunnossapito maataloustraktorikalustolla. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5380. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15537
English title: Maintenance of crushed moraine paved forest roads with agricultural tractor implements.
Original keywords: metsätiet; kunnossapito; maataloustraktori; moreenimursketiet; hydraulinen tärytin; lana
English keywords: maintenance; forest roads; tractors; implements; grain-size distribution; vibrating blade; pulled drag
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The condition of forest road pavements was studied in spring, one week after maintenance and in autumn. The effect of vibrating blade was slightly better than that of pulled drag. Large loose stones couldn’t be pressed into pavement with either of the implements. The use of the vibrating blade was three times as expensive as the use of the pulled drag, however, the blade is suitable for other purposes as well.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Rummukainen, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5376, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1989). Predicting diameter growth in even-aged Scots pine stands with a spatial and non-spatial model. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5376. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15533
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; growth prediction; spatial distribution; growth models; tree models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The single tree growth models presented in this study were based on about 4,000 trees measured in 50 even-aged Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sample plots with varying density, spatial pattern of trees and stand age. Predictors that used information about tree locations decreased the relative standard error of estimate by 10 percentage points (15%), if past growth was not used as a predictor, and about 15 percentage points (30%) when past growth was one of the predictors. When ranked according to the degree of determination, the best growth models were obtained for the basal area increment, the next best for relative growth, and the poorest for diameter increment. The past growth decreased the relative standard error of estimate by 15–20 percentage points, but did not make the spatial predictors unnecessary. The degree of determination of the spatial basal area growth model was almost 80% if the past growth was unknown and almost 90% if the past growth was known. Variables that described the amount of removed competition did not improve the growth models.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5375, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1989). Prediction of tree diameter and height in a Scots pine stand as a function of the spatial pattern of trees. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5375. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15532
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; diameter distribution; competition; spatial distribution; simulations studies; tree models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents two methods of predicting tree dimensions in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand if only the location of trees is known. The first method predicts the tree diameter from the spatial location of neighbours. In the second method the diameter distribution of a subarea is estimated from the local stand density. This distribution is then sampled to obtain diameters. In both methods the tree height is predicted with a spatial model on the basis of diameters and locations of trees. The main purpose of the presented models is to generate realistic stands for simulation studies.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5341, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Jukka Laine. (1988). Suopuustojen rakenteen kehitys ojituksen jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5341. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15498
English title: Post-drainage development of structural characteristics in peatland forest stands.
Original keywords: metsikön rakenne; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; eri-ikäisrakenne; runkoluku; läpimittajakauma
English keywords: stand structure; drained peatlands; diameter distribution; forest drainage; uneven-aged structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of drainage on structure of tree stands is analysed by comparing the average structural characteristics (e.g. diameter distribution) of stands in the data for different drainage age classes and selected site types. The material consists of ca. 4,400 relascope sample plots, which are part of a large drainage area inventory project. The uneven-aged structure of the virgin peatland forest is preserved for several decades after drainage. This is enhanced by the post-drainage increase of small-diameter trees, especially birch. The number of trees per hectare increased during a period of ca. 30 years and levelled off thereafter. The increase in the number of saw log stems is clearly related to the fertility of the site and its geographical location.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5338, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1988). Effect of spatial distribution of trees on the volume increment of a young Scots pine stand. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5338. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15495
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; simulation; competition; spatial distribution; growth model; spatial pattern
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of grouping on 5-year old volume increment was studied by a simulation technique using spatial growth models estimated in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in the phase of the first commercial thinning. A total of 24 model stands were regenerated by applying 12 spatial processes for two different diameter distributions. In addition to model stands, 6 different thinnings were simulated in two real stands. The clustering of trees was described with Fisher’s grouping index and by estimating the relative interception of diffuse radiation. In model stands with constant diameter distribution the correlation between the grouping index and volume increment ranged from -0.81 to -0.91. The correlation between volume increment and interception was 0.81–0.83 with one diameter distribution and 0.70 if both distributions were combined. In one thinned stand the correlation between the growth estimate and grouping index varied between -0.33 and 0.76. The correlation between interception and growth was about 0.30 in one stand and 0.72 if both stands were combined. Small irregularities do not decrease the volume production of a young Scots pine stand, but if the clustering is considerable or there are reasonably wide harvest strips, growth will be reduced by 10–20%.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5270, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Risto Päivinen. (1986). Weibull function in the estimation of the basal area dbh-distribution. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 2 article id 5270. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15449
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; diameter distribution; beta function; nonlinear regression; maximum likelihood; initial parameter estimates; relascope sample plot
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper demonstrates the possibility of using data from small relascope sample plots in the derivation of the regression models which predict the Weibull function parameters for the dbh-distribution. The Weibull parameters describing the basal area dbh-distribution were estimated for relascope sample plots from the Finnish National Forest Inventory. In the first stage of the estimation nonlinear regression analysis was employed to derive initial parameter estimates for the second stage, in which the maximum likelihood method was used. The parameter estimates were employed as dependent variables for the derivation of the regression models; the independent variables comprised of the compartment-wise stand variables generally estimated in ocular inventories.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Päivinen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
article id 5235, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Tapani Pohjola, Eljas Pohtila. (1985). Puiden ryhmittäisyyden huomioonottaminen harvennusmalleissa. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 5235. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15414
English title: Use of the spatial distribution of trees in thinning models.
Original keywords: harvennus; harvennusmallit; mallinnus; puiden ryhmittäisyys
English keywords: thinnings; spatial distribution; relascope plots; thinning models; basal area classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Thinning models are generally based on the density of the stand measured by the average basal area per hectare, for instance. These models are handicapped by the uneven structure of the stands. In uneven stands the averages are inadequate indicators for the need and amount of thinnings.

Small relascope plots were tested in the measurement of the spatial distribution of trees and in the determination of the need and amount of thinnings. The thinning quantity was determined as the difference between the actual distribution of the relascope plots into basal area classes and the ideal distribution after thinning. Sequential sampling was used in the derivation of the decision equations. A respective BASIC-program for a programmable pocket calculator is given.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pohjola, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
  • Pohtila, E-mail: ep@mm.unknown
article id 5190, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1983). Mustikan varvuston biomassamäärän vaihtelusta erilaisissa metsiköissä. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 3 article id 5190. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15173
English title: The distribution of blueberry biomass in different forest stands.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; pintakasvillisuus; aluskasvillisuus; biomassa; peittävyys; mustikka; varjostus; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: biomass; Norway spruce; habitat; distribution; shading; ground vegetation; Vaccinium myrtillus; forest types; blueberry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study deals with the distribution of above-ground biomass of Vaccinium myrtillus L. along the vegetation continuum segregated by using phytosociological classification method composite clustering. The qualitative characteristics of forest sites corresponding to different vegetational clusters were defined on the basis of indirect gradient analysis of vegetation data and description of tree stand properties in stands in 160 sample areas in Southern Finland.

Six vegetation types differing from each other mainly in abundance of the most constant and dominant plant species were formed. Sample areas with rich grass-herb vegetation, as well as sample areas representing comparatively dry, barren site type were clearly separated from other groups of sample areas. Stand characteristics, particularly the proportional distribution of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seems to be another important factor affecting the vegetation composition.

The lowest biomass values of blueberry were connected with herb-rich vegetation and shady spruce-dominated stands. Comparatively low values were connected to also other spruce-dominated sample areas. Pine-dominant or mixed pine-spruce stands the biomass values were significantly higher. Even if the site quality is essentially equal, the abundance relationships between Vaccinium myrtillus and other components of the ground vegetation may vary in wide ranges and cause difficulties in practical site classification.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5178, category Article
Reijo Solantie. (1983). "Mereisyyden - mantereisuuden" ja "humidisuuden" käsitteistä erityisesti tammen luontaisen levinneisyyden perusteella. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 1 article id 5178. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15093
English title: Concepts of continentality-oceanity and humidity especially in the light of the natural distribution of Quercus robur.
Original keywords: tammi; levinneisyys; ilmasto; mereisyys; mantereisuus; levinneisyysalue; kasvukauden pituus; lämpösumma; ilmankosteus
English keywords: growing season; climate; distribution; Quercus robur; oak; northern boundary; oceanity; continentality; northern distribution limit; humidity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Climatological factors determining the natural northern boundary in Europe of oak (Quercus robur L.) were investigated. The natural northern boundary of oak corresponds in detail to the curve at which the growing season, beginning at +5°C in spring and ending at +10°C in autumn, is of a certain constant length. The northern boundaries for more oceanic plants can be explained by prolonged autumn activity. This is obviously the general explanation or the concept of oceanity. Oak spread markedly in Finland in the summers during 1961–1975, which on an average were as warm but much dried than those during 1931–1960. The importance of humidity for oak was discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Solantie, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5120, category Article
Pentti Sepponen. (1981). Kivennäismaan raekoon tunnuksista ja niiden käyttökelpoisuudesta eräiden maan ominaisuuksien kuvaamiseen. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5120. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15061
English title: Particle size distribution characteristics of mineral soil and their applicability for describing some soil properties.
Original keywords: metsämaa; maaperä; lajitekoostumut; raekoko; kenttäkapasiteetti; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti
English keywords: forest soil; particle size distribution; field capacity; degree of sorting; cation exchange capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The particle size distribution affects several properties of the soil, thus, the ability to define the texture type of the soil as accurately as possible in field conditions is essential. The soil particle size classification devised by Atterberg (1912) is used in Finnish forestry. The study is based on a small laboratory material. The correlation between some characteristics of the soil particle size distribution, field capacity and cation exchange capacity were determined.

The particle size characteristics such as the relative proportion of different particle sizes, average particle size (Md) and parameters depicting the degree of sorting were determined. The relative proportion of soil particles below 0.06 mm correlated best with both field capacity and cation exchange capacity. Similarly, the average particle size and the degree of sorting correlated well with the field capacity and the cation exchange capacity.

The use of sorting characteristics is not well-suited to the type of soil sample material containing a high proportion of particles of varying size as was used in this material. Such characteristics are probably more easily applicable to the fine sand and sand sediments which are predominant in Finnish forest soils. The most useful particle size distribution characteristics in soils having a great variation in particle sizes were the average particle size and the relative proportion of silt and clay. Thus, the nutrient and water status of the soil can be predicted to some extent by examining the percentage of silt and clay, average particle size and the degree of sorting.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5119, category Article
Kari Puukko. (1981). Okakaarnakuoriaisen, Ips acuminatus Gyll. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) levinneisyyden nykyinen eteläraja Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5119. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15060
English title: The southern border of the present distribution of Ips acuminatus Gyll. In Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsätalous; levinneisyys; kaarnakuoriaiset; esiintymisalue; okakaarnakuoriainen
English keywords: bark beetles; forestry; Finland; distribution; Ips acuminatus; loggings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Ips acuminatus Gyll. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) is a bark beetle that causes deep bluing in thin-barked Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) pulpwood. It has been shown that this decreases pulp yield. The purpose of this study was to map the southern border of the distribution of Ips acuminatus in Finland. It was found that there have been changes in the distribution of this species during the last three decades. Ips acuminatus has now disappeared from southern Finland. On the basis of the sample plots (134 cutting areas) the southern border of this pest lies on the line running through the towns Vaasa–Seinäjoki–Äänekoski–Jyväskylä–Pieksämäki–Savonlinna–Punkaharju. A certain degree of localisation was observed in the occurrence of I. acuminatus in its distribution area, for instance, differences in its occurrence frequency in cutting areas and even in log and cutting residue piles in the sample cutting area.

It is considered that the most important reasons for these changes in distribution are the increase in logging and changes in the location of cutting sites, and resulting competition for breeding material for the increased population of bark beetles. Furthermore, the long-distance transport of unpeeled logs from the north across the present southern borders may, in the future, contribute to local changes in the southern distribution of Ips acuminatus.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Puukko, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5079, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Pertti Hari, Pirkko Ilonen, Markku Kanninen. (1980). Eco-physiological studies on young Scots pine stands. II. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 3 article id 5079. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15020
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; photosynthesis; Scots pine; stand density; needle biomass; crown class; needle distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The technique of double normalizing, i.e. normalizing the relative needle biomass and the length of the living crown system, is applied to the modelling of the distribution of needle biomass in the canopy of young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands. The study based on the parameters of β-function shows that at the individual-tree level, the variance in needle distribution was not closely associated with any tree characteristics. A shift in the point of maximum needle biomass upwards unsuppressed trees was, however, evident. This was associated with an increase in the height of the trees. At the stand level, the stand mean height and stand density had an equal and a rather high potential for explaining the variance in the needle distribution. The normalized crowns are utilized in models for determining light extinction in the crown. A special technique for determining the amount of photosynthates available for growth in a particular tree is presented.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hari, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Ilonen, E-mail: pi@mm.unknown
  • Kanninen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
article id 4969, category Article
Robert J. Rainio. (1977). Tammen levinneisyydestä läntisellä Uudellamaalla ja Turunmaan itäisimmissä osissa. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 2 article id 4969. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14820
English title: On the distribution of oak (Quercus robur) in the southwest parts of Finland.
Original keywords: levinneisyys; metsätammi; Lounais-Suomi; Uusimaa
English keywords: Finland; distribution; Quercus robur; oak; southwest Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The maps concerning the natural distribution of oak (Quercus robur L.) have proved most unreliable in detailed examination. In this paper, the author has collected his observations on natural oak in the westernmost parts of the province of Uusimaa and the easternmost parts of province of Turunmaa, the islands included. Furthermore, the paper includes some viewpoints which must be considered as criteria when determining the naturality of the stand in question. Future borders of oak’s distribution range must be moved farther up north to replace the earlier views of the northern limit of natural oak in Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Rainio, E-mail: rr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4907, category Article
Heikki Wuorenrinne. (1974). Suomen kekomuurahaisten (Formica rufa coll.) ekologiasta ja levinneisyydestä. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 3 article id 4907. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14751
English title: About the distribution and ecology of Formica rufa -group in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; levinneisyys; biologinen torjunta; kekomuurahaiset; muurahaiset; ekologia
English keywords: distribution; forest types; Formica rufa; ants; wood ants; Formica polyctena; Formica aquilonia; Formica lugubris; Formica nigricans
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the systematics, distribution, abundance and nest sites of Formica rufa -group in different Finnish forest types. In addition, it has been estimated the availability of Finnish ants in the biological competition.

