Articles containing the keyword 'GIS'

Linear programming (LP) is an important method for allocation of wood inventory stock. It is, for instance, used alone in tactical planning systems, which currently are in wide use at the higher hierarchical level in the functionally decentralized planning of the Finnish forest industry. Unfortunately, LP as a solution method has not been capable of handling spatial data that seem to characterize planning systems in geographical decentralization. In the present study, GIS was used to assimilate data from different wood procurement functions, to calculate transportation distances and cost figures, and to write the data in ASCII files, which were then used as input for the LP model. Using the experiments and methods of GIS on a planning system developed according to participatory planning, the results of this study suggest that the participatory method was faster than the conventional LP method, when solved using actual data. The participatory method was also capable of providing the same global optimum for a wood allocation problem. The implications of these results for improving operational and tactical planning of wood procurement in Finland are discussed.

• Palander, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown

Three most promising protection methods of pine pulp wood stacks against the attacks of Tomicus piniperda L. were compared. The methods were the covering of stacks by fibreglass-strengthened paper or twofold achrylene netting, removing the upper parts of stacks, and enhanced planning of the placement of the timber store using ARC/INFO GIS-software. T. piniperda was observed to strongly prefer the upper parts of the stacks: 90 % of the beetles occurred within 0.5 meters of the top of the stacks. Covering of the stacks decreased the attack density of T. piniperda, and the protection effect of covering was 80 %. Due to long transport distances and fragmentation of forest landscape the relocation of timber store was found to be an unsuitable method in the practical level. Also, taking into account the costs of the method, removing of the upper parts of stacks was considered to be the optimal solution.

• Jääskelä, E-mail: mj@mm.unknown
• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
• Peltonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
• Saarenmaa, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown

The European Pine Sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer Geoffroy) is one of the most serious defoliators of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in northern Europe. We studied the pattern in the regional occurrence of the outbreaks of N. sertifer in Finland in years 1961-90, and made predictions about the outbreak pattern to the year 2050 after predicted winter warming. We tested whether minimum winter temperatures and forest type and soil properties could explain the observed outbreak pattern. We analysed outbreak patterns at two different spatial levels: forest board- and municipal-level.

The proportion of coniferous forests on damage-susceptible soils (dry and infertile sites) explained a significant part of the variation in outbreak frequency at small spatial scale (municipalities) but not at large spatial scale (forest boards). At the forest board level, the incidence of minimum temperatures below -36 °C (= the critical value for egg mortality) explains 33% of the variation in the outbreak pattern, and at the municipal level the incidence of cold winters was also the most significant explaining variable in northern Finland. Egg mortality due to cold winters seems to be the most parsimonious factor explaining why there have been so few N. sertifer outbreaks in northern and north-eastern Finland. We predict that climate change (increased winter temperatures) may increase the frequency of outbreaks in eastern and northern Finland in the future.

• Virtanen, E-mail: tv@mm.unknown
• Neuvonen, E-mail: sn@mm.unknown
• Niemelä, E-mail: pn@mm.unknown
• Nikula, E-mail: an@mm.unknown
• Varama, E-mail: mv@mm.unknown

In this study, logistic regression and neural networks were used to predict non-industrial private forests (NIPF) landowners’ choice of forest taxation basis. The main frame of reference of the study was the Finnish capital taxation reform of 1993. As a consequence of the reform, landowners were required to choose whether to be taxed according to site-productivity or realized-income during the coming transition period of thirteen years.

The most important factor affecting the landowners’ choice of taxation basis was the harvest rate during the transition period, i.e. the chosen timber management strategy. Furthermore, the estimated personal marginal tax rate and the intention to cut timber during next three years affected the choice. The descriptive landowner variables did not have any marked effect on the choice of forest taxation basis.

On average, logistic regression predicted 71% of the choices correctly; the corresponding figure for neural networks was 63%. In both methods, the choice of site-productivity taxation was predicted more accurately than the choice of realized-income taxation. An increase in the number of model variable did not significantly improve the results of neural networks and logistic regression.

• Pesonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
• Kettunen, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
• Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown

Comprehensive state laws regulating the practice of forest management on private lands are in effect in seven of the United States. Established to protect a wide range of non-timber forest resources and to ensure reforestation after harvest, these laws may impose significant administrative costs on states and significant compliance costs on landowners and timber operators. Total state administration costs for 1984 are estimated at $10.1 and total private sector compliance costs are estimated at $120.5 million, for a total regulation cost of $130.6 million.

The resource protection effectiveness of state forest practice regulation is difficult to quantify. However, agreement is strong that regulation has led to significant improvements in forest resource conditions and has helped to increase reforestation.

• Henly, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown
• Ellefson, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown

To conduct an efficient forest policy, both a normative and a positive theory are necessary. In addition, however, the explicit intertemporal considerations in natural resource economics demand that it is made crystal clear which means are permanent and which are non-permanent. The permanent case is far from easy to solve.