F. polyctena, F. aquilonia and F. lugubris are distributed over whole Finland. F. rufa and F. nigricans to Southern Finland only. The relative abundace of ant nests diminish to Northern Finland. F. rufa -group prefer most forest on moist land (Myrtillus and Oxalis-Myrtillus types), mixed forests of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karsts), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.), and the silvicultural density 0.6–0.7 (good or satisfactory density), but they avoid broadleaved and pure one-tree species forests. For the biological competition the most competitive ant species seem to be F. polyctena and F. aquilonia.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Wuorenrinne, E-mail: hw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4785, category Article
Christel Palmberg. (1969). Maannousemasieni yleismaailmallisena ongelmana. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 1 article id 4785. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14571
English title: Fomes annosus – A universal problem. A review in recent literature.
Original keywords: levinneisyys; juurikääpä; lahottaja; isäntäpuut; torjunta
English keywords: distribution; Heterobasidion; Heterobasidion annosum; root rot; Fomes annosus; hosts; prevention
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fomes annosus (Fr.) Cke. (now Heterobasidion annosum (s.str.)) has proved highly adaptable to varying conditions. Thus, the fungus is able to alter the pH as well as in alkalic as acid direction according to the original pH-grade. The fungus spreads mainly by basidiospores or by the sterile mycelium, but maybe also by the conidiospores. The fungus has spread through the temperate zone; in the tropical and sub-tropical zone it is found sporadically. There is a mention in the literature of at least 136 species in which it has been found. It is found in hardwoods but is most disastrous in conifers. The economic losses are considered biggest in England, Germany and Scandinavia.

The research has not been able to find a safe way to protect the trees growing on an infected site. The only way to limit the damage seems to be the use of mixed stands. Stump-protection has proved to be a relatively effective way to prevent the spread of the fungus to uninfected sites. The formerly used creosote has been mainly substituted by new chemicals, such as sodium nitrite. They act by altering the stump in a way that is favourable for antagonists to Fomes annosus, such as Trichoderma viride and Penicillium sp., or the recently presented Peniophora gigantea.

Although the fungus is found in many tree species, there is a difference in the relative resistance of different species. Among the conifers, the Abies-species (with exception of Abies grandis, A. alba and A. sachalienensis) are considered comparatively resistant. The species of Larix and Pseudotsuga are more resistant than those of Picea and Pinus.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Palmberg, E-mail: cp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4627, category Article
Paavo Jaakko Ollinmaa. (1952). Jalot lehtipuumme luontaisina ja viljeltyinä. Silva Fennica no. 77 article id 4627. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9099
English title: Native and cultivated southern broadleaved tree species in Finland.
Original keywords: tammi; levinneisyys; jalava; kynäjalava; vuorijalava; jalot lehtipuut; lehmus; metsälehmus; metsävaahtera; saarni; puulajit; pohjoisraja
English keywords: deciduous trees; distribution; Quercus robur; small-leaved lime; elm; European white elm; broad-leaved trees; northern limit; Ulmus glabra; Ulmus laevis; wych elm; English oak; Norway maple; Acer platanoides; Tilia cordata; European ash; Fraxinus exelsior
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to update knowledge of natural range of English oak (Quercus robur L.), European ash (Fraxinus exelsior L.), Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Miller), wych elm (Ulmus glabra Mill.) and European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pall.) in Finland, and estimate how far north they could be grown as forest trees or as park trees. The study is based on literature and questionnaires sent to cities and towns, District Forestry Boards, districts of Forest Service, Forestry Management Associations and railway stations.

The northern borders in the natural range of the species succeed one another from south to north as follows: English oak, European ash, Norway maple, wych elm, and small-leaved lime. Occurrence of European white elm is sporadic. The English oak forms forests in the southernmost Finland, while the other species grow only as small stands, groups or solitary trees. According to experiences of planted stands or trees, the northern limits of the species succeed one another from south to north as follows: European ash, English oak, Norway maple, European white elm, wych elm and small-leaved lime. All the species are grown in parks fairly generally up to the district of Kuopio-Vaasa (63 °). The northern limits where the species can be grown as park trees reach considerably further north in the western part of the country than in the east.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Ollinmaa, E-mail: po@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4578, category Article
Sakari Saarnijoki. (1942). Jalavan esiintymisestä Pyhäjärven, Kokemäenjoen vesistön keskusjärven tulvarannoilla. Silva Fennica no. 58 article id 4578. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9082
English title: Distribution of European white elm in flooded shores of the central lake of Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki water system.
Original keywords: levinneisyys; jalava; kynäjalava; vuorijalava; rantametsä; tulva-alueet; Ulmus glabra; Ulmus laevis; Ulmus montana; uudistuminen
English keywords: regeneration; distribution; elm; European white elm; coastal forests; flood plains
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Distribution of European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pallas) is on its northernmost border in Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki area. This survey describes distribution of European white elm in the flooded shores of the central lake of Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki river water system.

Both Ulmus laevis and U. montana (now U. Glabra Hudson) can be found in the area, but most of the elms qrowing in thea area are U. laevis. U. laevis occurs around the lake in two separate areas, almost entirely in flooded shores of the lake. Regeneration of elm from seeds was limited on a narrow belt on the higher part of the flooded shore. Consequently, U. laevis can be found as zones around the lake, created by the changes in water level of the lake. The trees are judged to be native for the area.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Saarnijoki, E-mail: ss@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4576, category Article
Bo-Eric Blumenthal. (1942). Distribution and properties of aspen in Finland. Silva Fennica no. 56 article id 4576. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9080
Keywords: Populus tremula; height growth; distribution; diameter growth; decay; forest site type; aspen
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Aspen (Populus tremula L.) is a common tree in Finland, and has been used, for instance, in matchstick industry. However, there has been little studies on its distribution and properties. In this study, 142 sample trees in different forest site types in Valtimo and Onkamo in Eastern Finland were measured in detail in 1935.

According to the results, during the first 10 years aspens height growth is fastest of the Finnish tree species surpassing, for instance, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.) . The diameter growth is similar to Scots pine up to the age of 50 years, after which the growth of aspen exceeds Scots pine. Branchless portion of the stem compared to the height of the tree increases until it reaches about 50% of the height of the tree. In poorer sites aspen is prone to decay.

Aspen regenerates easily both by root shoots and seeds. If root shoots are left to grow, the mother tree should be free of decay. In general, seedlings are of better quality. Good quality aspen stands require thinning and a rich forest type. If an old aspen stand has decay, the trees should be ring-barked and the site regenerated with a new tree species.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Blumenthal, E-mail: bb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4574, category Article
Kurt Enkola. (1940). Tyrnipensas (Hippophaës rhamnoides L.) Rauman saaristossa : kasvimaantieteellinen tutkielma. Silva Fennica no. 53 article id 4574. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9077
English title: Occurence of buckthorn in the coast of Rauma, Western Finland.
Original keywords: Hippophae rhamnoides; tyrni; kasvimaantiede; levinneisyys; Rauma; saaristo; kilpailu
English keywords: distribution; competition; buckthorn; geobotany; coasts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Occurence of buckthorn (Hippophaës rhamnoides L.) in the mainland coast and archipelago of Rauma in the Southwestern Finland was surveyed during 1934-1936. The species is coastal, growing most prominent in the islands of central zone of the archipelago, while it is rare in the outermost archipelago and loses competition to other vegetation in mainland. The main competitors in the innermost islands are black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and in the outermost islands black alder and common juniper (Juniperus communis L.). Seawater and ice can cause damage to buckthorn, but it resists wind well. The species grows well both on fine and coarse gravel.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Enkola, E-mail: ke@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4521, category Article
V. M. Klemola. (1937). Finnish game and hunting. Silva Fennica no. 40 article id 4521. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9066
Keywords: Finland; distribution; game preservation; hunting; game zones; game species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Finland possesses climatic and botanical conditions that can make it rich in game. Several species, for instance blue hare (Lepus timidus L.), squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris L.), red fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) and ermin (Mustela erminea L.), and several migrating bird species are distributed in almost in every parts of the country. Hunting is still unorganized, but restrictive regulations have been established, and the central organization of hunting clubs (Suomen Yleinen Metsästäjäliitto) has member clubs in different part of the country. There is about 70-80,000 hunters in the country. Hunting has influenced the abundance of many species. For instance, European beaver (Castor fiber L.) has been hunted to extinction, and lynx (Lynx lynx L.), wolf (Canis lupus L.), otter (Lutra lutra L.), bear (Ursus arctos L.) and wolverine (Gulo gulo L.) are threatened. Also the distribution of elk (Alces alces L.) is patchy due to hunting.

The article shows distribution and abundance of forest birds, and describes the six game zones in Finland. The game zones correspond the vegetation zones, and have distinctive differences in distribution of the game species. Hunting has previously been important livelihood in Finland, but has this role only in the north in Lapland, Kainuu and Perä-Pohjola, and near the eastern border of the country. The number of hunted small game in the hunting season 1933-1934 are presented by the species. The monetary value of the game is estimated at about 30-40 million Finnish marks annually.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Klemola, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4441, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). Preparation of growth and yield tables. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4441. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8389
Keywords: stand growth; forest site type; growth and yield tables; site quality class; stem frequency distribution series
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One of the difficulties in constructing growth and yield tables has been to determine which of the sample plots growing the same tree species and belonging to the same forest site type, with reference to the quality of stands, have to be included in the same growth series.

New growth and yield tables for the most important tree species were constructed in Finland in 1916–1919, using new principles that aim at avoiding some of the common weaknesses. There were two main differences to the earlier work. First, the site quality class (forest site type) was determined for each sample plot when the sample plot was measured, independently of the stand occupying the site. In this way it was possible to treat the sample plots of each site as an independent group from the beginning, and so that the quality classes were the same for all the tree species. Second, mathematic-statistical methods were used to deduct the so-called stem frequency distribution series, when studying which of the sample plots of the same quality class belong to the same growth series. They represent the average number of stems of the different diameter classes. A more detailed description of the method used to create the growth and yield tables is published in Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 15.

In the PDF is included a summary in Finnish.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Article

article id 7180, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1967). The correlation between the size of Finnish bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) clones and certain periods of site history. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 83 no. 2 article id 7180. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7180
Keywords: regeneration; distribution; forest fire; Pteridium aquilinum; bracken fern; wars; ground fire
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In an earlier paper of the author it was established that bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) that the sporal regeneration of the species is almost entirely connected with fire, and that the size of the bracken fern clones, distinguished by their characteristics, was related to the time of the fire. The time of the fire was determined by the samples taken with auger from the trees on the sample plots. A large data on the occurrence of bracken fern was collected around Finland, but only part of it could be used in the previous study, as the trees of the site provided no means to find out it the site had been burned earlier.

In earlier studies, a mass occurrence of sporelings of bracken fern in England has been connected to cities bombed and burned during the World War II. In this study the data of the clones is connected to historical sources and the time of wars in Finland. The comparisons in this study have confirmed the results achieved by comparing the dimensions of the bracken clones to the fire dates. It was found that the wars have caused an increase in the regeneration frequency of bracken fern.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7179, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1967). Sporal regeneration of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) in Finland in the light of the dimensions and the age of its clones. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 83 no. 1 article id 7179. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7179
Keywords: regeneration; distribution; Pteridium aquilinum; bracken fern
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The objective of the present study was to obtain information on the regeneration by spores of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) as well as the permanence and vegetative spreading of the clones. Prevention of bracken fern, which can hinder forest regeneration, is possible only when the basic facts of the life cycle is known. It would be useful to know if it is probable that bracken fern can become prevalent by spore regeneration, and to what extent it invades forest land by vegetative spreading.

No bracken fern sporelings were found, and the experiments of regeneration by spores were unsuccessful, therefore, the studies were concentrated on the clones. Due to the fire tolerance of the plant, it was expected that the clone material would show gradation according to the periods of fire. The first part of the work concerns individual variation in bracken, the second part concentrates on the data collected from sample plots, which latest fire could be dated from the trees.

The results of the studied clones confirm the correlation between the stands interpreted as clones and the length of the post-fire period. The stands were delimited to clones by their individual characteristics. The spreading on average sites (Vaccinium and Myrtillus type forests) was in average 35.8±2 cm annually. It is concluded that bracken fern regeneration by spores is very rare in Finland and that it has been rarer during the last 50 years compared to the preceding period. This is probably caused by the end of slash-and-burn cultivation and decrease of forest fires in Finland. Bracken fern clones often survive the fires through their rhizomes, and fragments of old clones originating before the fire could be found in the study areas. These clones may be even 300 years old. Especially in its northern areas of distribution, bracken fern is connected with settlement and old slash and burn sites. Regeneration by spores in the northern distribution areas seem to be less than in the southern areas.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7161, category Article
Olavi Laiho. (1965). Further studies on the ectendotrophic mycorrhiza. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 79 no. 3 article id 7161. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7161
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; Finland; tree species; distribution; Europe; ecology; mycorrhiza; seedlings; tree nurseries; occurrence; America
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There has not been complete agreement as to what is meant by ectendotrophic mycorrhizae, and there is a wide variety of opinion among authors on mycorrhizal terminology. In this paper ectendotrophic mycorrhizae are defined to be short roots with Hartig net and intracellular hyphae in the cortex. A mantle and digestion of intracellular hyphae may be found but are not necessary. In the study of Mikola (1965) ectendotrophic mycorrhiza was found to be common in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings in Finnish nurseries. The mycorrhizae had always similar structure and the mycelium isolated from the seedlings (E-strains) was similar. The aim of this study was to find out what kind of ectendotrophic mycorrhizae exist in forests and nurseries outside Finland, what kind of mycorrhizae do the E-strains isolated from Scots pine form with other tree species, and are these associations symbiotic.

Only one type of ectendotrophic mycorrhiza was found on the 600 short roots collected from the continents of Europa and America. The type was similar to the one described by Mikola: the mycelium is coarse and forms a strong Hartig net, and intracellular infection is heavy. Evidence is convincing that this structure was formed by the same fungus species. The species is unidentified. Mycorrhizae synthesized by E-strain with six spruce species, fir, hemloch and Douglas fir were all ectotrophic.

The E-type ectendotrophic mycorrhizae proved to be a balanced symbiosis. The seedlings of 13 tree species inoculated with the E-strain grew in the experiment better than the controls. The observation that ectendotrophic mycorrhizae dominates in the nurseries but is seldom found in forests, and then only in seedlings growing in the forest, was confirmed in the study. In synthesis experiments E-strain formed either ecto- or ectendotrophic mycorrhiza depending on the tree species.

  • Laiho, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7325, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1936). Kuusi männyn kilpailijana kasvupaikasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 42 no. 8 article id 7325. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7325
English title: Norway spruce as competitor in the sites typical for Scots pine.
Original keywords: Picea abies; Pinus sylvestris; levinneisyys; puulaji; lajien välinen kilpailu
English keywords: distribution; competition between species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is a species that becomes in Finland over time the dominant species in the sites that are suitable for it. The reason that it covers only a quarter of the forest areas in Finland depends mainly on forest fires. The aim of this review was to discuss the biological factors that affect competition between Scots pine and Norway spruce.

Especially important is the ability to regenerate and grow past seedling stage. There does not seem to be significant differences in the number of good seed and seedling years of the species. Spruce regenerates better on moss covered forest floor than pine. On the other hand, pine seedlings grow faster than spruce seedlings, and tolerate better dry conditions. Consequently, one of the defining biological differences is that Norway spruce needs more humid conditions than Scots pine. Spruce is shown to have greater transpiration than pine. Spruce also has higher site requirements, however, growing as undergrowth, it seems to be better able to compete of the nutrients with the larger trees than pine. It also tolerates shading better. Spruce is less frost tolerant than pine.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7303, category Article
J. Keränen. (1934). Lämpöoloista puiden ja eräiden pensaiden kasvupaikkojen pohjoisilla rajoilla Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 26 article id 7303. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7303
English title: Thermal conditions in the northern limits of some tree species and bushes in Finland.
Original keywords: levinneisyys; puulajit; pohjoisraja; lämpötila; ilmasto; pensaat
English keywords: tree species; climate; distribution; temperature
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article discusses the thermal conditions in the northern limits of trees and some bushes in Finland. Temperature is the most important limiting factor for distribution of plant species. Precipitation variations, however, are small in Finland. The article lists the main features of thermal conditions during the different seasons in different parts of Finland. The northern limits and the thermal condition of the area are described for the following species: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), mezereon, buckthorn, common alder, linden, elm, maple, hazel, ash, oak, hybrid mountain ash, yew and Swedish whitebeam.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keränen, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7297, category Article
A. L. Backman. (1934). Om den Åländska skogens förhistoria. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 20 article id 7297. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7297
English title: Early history of forests in Åland, Finland.
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula; Picea abies; Finland; tree species; distribution; Alnus incana; occurrence; Åland; pollen analysis; paleobotany; Carpinus betulus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents preliminary results of paleobotanical studies on vegetation in Åland, south-west Finland. The investigations concentrated on studying arrival of tree species and stratigraphy of peatlands. According to the studies, some plant fossils found in the peat (Ceratophyllum submersum, Sparagnium neglectum, Najas flexilis) indicate that climate of the region has earlier been warmer than at the present. The present forests in Åland are dominated by coniferous species, but the pollen analysis of the peat indicate that Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) became a common species in the region about by the time of Christ’s birth. The species has reached its present distribution in Åland relatively late. The pollen analyses give relatively little information about the arrival of birch (Betula sp.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), but it seems obvious that occurrence of birch reached its culmination just before spruce. During the warm period common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) was the most important species, and also pollen of oak (Quercus robur L.), kinden (Tilia cordata L.) and elm (Ulmus sp.) was relatively common in the peat of some of the studied peatlands. An interesting finding was the pollen of Carpinus betulus in many sites in Åland.

The PDF includes a Finnish and German summary.

  • Backman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7284, category Article
K. Linkola. (1934). European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pall.) in the region of Vanajavesi-lake. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 7 article id 7284. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7284
Keywords: distribution; European white elm; phenotype; large-leaved elm; Ulmus laevis Pall.; U. effusa L.
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the distribution of the European white elm; its sites and vegetation communes; phenotype (size and form); variations in the leaves; inflorescence and fruiting; germinative capacity of the seeds; regeneration, both vegetative propagation and from seeds; commercial use of the timber; and the history of European white elm.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Linkola, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7195, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1925). Niinipuun uudistumisesta Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 29 no. 5 article id 7195. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7195
English title: Regeneration of small leaved lime in Finland.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; siementuotanto; levinneisyys; lehmus; pohjoisraja; niinipuu; Tilia cordata
English keywords: regeneration; natural regeneration; distribution; seed production; northern limit
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The northern range of small leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) in Finland has remained the same since the end of 1800s, but according to the studies of subfossiles of lime found in peatlands, the northern limit has once been higher than at the present. The northernmost natural specimens of the species in Reisjärvi do not produce seed, and are therefore probably a relict. The article includes a review on the distribution of the species in Finland and its capacity to regenerate. The natural regeneration of lime in Finland is at present very rare. The species has lost its ability to sexual reproduction, but reproduces readily vegetatively.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7042, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Kasvu- ja tuottotaulut Suomen eteläpuoliskon mänty-, kuusi- ja koivumetsille. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 7042. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7042
English title: Growth and yield tables for the Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch in the southern part of Finland.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; kuusi; Picea abies; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; metsätyyppi; koivu; Betula sp.; Keski-Suomi; kasvu- ja tuotostaulukko; runkolukusarja
English keywords: Southern Finland; forest site type; stem frequency distribution series; Central Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first proper growth and yield tables were prepared in Finland already in 1872, but they have been used little as the needs of forestry and forest sciences increased. One of the problems of the old yield tables was how the site quality classes are determined. The new growth and yield tables use the forest site type classification, which enables the use of same site types for all tree species. This makes it possible to compare the growth of different tree species in same kind of sites. The tables also use stem frequency distribution series. In the first stage, the tables were prepared for Southern and Central Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7020, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1919). Tutkimuksia metsien tilasta Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 7020. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7020
English title: Studies on state of forests in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; linja-arviointi; metsävarat; metsätyyppi; metsänarviointi; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: forest management; forest resources; forest mensuration; forest site type; strip survey; distribution of tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A strip survey was made to define the forest and peatland site class distribution and the condition of the forests in Savo and Karelia in central and eastern parts of Finland. According to the survey, 24% of the forested lands are peatlands. Fresh mineral soil sites (26%) were the most common mineral soil site type. Intermediately dry forest soil sites covered 22% of the area, forest sites with grass-herb vegetation 12,79%, rich grass-herb forest soil sites 3,16% and dry forest soil sites 9,59% of the forested area. The most common tree species were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), 39%, Betula sp., 26%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), 18%, and grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), 10% of the forest land. The article includes a review about the wood harvesting in the forests, and their present silvicultural state. According to the study, about 30% of the forested lands (not including peatlands) were unproductive; mostly mixed alder and birch stands of poor quality or open lands.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7010, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1915). Studies on seed years and age-class distribution of pine forests on heathlands of northern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 5 no. 1 article id 7010. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7010
Keywords: seed years; age class distribution; age gradation distribution; heathy woodland; heathland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data has been collected from northern Finland between about 64th and 68th north latitudes, excluding the polar tree line areas. The sample plots have been selected to represents greatest variation of the habitats in altitude, rainfall and other site factors. The selected trees were cut, their age, height, and diameter at various heights examined and possible signs of forest fires noticed. The age of the trees was examined also with microscope. The age class distribution of the sample plots was studied. The determination of historical seed years was based on age class distribution of the sample plots.  

Grouping of the trees into different age classes was too weak a method to make any conclusions about the periodicity or even less about the frequency of the seed years.  There were also noticeable differences in determining the age of the trees between macroscopic and microscopic age examination. There are also differences in the amount of seedlings between different forest types.

The growth of pines in northern Finland is very slow particularly in the young ages but the growth increases after they reach 1,3 meters, which may take up to 30 years. The development of the forest has been similar through last centuries
  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7534, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1915). Kaskiviljelyksen vaikutus Suomen metsiin. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 7534. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7534
English title: The effect of shifting cultivation on forests in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kaskiviljely; maanviljely; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: forestry; shifting cultivation; agriculture; distribution of tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on shifting cultivation, its methods and use in Finland, and its effect on the condition of forests. Shifting cultivation decreases forest reserves not only by burning large amounts of wood. Of the area used for shifting cultivation, 10-50% can be open land. The older age classes of forests are often missing, and range of tree species shift towards deciduous trees. This causes lack of large timber. The shorter the rotation, the less well the most valuable trees survive on the area. One reason is lack of seed trees. Of the coniferous trees, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is able to survive in the burnt-over lands better than Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), because it can produce seeds at a relatively young age. Betula sp. and especially grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) regenerate well on burnt-over lands. Also the frequency of good seed years determine which tree species become the dominant species on a burnt-over site.

When shifting cultivation is abandoned, deciduous trees keep their advantage over coniferous trees, because the wood of coniferous trees is used more in the surrounding villages. Pine and spruce spread to the burnt-over areas from the poorer sites that often had remained unburned. In densely populated areas in some counties in Savo in eastern Finland, where shifting cultivation was practiced intensively, Norway spruce became rare. Dominant tree species in the burnt-over areas became birch and pine.

The article is divided in two parts. A German summary is included in a separate PDF
  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7519, category Article
Jori Uusitalo. (1997). Pre-harvest measurement of pine stands for sawing production planning. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 259 article id 7519. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7519
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; diameter distribution; height models; crown height estimation; forest sampling; lumber quality prediction
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To enhance the utilization of the wood, the sawmills are forced to place more emphasis on planning to master the whole production chain from the forest to the end product. One significant obstacle to integrating the forest-sawmill-market production chain is the lack of appropriate information about forest stands. Since the wood procurement point of view in forest planning systems has been almost totally disregarded there has been a great need to develop an easy and efficient pre-harvest measurement method, allowing separate measurement of stands prior to harvesting. The main purpose of this study was to develop a measurement method for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands which forest managers could use in describing the properties of the standing trees for sawing production planning.

Study materials were collected from ten Scots pine stands located in North Häme and South Pohjanmaa, in Southern Finland. The data comprise test sawing data on 314 pine stems, diameter at breast height (dbh) and height measures of all trees and measures of the quality parameters of pine sawlog stems in all ten study stands as well as the locations of all trees in six stands. The study was divided into four sub-studies which deal with pine quality prediction, construction of diameter and dead branch height distributions, sampling designs and applying height and crown height models. The final proposal for the pre-harvest measurement method is a synthesis of the individual sub-studies.

Quality analysis resulted in choosing dbh, distance from stump height to the first dead branch, crown height and tree height as the most appropriate quality characteristics of Scots pine. Dbh and dead branch height are measured from each pine sample tree while height and crown height are derived from dbh measures by aid of mixed height and crown height models. Pine and spruce diameter distribution as well as dead branch height distribution are most effectively predicted by the kernel function. Roughly 25 sample trees seem to be appropriate in pure pine stands. In mixed stands the number of sample trees needs to be increased in proportion to the intensity of pines in order to attain the same level of accuracy.

  • Uusitalo, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7676, category Article
Jussi Saramäki. (1992). A growth and yield prediction model of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) in Zambia. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 230 article id 7676. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7676
Keywords: diameter distribution; Weibull function; simulation models; Pinus kesiya; thinning reaction
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents a growth and yield prediction model for a Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) stand by diameter classes. The material consists of temporary sample plots taken from a plantation inventory, of permanent sample plots established in commercial compartments and of an espacement trial. The mean basal area of the stand, variance and skewness of the diameter distribution are predicted. From these variables the parameters of the Weibull function are derived. Site class is assumed to be known or is calculated from measured information. Mortality is also predicted by estimating the number and mean size of dead trees. Thinnings are defined by the number of trees removed and by their relative size. If measured tree level data at the initial situation is available it can be utilized in the predictions, however, simulations can also be performed with stand level information. The minimum information needed for the prediction is planting density, site class as well as the times and removals of thinnings.