That the theoretical problems have practical relevance is shown by Swedish experience. A practical course of action is to weight possible positive effects from a permanent subsidy against possible deleterious outcomes. It is also desirable to avoid jerkiness in forest policy, which is likely to create uncertainty about the permanence of permanent means.

Law may sometimes be more efficient in creating ”credibility” than economic incentives. Regeneration has been mandatory in Sweden since 1903, and nobody refrains from cutting because he believes that regeneration duty will be abolished in some near future.

• Löfgren, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown

Forest legislation is one of the important institutional elements for the development and expansion of the forest sector. It provides the structural framework within which national forest policies are set and in turn reflects or should reflect their objectives and priorities. It is also an indispensable instrument for the implementation of those policies.

Forest laws in the sector specific sense have been modified and developed considerably during the last decades. They tend to incorporate more and more provisions on environmental protection and natural resources management and become de facto part of such legislation. Forest legislation as a whole can today only be interpreted meaningfully if it is considered within the framework of an expanding legal system for environmental conservation and social development.

• Schmithüsen, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effect that the various measures by society have on bringing the level of the annual cut by private woodlot owners in line with the forestry policy goal of a long-term sustained yield of wood. The objectives and measures of forest policy in Sweden are described, as well as the central relations which explain the development in the logging policies of the private woodlot owners.

The goal of Swedish forestry policy has long been to safeguard a sustained yield of wood. This demand has successively been tightened, defined and detailed. The principle measure employed by the authorities to obtain the goal has been silvicultural legislation.

The author summarises that of all the means available of influencing the logging policy of private woodlot owners the most effective is silvicultural legislation. However, when viewed in an historical perspective, the legislation has not been able to significantly regulate the level of the annual cut. Nevertheless, at a time when there is a shortage of wood materials the legislation will undoubtedly exert a greater influence. Changes in forest taxation could prove to be an effective means in future of, for example, achieving an increase in the annual cut of private woodlot owners.

• Lönnstedt, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown

The paper, which was written already at the turn of the year 1950–51, gives a quite detailed description of the early history of the Act on Forest Owners’ Associations, which was passed on 17 November 1950 and is still in force, of the long-lasting and multifarious preparations involved with it, and of its consideration in the parliament. In most parties there were both supporters and opponents; only the social democrats voted harmoniously for the act and the people’s democrats against it.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown

A Timber Scaling Committee was appointed by the Government of Finland in 1959, commissioned with the regulations concerning the scaling of timber and to draw a proposal for their amendments. The commission suggest revision of the regulations in their entire extent. The largest alterations should be made in the act which incorporates the provisions concerning the actual technical methods of procedure in measuring. Thus, also amendments were also posed for the Timber Scaling Law and the law concerning the scaling of timber for the purpose of paying wages.

The inclusion of the setting of the grades and quantities are considered important, since most of the disagreements occurring in measuring are concerned with quality of the timber. Inside of the sphere of application of the law would also be settling of the problems of the quality, and the measuring procedure, also when measuring for the purpose of paying wages.

According to the bill, the necessary number of official scalers and scaling boards would be appointed. The duties of the present officers would be changed. In the boards would be presented sellers, buyers, employers and employees besides the chairman. The freedom of contract in the scaling of timber will be preserved from the present law.

The report includes a bill for the Timber scaling Act, a draft for the timber scaling act, and a draft for an act which includes the timber scaling rules.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Puutavaranmittauskomitea, E-mail: –

The Law on Forest Management Associations was passed in 1950. According to the law, forest owners have to pay a forestry fee, which is used to finance local forest management associatons. The effect of the law on Finnish private forestry is considered to be significant.
The number of consulting forest officers has increased by 95% and the labour input by 107% since the law came into effect. Thus, the guidance available for forest owners has increased markedly. 85% of timber cut from private forests are marked by professional foresters, while the share was earlier less than 30%. The amount of forest management work, such as clearing of felling sites, sowing and care of plantations, has also increased.
On the other hand, experience has pointed out a need for revising some points of the law. To this aim, the Government of Finland appointed a committee to outline the ammendments. The present article contains the report of the committee.
The committee suggests that the forestry fee, that according to the present law is 2-6% of the net yield computed for communal income tax, will be changed to 2-5%. Further, forest holding in which the annual increment is less than 20 cu.m. are at the moment exempt from the fee. It is suggested that holdings with an annual increment of less than 30 cu.m. pay half a fee. In addition, the committee suggests some clarifying provisions to be adopted.

The article includes a summary in English.

• Metsänhoitoyhdistyslain tarkistamiskomitea, E-mail: –

In 1953 and 1954 needle cast (Peridermium pinastri (Shrad.) Chev., now Lophodermium) caused much damage at the Leksvall nursery at Tammisaari as well as at some other nurseries in Southern Finland.

Experiments were conducted at the Leksvall nursery with different fungicides. The results showed that with spraying done every second week during the whole growing season beginning on May 20th and ending on 27th September in 1954, the damage caused by needle cast was entirely controlled with 2% Bordeaux mixture and the zineb preparation (Dithane Z-78); nabam preparation (Dithane D-14) being somewhat less effective. Lime sulphur, Burgundy mixture, thiram preparation, captan preparation, and PCNB preparation were rather ineffective, in addition, of these the lime sulphur and the Burgundy mixture caused damage to the needles. Phenylmercury preparation proved useless.