The calculations show that by decreasing the planting density of P. Kesiya from the present 1,330 stems/ha or by conducting early precommercial thinning both the relative and absolute amount of large sawlogs in the total production increase. An increase in the present planting density only slightly increases total yield. It is obvious that the presently recommended rotation of 25 years is too short for producing large sawlogs, especially on poor sites. This rotation period is suitable for small sawlog production while for pulpwood regimes shorter rotation periods can be used. If thinnings are done before the maximum current annual growth is reached stands will react well, but later on the ability to respond to thinnings decreases rapidly. Thinnings from below accelerates the production of large sawlogs more than thinning from above or systematic thinning. If all sawlog sizes are considered no great differences between thinning type exist. The study recommends different thinning regimes according to site class. Separate programs are recommended for the production of sawlogs and pulpwood.

The used thinning reaction model needs refinement and further studies with annual measured thinning trial material.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7639, category Article
Matti Keltikangas, Jukka Laine, Pasi Puttonen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1986). Vuosina 1930-1978 metsäojitetut suot: ojitusalueiden inventoinnin tuloksia. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 193 article id 7639. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7639
English title: Peatlands drained for forestry during 1930–1978: results from field surveys of drained areas.
Original keywords: suotyypit; ojitetut suot; inventointi; kuivatusteho; ojaverkosto; metsänhoidollinen tila
English keywords: inventory; forest drainage; drainage effect; site type distribution; silvicultural condition; ditch network
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An extensive field-based survey was conducted to establish the distribution of site types on drained peatlands, the condition of the drainage networks, the post-drainage development of the tree stands, their structure and silvicultural condition and the corresponding requirements for operational measures. The data is based on sampling of the forest drainage undertaking during 1930–78 and consists of 1,312 km inventory transect, 6,030 relascope sample plots and 21,700 studied ditches.

Of the studied peatlands more than 60% were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) mires, slightly under 20% Norway spruce (Picea abies) mires, and under 10% each treeless mires and paludified upland forest sites. The remaining peatland area that is to be considered suitable for forest drainage according to criteria used by Heikurainen (1960) now consists mainly of spruce mires and paludified upland forest types; about 1 million ha both groups still remain undrained.

The proportion of ditches in need of ditch cleaning was estimated to be under 10% in the youngest drained areas and under 30% in the oldest. The mean tree stand volumes of the drained peatlands of different site types show the same dependence on the trophic level as in earlier studies but the volumes seem to be some 5–10% lower. These results compare favourably with those of the 7th national forest inventory.

Trends in the post-drainage development of tree stand volumes and increment are also, generally, in accordance with earlier findings but have somewhat lower values. The development of the nutrient-poor site type stands, especially in Northern Finland, seems to be significantly poorer than was earlier assumed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
  • Puttonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7549, category Article
Tauno Kallio. (1971). Aerial distribution of some wood-inhabiting fungi in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 115 article id 7549. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7549
Keywords: distribution; isolation; fungi; diaspores; Trichoderma viride; Peniophora gigantea; Hypholoma.; Alternaria; Fusarium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fungal diaspores were caught in Southern Finland (Helsinki, Turku, Jyväskylä, Lappeenranta) and in Northern Finland (Oulu, Ivalo) in 1967—68 on exposed discs of Picea abies (L.) Karst. wood. In the laboratory, the diaspores on the discs developed mycelia which stained the wood. A month after exposure fungi and bacteria were isolated from stained areas.

The number of identified fungal species was relatively high and included fungi of different taxonomic groups. The most common fungi identified were Peniophora gigantea and Trichoderma viride. The most common Agaricaceae obtained were species of Hypholoma. Of the fungi imperfecti, relatively high numbers of not only Trichoderma viride but also of the Alternaria and Fusarium species were isolated. According to the investigation, species of several fungal groups seem to participate in the early stages of the decayed process of spruce.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kallio, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Research article

article id 22028, category Research article
Eelis Halme, Matti Mõttus. (2023). Improved parametrisation of a physically-based forest reflectance model for retrieval of boreal forest structural properties. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22028. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22028
Keywords: forest structure; Sentinel-2; reflectance; hyperspectral; tree distribution
Highlights: Spatial distribution of trees is a key driver for forest reflectance; Knowledge of the ratio of branch to leaf area improves forest reflectance simulation substantially; Different optical properties of the two leaf sides have a notable effect on forest reflectance.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Physically-based reflectance models offer a robust and transferable method to assess biophysical characteristics of vegetation in remote sensing. Forests exhibit explicit structure at many scales, from shoots and branches to landscape patches, and hence present a specific challenge to vegetation reflectance modellers. To relate forest reflectance with its structure, the complexity must be parametrised leading to an increase in the number of reflectance model inputs. The parametrisations link reflectance simulations to measurable forest variables, but at the same time rely on abstractions (e.g. a geometric surface forming a tree crown) and physically-based simplifications that are difficult to quantify robustly. As high-quality data on basic forest structure (e.g. tree height and stand density) and optical properties (e.g. leaf and forest floor reflectance) are becoming increasingly available, we used the well-validated forest reflectance and transmittance model FRT to investigate the effect of the values of the “uncertain” input parameters on the accuracy of modelled forest reflectance. With the state-of-the-art structural and spectral forest information, and Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument imagery, we identified that the input parameters influencing the most the modelled reflectance, given that the basic forestry variables are set to their true values and leaf mass is determined from reliable allometric models, are the regularity of the tree distribution and the amount of woody elements. When these parameters were set to their new adjusted values, the model performance improved considerably, reaching in the near infrared spectral region (740–950 nm) nearly zero bias, a relative RMSE of 13% and a correlation coefficient of 0.81. In the visible part of the spectrum, the model performance was not as consistent indicating room for improvement.
article id 10620, category Research article
Tapani Repo, Virva Volanen, Pertti Pulkkinen. (2022). No difference in the maximum frost hardiness of different pedunculate oak populations in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10620. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10620
Keywords: climate change; differential thermal analysis; electrolyte leakage; low-temperature exotherm; species distribution; visual damage scoring
Highlights: Four pedunculate oak populations were compared for their maximum frost hardiness (FHmax) at two sampling times in midwinter; Based on the initiation of the low temperature exotherm (LTE), FHmax was an average of –41 °C; Based on the relative electrolyte leakage method, FHmax was an average of –46 °C and –41 °C in the first and second sampling time respectively; No significant differences were observed among the populations; Within-population variation in the LTE was high, providing potential for breeding; In extreme winters, FHmax may be critical for the growth and survival of oak in central and northern Finland.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The natural northern distribution limit for pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) is in southern Finland. We hypothesized that the maximum frost hardiness (FHmax) in the winter limited the cultivation of oaks in northern latitudes. We tested the hypothesis with controlled freezing tests in midwinter. The acorns for the experiment were collected from the four main oak populations in southernmost Finland. The seedlings were raised in the nursery, frost hardened in field conditions, and then moved to a growth chamber at –2 °C on two occasions in winter and tested for FHmax in controlled freezing tests. Frost hardiness was assessed by differential thermal analysis (DTA) based on the low temperature exotherm (LTE) and relative electrolyte leakage (REL) of the stem, and visual damage scoring (VD) of the buds and stem. The initiation and peak of the LTE took place at an average of –41 °C and –43 °C respectively, without differences among the populations. The variation in the initiation and peak of the LTE was high, ranging from –34.6 °C to –45.5 °C and from –37.1 °C to –46.9 °C respectively. According to the REL method, the frost hardiness of the populations ranged from –44.0 °C to –46.4 °C in February and from –40.6 °C to –41.6 °C in March, without significant differences among the populations. According to VD, the bud was the least frost hardy organ, with FH between –19 °C and –33 °C, depending on population and assessment time. We conclude that the maximum hardiness may set the limit for the distribution of pedunculate oak northwards, but the high within-population variation offers potential to breed more frost hardy genotypes.

  • Repo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural Resources, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7443-6275 E-mail: tapani.repo@luke.fi (email)
  • Volanen, Kalevankatu 4b B21, FI-80110 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: virva.volanen@siunsote.fi
  • Pulkkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1643-7691 E-mail: pertti.pulkkinen@luke.fi
article id 10520, category Research article
Shaoqin Yang, Lita Yi, Nuonan Ye, Mengyuan Wu, Meihua Liu. (2022). Spatial pattern dynamics of Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia in mixed broad-leaved forests on Tianmu Mountain, eastern China, 1996–2012. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10520. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10520
Keywords: forest dynamics; spatial distribution; East Asia; evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forests
Highlights: Spatial distribution pattern monitoring of Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia was performed over 16 years in a 1 ha plot; The importance value of C. myrsinifolia decreased between 1996 and 2012; The spatial distribution pattern changed at a spatial scale of 0–25 m; The drivers of the variation in spatial distribution were intra- and interspecific mutual relationships.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Studies of the spatial patterns of dominant plant species may provide significant insights into processes and mechanisms that maintain stand stability. This study was performed in a permanent 1 ha plot in evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forests on Tianmu Mountain. Based on two surveys (1996 and 2012), the dynamics of the spatial distribution pattern of the dominant population (Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia (Blume) Oersted) and the intra- and interspecific relationships between C. myrsinifolia and other dominant species populations were analyzed using Ripley’s K(r) function. We identified the importance value of a species in a community, which is the sum of the relative density, relative frequency, and relative dominance. The drivers of spatial distribution variation and the maintenance mechanisms of the forest were discussed. The results showed that the importance value of C. myrsinifolia within the community decreased over the past 16 years. The C. myrsinifolia population exhibited a significantly aggregated distribution within a spatial scale of 0–25 m in 1996 whereas it changed to a random distribution at scales larger than 5.5 m in 2012. From 1996 to 2012, the spatial distribution patterns between C. myrsinifolia and Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinsk. and between C. myrsinifolia and Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook did not change significantly. In 1996, C. myrsinifolia and Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. were positively associated at the scale of 0–25 m; this relationship was strongly significant at the scale of 6–10 m. However, there was no association between the populations of two species in terms of the spatial distribution at the scale of 0–25 m in 2012. Our findings indicate that the drivers of variation in the spatial distribution of the C. myrsinifolia population were intra- and interspecific mutual relationships as well the seed-spreading mechanism of this species.

  • Yang, Zhejiang Forest Resources Monitoring Center, Hangzhou 310020, China E-mail: 20080095@zafu.edu.cn
  • Yi, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: yilita@zafu.edu.cn
  • Ye, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: 542243187@qq.com
  • Wu, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: 326585523@qq.com
  • Liu, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: mhliu@zafu.edu.cn (email)
article id 10612, category Research article
Daesung Lee, Jouni Siipilehto, Jari Hynynen. (2021). Models for diameter distribution and tree height in hybrid aspen plantations in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 5 article id 10612. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10612
Keywords: Näslund’s height curve; Weibull distribution; parameter recovery; Populus tremula × P. tremuloides; clonal plantation; nonlinear mixed-effects model
Highlights: Parameter recovery method for the Weibull function fitted diameter distributions well by means of sum and mean forest stand characteristics for hybrid aspen plantations; Arithmetic and weighted mean diameters performed better for the recovery method than the corresponding median diameters; Two alternative Näslund’s height curve models with stand characteristics and tree dbh predictors provided unbiased tree height predictions.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) is known with outstanding growth rate and some favourable wood characteristics, but models for stand management have not yet been prepared in northern Europe. This study introduces methods and models to predict tree dimensions, diameter at breast height (dbh) and tree height for a hybrid aspen plantation using data from repeatedly measured permanent sample plots established in clonal plantations in southern Finland. Dbh distributions using parameter recovery method for the Weibull function was used with Näslund’s height curve to model tree heights. According to the goodness-of-fit statistics of Kolmogorov-Smirnov and the Error Index, the arithmetic mean diameter (D) and basal area-weighted mean diameter (DG) provided more stable parameter recovery for the Weibull distribution than the median diameter (DM) and basal area-weighted median diameter (DGM), while DG showed the best overall fit. Thus, Näslund’s height curve was modelled using DG with Lorey’s height (HG), age, basal area (BA), and tree dbh (Model 1). Also, Model 2 was tested using all predictors of Model 1 with the number of trees per ha (TPH). All predictors were shown to be significant in both Models, showing slightly different behaviour. Model 1 was sensitive to the mean characteristics, DG and HG, while Model 2 was sensitive to stand density, including both BA and TPH as predictors. Model 1 was considered more reasonable to apply based on our results. Consequently, the parameter recovery method using DG and Näslund’s models were applicable for predicting tree diameter and height.

  • Lee, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1586-9385 E-mail: daesung.lee@luke.fi (email)
  • Siipilehto, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi
  • Hynynen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Vipusenkuja 5, FI-57200 Savonlinna, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9132-8612 E-mail: jari.hynynen@luke.fi
article id 10441, category Research article
Dipak Mahatara, Amul K. Acharya, Bishnu P. Dhakal, Dipesh K. Sharma, Sunita Ulak, Prashant Paudel. (2021). Maxent modelling for habitat suitability of vulnerable tree Dalbergia latifolia in Nepal. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10441. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10441
Keywords: rosewood; satisal; distribution mapping; environmental variables; Maxent modelling
Highlights: Dalbergia latifolia is a vulnerable species of Nepal with very few conservation priorities; Habitat suitability modelling for this species is essential to endorse different conservation interventions; 43 presence locations and different environmental variables were retained for model prediction in Maxent; Province 2 was found most suitable habitat for the growth of D. latifolia, with western most province as unsuitable.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb., commonly known as rosewood, is one of the highly valuable tropical timber species of Nepal. The tree species was widely distributed in the past, however, over-exploitation of natural habitat, deforestation, forest conversion for agriculture, illegal logging and the invasion of alien species resulted in the classification of this species as vulnerable by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) category. So, the prediction of habitat suitability and potential distribution of the species is required to develop restoration mechanisms and conservation interventions. In this study, we modelled the suitable habitat of D. latifolia over the entire possible range of Nepal using a Maxent model. We compiled 23 environmental variables (19 bioclimatic, 3 topographic and a vegetative layer), however, only 12 least correlated variables along with 43 spatially representative presence locations were retained for model prediction. We used a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve to assess the model’s performance and a Jackknife procedure to evaluate the relative importance of predictor variables. The model was statistically significant with an area under the curve (AUC) value of 0.969. The internal Jackknife test indicated that elevation was the most important variable for the model prediction with 71.3% contribution followed by mean temperature of driest quarter (9.8%). The most (>0.6) suitable habitat for the D. latifolia was 235 484 hectares with large sections of area in two provinces whereas, the western most provinces were not suitable for D. latifolia as per Maxent model. The information presented here can provide a framework for nature conservation planning, monitoring and habitat management of this rare and endangered species.

  • Mahatara, Forest Research and Training Centre, Government of Nepal, P.O. Box 3339, Babarmahal, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal E-mail: honeystar73@gmail.com (email)
  • Acharya, Forest Research and Training Centre, Government of Nepal, P.O. Box 3339, Babarmahal, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal E-mail: acharya.amulkumar@gmail.com
  • Dhakal, Forest Research and Training Centre, Government of Nepal, P.O. Box 3339, Babarmahal, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal E-mail: dhakalbp.shorea@gmail.com
  • Sharma, Forest Research and Training Centre, Government of Nepal, P.O. Box 3339, Babarmahal, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal E-mail: dipeshsharmadiyu2015@gmail.com
  • Ulak, Forest Research and Training Centre, Government of Nepal, P.O. Box 3339, Babarmahal, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal E-mail: sunitaulak@gmail.com
  • Paudel, Agriculture Forestry University, P.O. Box 13712 Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal E-mail: prashant.paudel88@gmail.com
article id 10291, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Andras Balazs, Annika Kangas. (2020). Comparison of photogrammetric canopy models from archived and made-to-order aerial imagery in forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10291. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10291
Keywords: distribution; prediction; forest resources; mapping; aerial imaging; digital stereo-photogrammetry
Highlights: Two photogrammetric canopy models were tested in forest inventory: one based on archived standard aerial imagery acquired for ortho-mosaic production and another based on stereo-photogrammetrically oriented aerial imaging adjusted for stereo-photogrammetric canopy modelling; Both data sets were tested in the estimation of forest variables; Despite the differences in imaging parameters, there was little difference in their performance in predicting the forest inventory variables.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In remote sensing-based forest inventories 3D point cloud data, such as acquired from airborne laser scanning, are well suited for estimating the volume of growing stock and stand height, but tree species recognition often requires additional optical imagery. A combination of 3D data and optical imagery can be acquired based on aerial imaging only, by using stereo photogrammetric 3D canopy modeling. The use of aerial imagery is well suited for large-area forest inventories, due to low costs, good area coverage and temporally rapid cycle of data acquisition. Stereo-photogrammetric canopy modeling can also be applied to previously acquired imagery, such as for aerial ortho-mosaic production, assuming that the imagery has sufficient stereo overlap. In this study we compared two stereo-photogrammetric canopy models combined with contemporary satellite imagery in forest inventory. One canopy model was based on standard archived imagery acquired primarily for ortho-mosaic production, and another was based on aerial imagery whose acquisition parameters were better oriented for stereo-photogrammetric canopy modeling, including higher imaging resolution and greater stereo-coverage. Aerial and satellite data were tested in the estimation of growing stock volume, volumes of main tree species, basal area and diameter and height. Despite the better quality of the latter canopy model, the difference of the accuracy of the forest estimates based on the two different data sets was relatively small for most variables (differences in RMSEs were 0–20%, depending on variable). However, the estimates based on stereo-photogrammetrically oriented aerial data retained better the original variation of the forest variables present in the study area.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
article id 9918, category Research article
Ari Nikula, Vesa Nivala, Juho Matala, Kari Heliövaara. (2019). Modelling the effect of habitat composition and roads on the occurrence and number of moose damage at multiple scales. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 9918. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9918
Keywords: forestry; Alces alces; damage probability; forest damage; forest plantation; habitat selection; habitat modelling; zero-inflated negative binomial distribution
Highlights: The occurrence and number of moose damage were modelled with a zero-inflated count model; An admixture of mature forests within plantations increased the number of damage; Vicinity of inhabited areas and roads reduced damage; Plantations in landscapes with a large amount of pine-dominated thinning forests had less damage in Lapland; Damage risk assessment should include characteristics specific to each region.
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We modelled the effect of habitat composition and roads on the number and occurrence of moose (Alces alces L.) damage in Ostrobothnia and Lapland using a zero-inflated count model. Models were developed for 1 km2, 25 km2 and 100 km2 landscapes consisting of equilateral rectangular grid cells. Count models predict the number of damage, i.e. the number of plantations and zero models the probability of a landscape being without damage for a given habitat composition. The number of moose damage in neighboring grid cells was a significant predictor in all models. The proportion of mature forest was the most frequent significant variable, and an increasing admixture of mature forests among plantations increased the number and occurrence of damage. The amount of all types of plantations was the second most common significant variable predicting increasing damage along with increasing amount of plantations. An increase in thinning forests as an admixture also increased damage in 1 km2 landscapes in both areas, whereas an increase in pine-dominated thinning forests in Lapland reduced the number of damage in 25 km2 landscapes. An increasing amount of inhabited areas in Ostrobothnia and the length of connecting roads in Lapland reduced the number of damage in 1 and 25 km2 landscapes. Differences in model variables between areas suggest that models of moose damage risk should be adjusted according to characteristics that are specific to the study area.

  • Nikula, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ari.nikula@luke.fi (email)
  • Nivala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: vesa.nivala@luke.fi
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Heliövaara, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.heliovaara@helsinki.fi
article id 7743, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Timo Pitkänen, Andras Balazs, Annika Kangas. (2017). Improving Finnish Multi-Source National Forest Inventory by 3D aerial imaging. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 7743. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7743
Keywords: forest inventory; remote sensing; spatial autocorrelation; spatial distribution; aerial imagery; stereo-photogrammetry
Highlights: 3D aerial imaging provides a feasible method for estimating forest variables in the form of thematic maps in large area inventories; Photogrammetric 3D data based on aerial imagery that was originally acquired for orthomosaic production was tested in estimating stand variables; Photogrammetric 3D data highly improved the accuracy of forest estimates compared to traditional 2D remote sensing imagery.
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Optical 2D remote sensing techniques such as aerial photographing and satellite imaging have been used in forest inventory for a long time. During the last 15 years, airborne laser scanning (ALS) has been adopted in many countries for the estimation of forest attributes at stand and sub-stand levels. Compared to optical remote sensing data sources, ALS data are particularly well-suited for the estimation of forest attributes related to the physical dimensions of trees due to its 3D information. Similar to ALS, it is possible to derive a 3D forest canopy model based on aerial imagery using digital aerial photogrammetry. In this study, we compared the accuracy and spatial characteristics of 2D satellite and aerial imagery as well as 3D ALS and photogrammetric remote sensing data in the estimation of forest inventory variables using k-NN imputation and 2469 National Forest Inventory (NFI) sample plots in a study area covering approximately 5800 km2. Both 2D data were very close to each other in terms of accuracy, as were both the 3D materials. On the other hand, the difference between the 2D and 3D materials was very clear. The 3D data produce a map where the hotspots of volume, for instance, are much clearer than with 2D remote sensing imagery. The spatial correlation in the map produced with 2D data shows a lower short-range correlation, but the correlations approach the same level after 200 meters. The difference may be of importance, for instance, when analyzing the efficiency of different sampling designs and when estimating harvesting potential.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.p.pitkanen@luke.fi
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: Annika.Kangas@luke.fi
article id 1663, category Research article
Marta Kempf, Monika Konnert. (2016). Distribution of genetic diversity in Fagus sylvatica at the north-eastern edge of the natural range. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 4 article id 1663. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1663
Keywords: Poland; nSSR markers; European beech; limit of natural distribution
Highlights: European beech at the north-eastern edge of its natural range in Poland have a high level of genetic variation, similar to the populations from Central Europe; The differences between the beech provenances from the two centres in Poland, which were previously identified on the basis of pollen analyses and phenotypic traits, have now been genetically confirmed.
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An understanding of the genetic variation of the beech, especially at the edge of its natural distribution, is essential because of the change in natural distribution of the species resulting from changing climatic conditions. The main aim of the study was to determine the level of genetic diversity of European beech at the north-eastern edge of its natural range. The other aim was to check the genetic variation of beech from the two centres, the north and the south of Poland, which were identified in previous findings based on pollen analyses and phenotypic traits. The research material was the progeny of twelve beech provenances. The genetic structure of the populations was determined by ten highly variable microsatellite DNA loci. The results confirmed the high genetic diversity of beech at the north-eastern edge of its natural distribution, which infers the probability of their good adaptation to the changing climate and an extension of the range. Genetic analyses confirmed the existence of two genetic centres for beech in Poland. The populations from south-eastern Poland had a slightly higher diversity than the populations from the north-western area, which may indicate that the colonisation of Poland occurred by two routes. The results are important for creating the borders of the provenance regions and for limiting the transfer of seeds and seedlings. The choice of forest reproductive material, based on the knowledge of genetic diversity, is very important for the stability of future forests.

  • Kempf, Department of Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding, Faculty of Forestry, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. 29-listopada 46, 31–425 Krakow E-mail: m.kempf@ur.krakow.pl (email)
  • Konnert, Bavarian Office for Forest Seeding and Planting, Forstamtsplatz 1, 83317 Teisendorf, Germany E-mail: monika.konnert@asp.bayern.de
article id 1568, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Harri Lindeman, Mikko Vastaranta, Xiaowei Yu, Jori Uusitalo. (2016). Reliability of the predicted stand structure for clear-cut stands using optional methods: airborne laser scanning-based methods, smartphone-based forest inventory application Trestima and pre-harvest measurement tool EMO. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1568. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1568
Keywords: forest inventory; diameter distribution; Weibull; area-based approach; parameter recovery; k-NN estimation
Highlights: An airborne laser scanning grid-based approach for determining stand structure enabled bi- or multimodal predicted distributions that fitted well to the ground-truth harvester data; EMO and Trestima applications needed stand-specific inventory for sample measurements or sample photos, respectively, and at their best, provided superior accuracy for predicting certain stand characteristics.
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Accurate timber assortment information is required before cuttings to optimize wood allocation and logging activities. Timber assortments can be derived from diameter-height distribution that is most often predicted from the stand characteristics provided by forest inventory. The aim of this study was to assess and compare the accuracy of three different pre-harvest inventory methods in predicting the structure of mainly Scots pine-dominated, clear-cut stands. The investigated methods were an area-based approach (ABA) based on airborne laser scanning data, the smartphone-based forest inventory Trestima app and the more conventional pre-harvest inventory method called EMO. The estimates of diameter-height distributions based on each method were compared to accurate tree taper data measured and registered by the harvester’s measurement systems during the final cut. According to our results, grid-level ABA and Trestima were generally the most accurate methods for predicting diameter-height distribution. ABA provides predictions for systematic 16 m × 16 m grids from which stand-wise characteristics are aggregated. In order to enable multimodal stand-wise distributions, distributions must be predicted for each grid cell and then aggregated for the stand level, instead of predicting a distribution from the aggregated stand-level characteristics. Trestima required a sufficient sample for reliable results. EMO provided accurate results for the dominating Scots pine but, it could not capture minor admixtures. ABA seemed rather trustworthy in predicting stand characteristics and diameter distribution of standing trees prior to harvesting. Therefore, if up-to-date ABA information is available, only limited benefits can be obtained from stand-specific inventory using Trestima or EMO in mature pine or spruce-dominated forests.

  • Siipilehto, Natural Research Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi (email)
  • Lindeman,  Natural Research Institute Finland, Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, 39700 Parkano E-mail: harri.lindeman@luke.fi
  • Vastaranta, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 62 (Viikinkaari 11), FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: mikko.vastaranta@helsinki.fi
  • Yu, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, National Land Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 15 (Geodeetinrinne 2), FI-02431, Masala, Finland E-mail: xiaowei.yu@maanmittauslaitos.fi
  • Uusitalo,  Natural Research Institute Finland, Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, 39700 Parkano E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
article id 1302, category Research article
Nils Fahlvik, Per Magnus Ekö, Nils Petersson. (2015). Effects of precommercial thinning strategies on stand structure and growth in a mixed even-aged stand of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1302. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1302
Keywords: yield; cleaning; heterogeneous forest; dimension distribution; growth simulator
Highlights: Precommercial thinning (PCT) was a useful tool to influence the stand structure in accordance to silvicultural goals; PCT had a great impact on tree species composition; The seemingly great potential to influence the structure of a heterogeneous, mixed stand was restrained by natural settings and unconditional considerations at PCT (e.g. tree vitality, stem quality, regular spacing).
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Four different management strategies were applied to a young mixed stand of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Pices abies (L.) Karst.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in southern Sweden. All strategies included an initial precommercial thinning to ca. 2400 stems ha–1. The different aims were: (i) a conifer-dominated stand with focus on high productivity; (ii) a conifer-dominated stand with high quality timber; (iii) keeping a stem-wise species mixture; (iv) a mosaic-wise species mixture. Stem selection according to the different strategies were simulated with a starting point from plots with a 5 m radius. All strategies were applied to all of the plots. A growth simulator was used to simulate the stand development up to final felling. This study illustrates the possibilities for influencing the structure of a mixed stand through precommercial thinning. The study also illustrates the long-term effects on stand structure and volume yield by consequently applying a management strategy from precommercial thinning until final felling. Precommercial thinning was found to be a useful tool to influence the stand structure in accordance to the aims set. However, the opportunities for influencing the stand by precommercial thinning were restricted by natural settings and unconditional considerations (e.g. tree vitality, stem quality, regular spacing), beyond what could be judged from stand average data. The stem volume production during a rotation was 6% lower for (iii) and (iv) compared to (i) and (ii), mainly due to a greater proportion of birch in the former strategies.
  • Fahlvik, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: nils.fahlvik@slu.se (email)
  • Ekö, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: per.magnus.eko@slu.se
  • Petersson, StoraEnso Skog AB, Åsgatan 22, SE-791 80 Falun, Sweden E-mail: nils.petersson@storaenso.com
article id 1057, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2013). Parameter recovery vs. parameter prediction for the Weibull distribution validated for Scots pine stands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 1057. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1057
Keywords: linear prediction; diameter distribution; Weibull; stand characteristics; parameter recovery
Highlights: A parameter recovery method (PRM) was developed for forest stand inventories and compared with previously developed parameter prediction methods (PPM) in Finland; PRM for the 2-parameter Weibull function provided compatibility for the main stand characteristics: stem number, basal area and one of the four optional mean characteristics; PRM provided comparable and at its best, superior accuracy in volume characteristics compared with PPM.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The moment-based parameter recovery method (PRM) has not been applied in Finland since the 1930s, even after a continuation of forest stand structure modelling in the 1980s. This paper presents a general overview of PRM and some useful applications. Applied PRM provided compatibility for the included stand characteristics of stem number (N) and basal area (G) with either mean (D), basal area-weighted mean (DG), median (DM) or basal area-median (DGM) diameter at breast height (dbh). A two-parameter Weibull function was used to describe the dbh-frequency distribution of Scots pine stands in Finland. In the validation, PRM was compared with existing parameter prediction models (PPMs). In addition, existing models for stand characteristics were used for the prediction of unknown characteristics. Validation consisted of examining the performance of the predicted distributions with respect to variation in stand density and accuracy of the localised distributions, as well as accuracy in terms of bias and the RMSE in stand characteristics in the independent test data set. The validation data consisted of 467 randomly selected stands from the National Forest Inventory based plots. PRM demonstrated excellent accuracy if G and N were both known. At its best, PRM provided accuracy that was superior to any existing model in Finland – especially in young stands (mean height < 9 m), where the RMSE in total and pulp wood volumes, 3.6 and 5.7%, respectively, was reduced by one-half of the values obtained using the best performing existing PPM (8.7–11.3%). The unweighted Weibull distribution solved by PRM was found to be competitive with weighted existing PPMs for advanced stands. Therefore, using PRM, the need for a basal area weighted distribution proved unnecessary, contrary to common belief. Models for G and N were shown to be unreliable and need to be improved to obtain more reliable distributions using PRM.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
  • Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Computing, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@uef.fi
article id 956, category Research article
Michał Zasada. (2013). Evaluation of the double normal distribution for tree diameter distribution modeling. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 956. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.956
Keywords: diameter distribution; simulated annealing; goodness-of-fit; Weibull distribution; maximum likelihood method; method of moments
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The double normal distribution consists of two normal distributions truncated at their means and then combined in such a way, that points of truncation now become the overall distribution mode. So far, parameters of the double normal distribution have been estimated exclusively using the method of moments. This study evaluates the maximum likelihood method for the estimation of the double normal distribution parameters in Scots pine stands in Poland, and compares it to the results of the method of moments and the two-parameter Weibull distribution fitted using the maximum likelihood method and the method of moments. Presented results show that it is not recommended to use the maximum likelihood method of parameter fitting with Nelder-Mead and quasi-Newton optimization algorithms for the double normal distribution for small samples. However, it can be used for large samples, giving the fit comparable to the two-parameter Weibull distribution and providing parameters having sound practical and biological meaning. In the case of smaller samples for the double normal distribution it is recommended to apply the maximum likelihood method with the alternative simulated annealing optimization algorithm, use the method of moments or substitute the described distribution with more the flexible and robust Weibull distribution. For the smaller samples, the method of moments was superior to the maximum likelihood method.
  • Zasada, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Laboratory of Dendrometry and Forest Productivity, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: michal.zasada@wl.sggw.pl (email)
article id 99, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto. (2011). Local prediction of stand structure using linear prediction theory in Scots pine-dominated stands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 99. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.99
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; linear prediction; diameter distribution; Weibull; Johnson’s SB; height curve; stand characteristics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study produced a family of models for eight standard stand characteristics, frequency and basal area-based diameter distributions, and a height curve for stands in Finland dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The data consisted of 752 National Forest Inventory-based sample plots, measured three times between 1976 and 2001. Of the data, 75% were randomly selected for modelling and 25% left out for model evaluation. Base prediction models were constructed as functions of stand age, location and site providing strongly average expectations. These expectations were then calibrated with the known stand variables using linear prediction theory when estimating the best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP). Three stand variables, typically assessed in Finnish forest management planning fieldwork, were quite effective for calibrating the expectation for the unknown variable. In the case of optional distributions, it was essential to choose the weighting of the diameter distribution model such that the available input variables and the model applied were based on the same scale (e.g. arithmetic stand variables for frequency distribution). Additional input variables generally improved the accuracy of the validated characteristics, but the improvements in the predicted distributions were most noteworthy when the arithmetic mean and basal area-weighted median were simultaneously included in the BLUP estimation. The BLUP method provided a flexible approach for characterising relationships among stand variables, alternative size distributions and the height–diameter curve. Models are intended for practical use in the MOTTI simulator.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
article id 188, category Research article
Mikko Havimo, Juha Rikala, Jari Sirviö, Marketta Sipi. (2009). Tracheid cross-sectional dimensions in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) – distributions and comparison with Norway spruce (Picea abies). Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 188. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.188
Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; cell wall thickness; radial diameter; tangential diameter; distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Cell wall thickness and tracheid radial and tangential diameter are important characteristics in papermaking. These fibre cross-sectional dimensions affect paper properties such as light scattering, and tear and tensile indexes. In the authors’ previous article, the mean values and distributions of tracheid cross-sectional dimensions were obtained for Norway spruce (Picea abies). This article characterises the cross-sectional tracheid properties of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) using exactly the same methodology as in the previous study on Norway spruce, which enables the comparison between the tree species. The distributions for Scots pine cell wall thickness and tracheid radial diameter were similar: a narrow peak due to earlywood tracheids, and a wide peak due to latewood tracheids. The tangential diameter distributions for Scots pine were very similar in both earlywood and latewood, having one wide peak. Also, the distributions in whole stem, top pulpwood and sawmill chip assortments were quite similar. The differences between Scots pine and Norway spruce tracheid cross-sectional dimensions were fairly marginal. This is at least the case when comparing large tracheid populations, in which differences tend to even out. The situation may be different on a more detailed level of observation, for example, when individual annual rings in the different tree species are compared.
  • Havimo, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mikko.havimo@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Rikala, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jr@nn.fi
  • Sirviö, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: js@nn.fi
  • Sipi, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
article id 237, category Research article
Jussi Peuhkurinen, Matti Maltamo, Jukka Malinen. (2008). Estimating species-specific diameter distributions and saw log recoveries of boreal forests from airborne laser scanning data and aerial photographs: a distribution-based approach. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 4 article id 237. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.237
Keywords: diameter distribution; non-parametric estimation; pre-harvest measurement; stem data bank
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The low-density airborne laser scanning (ALS) data based estimation methods have been shown to produce accurate estimates of mean forest characteristics and diameter distributions, according to several studies. The used estimation methods have been based on the laser canopy height distribution approach, where various laser pulse height distribution -derived predictors are related to the stand characteristics of interest. This approach requires very delicate selection methods for selecting the suitable predictor variables. In this study, we introduce a new nearest neighbor search method that requires no complicated selection algorithm for choosing the predictor variables and can be utilized in multipurpose situations. The proposed search method is based on Minkowski distances between the distributions extracted from low density ALS data and aerial photographs. Apart from the introduction of a new search method, the aims of this study were: 1) to produce accurate species-specific diameter distributions and 2) to estimate factual saw log recovery, using the estimated height-diameter distributions and a stem data bank. The results indicate that the proposed method is suitable for producing species-specific diameter distributions and volumes at the stand level. However, it is proposed, that the utilization of more extensive and locally emphasized reference data and auxiliary variables could yield more accurate saw log recoveries.
  • Peuhkurinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Malinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
article id 277, category Research article
Laura Koskela, Bikas K. Sinha, Tapio Nummi. (2007). Some aspects of the sampling distribution of the Apportionment Index and related inference. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 277. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.277
Keywords: harvesting; bucking; dissimilarity index; multinomial distribution; overlapping coefficient
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
As customer-oriented production strategies have gained ground in the sawmill industry, proper measurement of the fit between the log demand and log output distributions has become of crucial importance. The prevailing means of measuring the outcome is the so-called Apportionment Index (AI), which is calculated from the relative proportions of the observed and required distributions. Although some statistical properties of the AI have recently been examined and alternative means of measuring the bucking outcome have been suggested, properties of the sampling distribution of the AI have not yet been widely studied. In this article we examine the asymptotic sampling distribution for the AI by assuming a multinomial distribution for the outcome. Our results are based mainly on large-sample normal approximations. Also some studies of the determination of the number of logs needed to obtain a specified level of accuracy of the AI have been carried out.
  • Koskela, University of Tampere, Dept of Mathematics, Statistics and Philosophy, FI-33014 University of Tampere, Finland E-mail: laura.koskela@uta.fi (email)
  • Sinha, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India E-mail: bks@nn.in
  • Nummi, University of Tampere, Dept of Mathematics, Statistics and Philosophy, FI-33014 University of Tampere, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi
article id 284, category Research article
Tuomo Nurminen, Jaakko Heinonen. (2007). Characteristics and time consumption of timber trucking in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 284. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.284
Keywords: logistics; cut-to-length operations; time study; work phases; log-normal distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Cost efficiency and flexibility have become increasingly important in the logistics of cut-to-length harvesting operations. At the same time, the operating conditions for long-distance transportation have become more demanding and variable. Since the number of log products has increased and the size of harvesting sites has decreased, loads of timber must increasingly be collected from several log decks, increasing the time consumption and costs of the trucking operation. The objectives of this study were to formulate time-consumption models for typical timber transportation activities in Finland and introduce a statistical procedure for examining the variation in time consumption during the trucking phases. The study used a combination of time studies and follow-up studies based on empirical data for 368 loads (a total volume of nearly 18 000 m3) collected from one wood procurement district in central Finland. The model included the following explanatory factors: driving distance, number of log decks, log product and load volume. Since transportation includes several phases and since many factors affect the work performance, significant variation in the total transportation time was observed. This makes planning and cost accounting more difficult. The models developed in this study are a promising initial tool to support route planning and optimization, and cost and profitability calculations for trucking entrepreneurs and the forest industry.
  • Nurminen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences; Forest Agency Tuomo Nurminen, Joensuuntie 5 B 8, FI-41800 Korpilahti, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi (email)
  • Heinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
article id 282, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Lauri Mehtätalo, Matti Maltamo. (2007). Modelling percentile based basal area weighted diameter distribution. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 282. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.282
Keywords: stand structure; diameter distribution; prediction; interpolation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In percentile method, percentiles of the diameter distribution are predicted with a system of models. The continuous empirical diameter distribution function is then obtained by interpolating between the predicted values of percentiles. In Finland, the distribution is typically modelled as a basal-area weighted distribution, which is transformed to a traditional density function for applications. In earlier studies it has been noted that when calculated from the basal-area weighted diameter distribution, the density function is decreasing in most stands, especially for Norway spruce. This behaviour is not supported by the data. In this paper, we investigate the reasons for the unsatisfactory performance and present possible solutions for the problem. Besides the predicted percentiles, the problems are due to implicit assumptions of diameter distribution in the system. The effect of these assumptions can be somewhat lessened with simple ad-hoc methods, like increasing new percentiles to the system. This approach does not, however, utilize all the available information in the estimation, namely the analytical relationships between basal area, stem number and diameter. Accounting for these, gives further possibilities for improving the results. The results show, however, that in order to achieve further improvements, it would be recommendable to make the implicit assumptions more realistic. Furthermore, height variation within stands seems to have an important contribution to the uncertainty of some forest characteristics, especially in the case of sawnwood volume.
  • Kangas, Department of Forest Resources Management, P.O.Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ak@nn.fi (email)
  • Mehtätalo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 300, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Sakari Sarkkola, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2007). Comparing regression estimation techniques when predicting diameter distributions of Scots pine on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 300. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.300
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatland; dbh distribution; Johnson’s SB function; regression estimation methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We compared different statistical methods for fitting linear regression models to a longitudinal data of breast height diameter (dbh) distributions of Scots pine dominated stands on drained peatlands. The parameter prediction methods for two parameters of Johnson’s SB distribution, fitted to basal-area dbh distributions, were: 1) a linear model estimated by ordinary least squares (OLS), 2) a multivariate linear model estimated using the seemingly unrelated regression approach (SUR), 3) a linear mixed-effects model with random intercept (MIX), and 4) a multivariate mixed-effects model (MSUR). The aim was to clarify the effect of taking into account the hierarchy of the data, as well as simultaneous estimation of the correlated dependent variables on the model fit and predictions. Instead of the reliability of the predicted parameters, we focused on the reliability of the models in predicting stand conditions. Predicted distributions were validated in terms of bias, RMSE, and error deviation in the generated quantities of the growing stock. The study material consisted of 112 successively measured stands from 12 experimental areas covering the whole of Finland (total of 608 observations). Two independent test data sets were used for model validation. All the advanced regression techniques were superior to OLS, when exactly the same independent stand variables were included. SUR and MSUR were ranked the overall best and second best, respectively. Their ranking was the same in the modeling data, whereas MSUR was superior in the peatland test data and SUR in the mineral soil test data. The ranking of the models was logical, but may not be widely generalized. The SUR and MSUR models were considered to be relevant tools for practical forest management planning purposes over a variety of site types and stand structures.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
  • Sarkkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ss@nn.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
article id 306, category Research article
Niina Tanskanen, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (2007). Spatial distribution of fine roots at ploughed Norway spruce forest sites. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 306. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.306
Keywords: Picea abies; forest soil; fine roots; ploughing; spatial distribution; specific root length; understorey roots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examined the spatial distribution of fine roots at two forest sites that were ploughed 20 (site K1) and 33 years (site K2) before sampling and planted with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings. Soil core samples were taken from the tilt and beneath the tilt, the furrow and the intermediate undisturbed soil to a depth of 0.4 m for fine root biomass, length and necromass determinations. Norway spruce fine roots were found throughout the ploughed forest sites. The fine roots were, however, unevenly distributed: the fine root biomass was highest in the tilt (624 and 452 g m–2 at sites K1 and K2, respectively) and lowest in the undisturbed soil at site K1 (79 g m–2) and in the furrow at site K2 (145 g m–2). The estimated average fine root biomass at the ploughed forest sites (268 and 248 g m–2 at sites K1 and K2, respectively) was, however, similar to those presented in other studies concerning sites that had not been ploughed. In the tilt, a substantial proportion of the fine roots was in the inverted mineral soil horizons and in the new organic horizon above the tilt. Consistent with the fine root biomass findings, the Norway spruce necromass was highest in the tilt but the vertical distribution of the dead roots was different: the necromass was highest in the buried OBT horizon. The results of this study suggest that at the ploughed forest sites, a substantial part of Norway spruce nutrient and water uptake occured in the tilt during the first 20 or 33 years after plantation.
  • Tanskanen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: niina.tanskanen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Ilvesniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
article id 321, category Research article
Jori Uusitalo, Anne Puustelli, Veli-Pekka Kivinen, Tapio Nummi, Bikas K. Sinha. (2006). Bayesian estimation of diameter distribution during harvesting. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 321. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.321
Keywords: diameter distribution; Bayesian statistics; tree harvesting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This research aims to combine two different data sets with Bayesian statistics in order to predict the diameter distribution of trees at harvest. The parameters of prior distribution are derived from the forest management plans supplemented by additional ocular information. We derive the parameters for the sample data from the first trees harvested, and then create the posterior distribution within the Bayesian framework. We apply the standard normal distribution to construct diameter (dbh) distributions, although many other theoretical distributions have been proved better with dbh data available. The methodology developed is then tested on nine mature spruce (Picea abies) dominated stands, on which the normal distribution seems to work well in mature spruce stands. The tests indicate that prediction of diameter distribution for the whole stand based on the first trees harvested is not wise, since it tends to give inaccurate predictions. Combining the first trees harvested with prior information seems to increase the reliability of predictions.
  • Uusitalo, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano unit, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@metla.fi (email)
  • Puustelli, University of Tampere, Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Philosophy, FI-33014 University of Tampere, Finland E-mail: ap@nn.fi
  • Kivinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: vpk@nn.fi
  • Nummi, University of Tampere, Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Philosophy, FI-33014 University of Tampere, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi
  • Sinha, Stat-Math Division, Indian Statistical Institute, 203 B.T. Road, Kolkata - 700 108, India E-mail: bks@nn.in
article id 331, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto. (2006). Height distributions of Scots pine sapling stands affected by retained tree and edge stand competition. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 3 article id 331. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.331
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; retention; height distribution; Weibull function; percentile prediction; edge effect
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The paper focused on the height structure of Scots pine saplings affected by (1) retained solitary pine trees or (2) a pine-dominated edge stand. The study material in (1) and (2) consisted of ten separate regeneration areas in southern Finland. In (1) 2-m radius study plots were located at 1, 3, 6 and 10 m distances from 10 systematically selected, solitary retained trees in each stand. In (2) the study plots were systematically located within 20 m from the edge stand. Competition of the individual trees was modelled using ecological field theory. The 24th and 93rd sample percentiles were used for estimating the height distribution using the two-parameter Weibull function. The models incorporated the effect of varying advanced tree competition on the predicted percentiles. Competition free dominant height was used as a driving variable for the developmental phase. Competition resulted in retarded height development within a radius of about 6 m from the retained tree, while it extended up to roughly half of the dominant height of the edge stand. The height distribution without external competition was relatively symmetrical, but increasing competition resulted in a more peaked and skewed distribution. Slight differences were found between northern sunny and southern shaded stand edges, while the least retarded height occurred at the north-western edge receiving morning sunlight. Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit tests showed acceptable and equal fit for both data sets; 2% and 8% of the distributions did not pass the test at the alpha 0.1 level when the Weibull distribution was estimated with the observed or predicted percentiles, respectively.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
article id 410, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Juha Siitonen. (2004). Degree of previous cutting in explaining the differences in diameter distributions between mature managed and natural Norway spruce forests. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 410. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.410
Keywords: Picea abies; stand structure; naturalness; Johnson’s SB distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The degree of naturalness was assessed in 37 mature (stand age 80 198 yrs) Norway spruce dominated stands located in southern Finland by measuring the number (0 610 ha–1) and basal area (0 33 m2 ha–1) of cut stumps. The Johnson’s SB distribution was fitted for living spruce trees to describe the dbh-frequency and basal area-dbh distributions. Regression models were constructed for predicting the parameters of the SB distribution using traditional stand parameters (median diameter, basal area, stem number) and the cut stump variables (number, basal area). Stump variables improved the models and enabled to explain the differences in diameter distributions between stands with varying intensity of past cutting. Model for basal area-dbh distribution was more accurate than dbh-frequency model in terms of regression statistics, but less accurate in terms of generated stand variables. The number and basal area of cut stumps seem to be useful and simple measures of stand naturalness which have potential uses in stand modelling and biodiversity-oriented forestry planning.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
  • Siitonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: juha.siitonen@metla.fi
article id 409, category Research article
Hubert Sterba. (2004). Equilibrium curves and growth models to deal with forests in transition to uneven-aged structure – application in two sample stands. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 409. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.409
Keywords: uneven-aged forests; growth models; stem number distribution; transformation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stem number distributions in uneven-aged forests are assumed to be stable, if they follow special functions, e.g. de Liocourt’s reverse J-shaped breast height diameter distribution. These distributions therefore are frequently regarded as a target in all-aged forests. Intending to convert an even-aged forest or any other forest, not yet exhibiting this sort of equilibrium, towards a steady state forest, the question rises, how to choose an appropriate equilibrium curve and how to achieve this stem number distribution by an appropriate thinning and harvesting schedule. Two stands are investigated: One dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies), having developed from a 120 year old even-aged stand 25 years ago, after several “target diameter thinnings”. The other one is a mixed species stand of Norway spruce, white fir (Abies alba), larch (Larix europea), common beech (Fagus silvatica), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), having lost its typical uneven-aged structure 20 years ago. These stands were used, together with the distance independent individual tree growth model PrognAus, to reveal that 1) there are more than only one equilibrium curve per stand, 2) not every hypothesised equilibrium can be reached with any stand, 3) an equilibrium in stem number does not necessarily mean a stable species distribution, and 4) growth models provide an excellent help to decide between several equilibrium curves and harvesting schedules to reach them.
  • Sterba, BOKU – University of Natural Resources an Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Peter Jordanstrasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: hubert.sterba@boku.ac.at (email)
article id 408, category Research article
Sakari Sarkkola, Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (2004). Natural development of stand structure in peatland Scots pine following drainage: results based on long-term monitoring of permanent sample plots. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 408. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.408
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; tree mortality; stand structure; drainage; dbh distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied the dynamics of stand structure on drained peatland sites in Scots pine dominated stands untreated with thinnings. The data consisted of consecutive stand measurements in 10 permanent sample plots where the monitoring periods varied from 29 to 66 years. We assumed that the stand’s structural development was driven by the natural processes of regeneration, growth, and mortality, all related to inter-tree competition within the stand. The DBH distributions of live and dead trees at different times of post-drainage stand development – smoothed by Weibull function – were analysed to characterise the change in stand structure. The initial uneven-sized structure of the natural, widely-spaced stands became more uneven during the first decades following drainage due to enhanced regeneration. Later, as stand density and mean tree size continuously increased, the DBH distributions approached bell-shaped distributions. Accordingly, the suppressed trees showed their highest mortality rate during the first decades, but the peak of the mortality distribution shifted to larger trees along stand succession. The change in structure was faster in southern Finland than in northern Finland. We assumed the changes in stand dynamics reflected increased inter-tree competition, initiated by enhanced site productivity and increased stand stocking resulting from the ditching operation.
  • Sarkkola, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.sarkkola@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 412, category Research article
Xingliang Liu, Haiyun Xu, Frank Berninger, Olavi Luukkanen, Chunyang Li. (2004). Nutrient distribution in Picea likiangensis trees growing in a plantation in West Sichuan, Southwest China. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 412. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.412
Keywords: plantation; nutrient distribution; nutrient translocation; Picea likiangensis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We measured nutrient distribution of Picea likiangensis (Franchet) E. Pritzel var. balfouriana trees growing in a plantation by field investigations, sample tree and plot harvest in West Sichuan, Southwest China. Based on the results in this study, the total biomass of plant compartments in plantation ecosystem was 114 829.1 kg ha–1. Tree, shrub, herb, bryophyte and litter layers accounted for 93.9%, 0.9%, 0.02%, 0.04%, 5.2%, respectively. The total biomass of tree layers was 107 817.1 kg ha–1. Needles, branches, stem wood, stem bark and roots accounted for 13.2%, 19.7%, 42.3%, 10.0% and 14.8%, respectively. The concentration of the nutrients was generally highest in the actively growing parts of the trees (e.g. needles) and lowest in the structural and not actively growing parts (e.g. stem wood). On the other hand, the concentrations of N, P, K and Mg were generally higher in the current year needles and branches than in the older needles and branches. These nutrient concentrations were also higher in the upper stem wood and bark than in the lower stem wood and bark, and in small roots than in large roots, whereas the opposite patterns were observed for the concentration of Ca in these compartments. The results will be helpful in understanding the nutrient behavior in a highly productive forest plantation and thereby providing decisive information for their sustainable management.
  • Liu, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 416, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China; Sichuan Academy of Forestry, Chengdu 610081, P. R. China E-mail: xl@nn.cn
  • Xu, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O.Box 416, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China E-mail: hx@nn.cn
  • Berninger, Département des sciences biologiques, Cp 8888 succ centre ville, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal (QC) H3C 3P8, Canada E-mail: fb@nn.ca
  • Luukkanen, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute, P.O. Box 28, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ol@nn.fi
  • Li, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O.Box 416, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China; Viikki Tropical Resources Institute, P.O. Box 28, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: licy@cib.ac.cn (email)
article id 523, category Research article
Heli Peltola, Jari Miina, Ismo Rouvinen, Seppo Kellomäki. (2002). Effect of early thinning on the diameter growth distribution along the stem of Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 523. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.523
Keywords: Scots pine; early thinnings; thinning responses; diameter growth; growth distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The absolute and relative effects of the first thinning on the diameter growth distribution along the stems were studied in 98 Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) at heights of 1.3, 4, 6 and 8 m. The data cover one 3-year pre-thinning period and four 3-year post-thinning periods in plots with densities varying from 575 to 3400 stems ha–1. A shift in the point of maximum diameter growth down the bole was found during the first 3 years after thinning, with a shift back up the stem later. The thinning response over the whole 12-year post-thinning period was strongest the nearer the stem base and the heavier the thinning. The largest trees had the highest diameter growth after thinning in absolute terms, and the growth was greater the heavier the thinning. The absolute thinning response over the 12-year post-thinning period was highest in the medium tree size and in the largest trees, especially on the heavily thinned and lightly thinned plots. Whereas in the moderately thinned stand the smaller and larger trees responded more than did those of medium size on average. In relative sense, however, the small trees on heavily or moderately thinned plots responded more rapidly and more strongly than the medium-sized or large trees over the whole stem. The small trees on the lightly thinned plots responded only slightly to thinning. The results suggest that it is possible to affect the uniformity of wood properties (such as ring width) both within and between trees by thinning.
  • Peltola, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Miina, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
  • Rouvinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ir@nn.fi
  • Kellomäki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
article id 522, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Matti Maltamo. (2002). Anticipating the variance of predicted stand volume and timber assortments with respect to stand characteristics and field measurements. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 522. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.522
Keywords: diameter distribution; timber assortment; prediction; calibration estimation; volume; accuracy; measurement combination
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Several models and/or several variable combinations could be used to predict the diameter distribution of a stand. Typically, a fixed model and a fixed variable combination is used in all conditions. The calibration procedure, however, makes it possible to choose the measurement combination from among many possibilities, although the model used is fixed. In this study, the usefulness of utilizing additional stand characteristics for calibrating the predicted diameter distribution is examined. Nine measurement strategies were tested in predicting the total stand volume, sawlog volume and pulpwood volume. The observed errors of these variables under each strategy were modeled as a function of basal area, basal area median diameter and number of stems. The models were estimated in three steps. First, an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model was fitted to the observed errors. Then, a variance function was estimated using the OLS residuals. Finally, a weighted Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) analysis was used to model the observed errors, using the estimated variance functions as weights. The estimated models can be used to anticipate the precision and accuracy of predicted volume characteristics for each stand with different variable combinations and, consequently, to choose the best measurement combination in different stands.
  • Kangas, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Resources Management, P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 562, category Research article
Tero Kokkila, Annikki Mäkelä, Eero Nikinmaa. (2002). A method for generating stand structures using Gibbs marked point process. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 562. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.562
Keywords: spatial distribution; stand simulation; Gibbs point process; Markov chain Monte Carlo
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stand growth modelling based on single tree responses to their surroundings requires a description of the spatial structure of a stand. While such detailed information is rarely available from field measurements, a method to create it from more general stand variables is needed. A marked Gibbs point potential theory combined with Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) random process was used to create a spatial configuration for any given number of trees. The trees are considered as charges rejecting each other and building ‘potential energy’. As an analogue of the potential energy in physical systems, the potential of a stand is defined in terms of size-dependent tree-to-tree interactions that can be thought of as related to resource depletion and competition. The idea that bigger trees induce larger potentials brings 3-dimensional effects into the system. Any feasible spatial structure is a state of the system, and the related potential can be calculated. The probability that a certain state occurs is assumed to be a decreasing function of its potential. Because more regular structures have lower potentials, by adjusting the steepness of the probability distribution the spatial structure can be allowed to have a lot of randomness (naturally regenerated stands) or forced to be very regular (planted stands). The MCMC algorithm is a numerical method of finding stand configurations that correspond to the expected level of the potential, given the size distribution of trees and the shape of the probability density function. The method also allows us to take into account spatial variation in the terrain. Some spots can be defined to have lower basic potential than others (ditch, planting furrow, etc.) in order to create areas of higher than average stocking density. A preliminary test of the method was conducted on two measured stands. The results suggest that the method could provide an efficient and flexible means of mimicking variable stand structures.
  • Kokkila, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: tero.kokkila@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mäkelä, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
  • Nikinmaa, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: en@nn.fi
article id 594, category Research article
Walter Zucchini, Matthias Schmidt, Klaus von Gadow. (2001). A model for the diameter-height distribution in an uneven-aged beech forest and a method to assess the fit of such models. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 594. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.594
Keywords: diameter-height distribution; mixture models; bivariate normal distribution; SBB distribution; goodness-of-fit; pseudo-residuals; beech forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper illustrates the application of a mixture model to describe the bivariate diameter-height distribution of trees growing in a pure, uneven-aged beech forest. A mixture of two bivariate normal distributions is considered but the methodology is applicable to mixtures of other distributions. The model was fitted to diameter-height observations for 1242 beech trees in the protected forest Dreyberg (Solling, Germany). A considerable advantage of the model, apart from the fact that it happens to fit this large data set unusually well, is that the individual parameters all have familiar interpretations. The bivariate Johnson SBB distribution was also fitted to the data for the purpose of comparing the fits. A second issue discussed in this paper is concerned with the general question of assessing the fit of models for bivariate data. We show how a device called ‘pseudo-residual’ enables one to investigate the fit of a bivariate model in new ways and in considerable detail. Attractive features of pseudo-residuals include the fact that they are not difficult to interpret; they can be computed using generally available statistical software and, most important of all, they enable one to examine the fit of a model by means of simple graphs.
  • Zucchini, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Statistics and Econometrics E-mail: zucchini@wi-wiss.uni-goettingen.de (email)
  • Schmidt, Forest Research Station of Lower Saxony E-mail: ms@nn.de
  • Gadow, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Forest Management and Yield Sciences E-mail: kvg@nn.de
article id 620, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Matti Maltamo. (2000). Performance of percentile based diameter distribution prediction and Weibull method in independent data sets. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 620. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.620
Keywords: stand structure; calibration estimation; Weibull function; diameter distribution prediction; distribution-free method; nearest neighbour method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Diameter distribution is used in most forest management planning packages for predicting stand volume, timber volume and stand growth. The prediction of diameter distribution can be based on parametric distribution functions, distribution-free parametric prediction methods or purely non-parametric methods. In the first case, the distribution is obtained by predicting the parameters of some probability density function. In a distribution-free percentile method, the diameters at certain percentiles of the distribution are predicted with models. In non-parametric methods, the predicted distribution is a linear combination of similar measured stands. In this study, the percentile based diameter distribution is compared to the results obtained with the Weibull method in four independent data sets. In the case of Scots pine, the other methods are also compared to k-nearest neighbour method. The comparison was made with respect to the accuracy of predicted stand volume, saw timber volume and number of stems. The predicted percentile and Weibull distributions were calibrated using number of stems measured from the stand. The information of minimum and maximum diameters were also used, for re-scaling the percentile based distribution or for parameter recovery of Weibull parameters. The accuracy of the predicted stand characteristics were also compared for calibrated distributions. The most reliable results were obtained using the percentile method with the model set including number of stems as a predictor. Calibration improved the results in most cases. However, using the minimum and maximum diameters for parameter recovery proved to be inefficient.
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 619, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Matti Maltamo. (2000). Percentile based basal area diameter distribution models for Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch species. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 619. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.619
Keywords: stand structure; diameter distribution prediction; distribution-free method; rational spline
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Information about diameter distribution is used for predicting stand total volume, timber volume and stand growth for forest management planning. Often, the diameter distribution is obtained by predicting the parameters of some probability density function, using means and sums of tree characters as predictors. However, the results have not always been satisfactory: the predicted distributions practically always have a similar shape. Also, multimodal distributions cannot be obtained. However, diameter distribution can also be predicted using distribution-free methods. In the percentile method, the diameters at certain percentiles of the distribution are predicted with models. The empirical diameter distribution function is then obtained by interpolating between the predicted diameters. In this paper, models for diameters at 12 percentiles of stand basal area are presented for Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch species. Two sets of models are estimated: a set with and one without number of stems as a predictor. Including the number of stems as a predictor improved the volume and saw timber volume estimates for all species, but the improvements were especially high for number of stems estimates obtained from the predicted distribution. The use of number of stems as predictor in models is based on the possibility of including this characteristic to measured stand variables.
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 617, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto. (2000). A comparison of two parameter prediction methods for stand structure in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 617. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.617
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; parameter prediction; dbh and height distribution; Johnson’s SBB distribution; Näslund’s height curve
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The objective of this paper was to predict a model for describing stand structure of tree heights (h) and diameters at breast height (dbh). The research material consisted of data collected from 64 stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) and 91 stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) located in southern Finland. Both stand types contained birch (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescent Ehrh.) admixtures. The traditional univariate approach (Model I) of using the dbh distribution (Johnson’s SB) together with a height curve (Näslund’s function) was compared against the bivariate approaches, Johnson’s SBB distribution (Model II) and Model Ie. In Model Ie within-dbh-class h-variation was included by transforming a normally distributed homogenous error of linearized Näslund’s function to concern real heights. Basal-area-weighted distributions were estimated using the maximum likelihood (ML) method. Species-specific prediction models were derived using linear regression analysis. The models were compared with Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for marginal distributions, accuracy of stand variables and the dbh-h relationship of individual trees. The differences in the stand characteristics between the models were marginal. Model I gave a slightly better fit for spruce, but Model II was better for pine stands. The univariate Model I resulted in clearly too narrow marginal h-distribution for pine. It is recommended applying of a constrained ML method for reasonable dbh-h relationship instead of using a pure ML method when fitting the SBB model.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
article id 650, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto. (1999). Improving the accuracy of predicted basal-area diameter distribution in advanced stands by determining stem number. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 4 article id 650. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.650
Keywords: dbh distribution; parameter prediction; Johnson’s SB distribution; Weibull distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The objective of this paper was to study to what extent the accuracy of predicted basal-area diameter distributions (DDG) could be improved by means of stem number observations in advanced (H > 10 m) stands. In the Finnish forest management planning (FMP) inventory practice, stem number is determined only in young stands; in older stands stand basal area is used. The study material consisted of sixty stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) and ninety-one stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with birch (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) admixtures in southern and eastern Finland. For test data, 167–292 independent, National Forest Inventory-based, permanent sample plots were used. DDGs were estimated with the maximum likelihood method. Species-specific models for predicting the distribution parameters were derived using regression analysis. The two-parameter Weibull distribution was compared to the three-parameter Johnson’s SB distributions in predicting DDGs. The models were based on either predictors that are consistent with current FMP (model G), or assuming an additional stem number observation (model G+N). The predicted distributions were compared in terms of the derived stand variables: stem number, total and timber volumes. The results were similar in modelling and test data sets. Methods, based on the SB distribution obtained with model (G+N), proved to give the most accurate description of the stand structure. Differences were marginal in stand total volumes. However, the error variation in stem number was 20% to 80% lower than when applying model (G). SB and Weibull distributions gave very much the same results if model (G) was applied.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)

Category : Research note

article id 1125, category Research note
Anssi Krooks, Sanna Kaasalainen, Ville Kankare, Marianna Joensuu, Pasi Raumonen, Mikko Kaasalainen. (2014). Predicting tree structure from tree height using terrestrial laser scanning and quantitative structure models. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 1125. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1125
Keywords: remote sensing; terrestrial lidar; tree modelling; branch size distribution
Highlights: The analysis of tree structure suggests that trees of different height growing in similar conditions have similar branch size distributions; There is potential for using the tree height information in large-scale estimations of forest canopy structure.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We apply quantitative structure modelling to produce detailed information on branch-level metrics in trees. Particularly we are interested in the branch size distribution, by which we mean the total volume of branch parts distributed over the diameter classes of the parts. We investigate the possibility of predicting tree branch size distributions for trees in similar growing conditions. The quantitative structure model enables for the first time the comparisons of structure between a large number of trees. We found that the branch size distribution is similar for trees of different height in similar growing conditions. The results suggest that tree height could be used to estimate branch size distribution in areas with similar growing conditions and topography.
  • Krooks, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI–02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: Anssi.Krooks@fgi.fi
  • Kaasalainen, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI–02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: Sanna.Kaasalainen@fgi.fi (email)
  • Kankare, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankare@helsinki.fi
  • Joensuu, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: marianna.joensuu@alumni.helsinki.fi
  • Raumonen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland E-mail: Pasi.Raumonen@tut.fi
  • Kaasalainen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland E-mail: Mikko.Kaasalainen@tut.fi
article id 310, category Research note
Timo Tahvanainen, Kalle Kaartinen, Timo Pukkala, Matti Maltamo. (2007). Comparison of approaches to integrate energy wood estimation into the Finnish compartment inventory system. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 310. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.310
Keywords: diameter distribution; thinnings; calibration estimation; compartment inventory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The harvesting of energy wood from young stands is increasing as the demand for renewable wood fuel is growing. Energy wood consists of stems, tree tops, branches and needles, depending on the size of the trees and the logging method used. The current forest inventory and planning systems used in private forests in Finland do not produce estimates of energy wood components. In stands typical for energy wood harvesting, a large share of energy wood consists of trees smaller than the minimum size for pulpwood. In this study, energy wood was included into the calculation system of compartment inventory, and a procedure for simulating the thinning treatments in young stands was developed. The results for six inventory alternatives and prediction of energy wood were compared with the use of inventory material from 37 young stands that have plenty of energy wood. The measurement of additional stand characteristics and the use of a calibration estimation method was tested, as well as the use of plot-level inventory data instead of stand level data. The results showed that the measurement of the number of trees per hectare, in addition to stand basal area and mean diameter, improved the energy wood estimates. The additional minimum and maximum diameters improved the precision of the estimates, but did not affect bias. The removal estimates were more precise when plot-level data was used, rather than stand-level data. The removal estimates were higher with plot-level data. The results suggest that, in heterogeneous young stands, plot by plot prediction would give more accurate removal estimates than the calculation of a corresponding prediction at the stand-level.
  • Tahvanainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.tahvanainen@metla.fi (email)
  • Kaartinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: kk@nn.fi
  • Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi

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