The article includes an abstract in English.

• Jamalainen, E-mail: ej@mm.unknown

A Committee was appointed in 1946 by the government of Finland to draw a draft to substitute the 1928 Law on Private Forests. The article is a report of the committee, and gives a suggestion to a new Forest Management Law and Forest Management Decree.

The aim of the 1928 law was to prevent devastating fellings. The committee introduces a new concept, duty to tend forests in accord with the principle of progressive forestry. This principle is drafted in the first paragraph of the law: Forest should be so tended, protected and used that, as far as possible, the productive capacity of the soil will be fully utilized and economically profitable, and increasing yield secured.

The proposal also includes measures to prevent devastation, the concept of which has been changed from the previous law. For instance, a cutting which is in disproportion to the growing stock of the forestry holding is considered devastation. Responsibility for the measures to secure regeneration after felling rests with the forest owner if the felling has been carried out in line with sound silvicultural practice. The district forestry boards are suggested to be the organizations that supervise the observance of the law.

The article includes a summary in English.

• Metsänhoitolakikomitea, E-mail: –

The government of Finland appointed in 1949 a committee to compose new legislation for Forest Service. The article includes proposals for a Forest and Park Service Act and a Forest and Park Service Decree. The proposals are based on the previous decree on forest administration. The committee proposes changes in the sections of Forest Service. The management of peatlands and forests of the state will be in a same section, and all issues concerning the private forests in one section. State forests would be divided in three districts instead of the present four districts.

The committee will make a separate report on necessary reforms in the administration of Forest Service to ensure that the state forests of Finland will be managed effectively.

• Metsähallintakomitea, E-mail: –

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes execution of land acquisition act that came into effect in 1945. The act gave principles of transfer of state forest land for settlement.

• Kallio, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes application of labour legislation and occupational safety act in forest work.

• Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

A committee was appointed in 1940 to prepare a proposal for reform of forest taxation. The taxation based on net income of forestry was considered to have limitations, and the actual net income had been observed to be markedly higher than the income that was used in taxation.

The report describes in detail the principles and shortcomings of taxation used since 1922. These include inaccuracies in the forest areas of a woodland estate, and weaknesses in classification of forest land and demand zones. The committee suggests several improvements in calculating the taxable income, which in the new calculations is based on yield on terms of value.

The article includes an abstract in German.

• Metsäverotuksen uudistamiskomitea, E-mail: –

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses legal aspects of cases when property has been used without property rights. Examples related to forestry, hunting, fishing and reindeer husbandry are presented.

• Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

Due to constantly changing working sites often in remote places the working conditions of forest workers and log floaters have been inadequate. The article discusses the requirements of the act on the housing of forest workers and log floaters that came into force in 1928, and assesses how it affected the working conditions of the laborers. 

The employers had positive attitude towards the new legislation and they had improved the housing conditions to match the requirements. Most complaints in the inspections of the working conditions were found in Eastern Finland. The shortages were considered to be mostly minor ones. Even if the act concerned only housing, it improved indirectly also nourishment in the working sites. Other factors affecting the working conditions were shelters for the draught horses, health care, and newspapers and other spare-time activities available for the workers. 

The article includes a German summary. 

• Lähde, E-mail: al@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes how criminal law affects the use of forests.

• Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

The government of Finland appointed a commission to study how the work of forest owners’ associations could be promoted. In 1936 there was 232 forest owners’ associations in Finland. They had 20,632 members, who owned 1,841,304 hectares of forests. The owners of large forest holdings were overpresented among the members. The associations together with forestry boards were important actors in increasing the productivity of the private forests.

The commission concluded that rational forest management should be extended to all private forests, which could be best achieved through the forest owners’ associations. It suggested that the membership should remain voluntary, and that the financing of the associations would be arranged by self-taxation of the forest owners. The so called forest management tax should be devoted to the local forest owners’ associations. Also the state should continue to support the associations. Both state and the smallest forest holdings would be released from the forest management tax. The companies, estates and other large forest owners that employ their own forest management staff would pay a quarter of the tax. The tax could be based on the area of the forest, income of the timber sold or a combination of these. The commission suggested a forest management law, which would deal with the forest management tax and the forest owners’ associations.
The PDF includes a summary in Swedish and English.

• Metsänhoidon edistämiskomitea, E-mail: mhek@mm.unknown

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes legislation concerning settlement policy in the state lands.

• Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown

A state committee report proposing the enactment of a Forest Management Act has recently been published in Finland. The act is intended to be considerably more binding on forest owners than the present law concerning private forests which it would replace. The author assumes that the publication will raise a keen discussion that will ensue pro and contra the proposed law. The article includes a review of the first draft for a Forest Management Act prepared in the wartime winter of 1944. At that time the then minister of forestry N.A. Osara and professor Eino Saari had studied the draft. The former commented the act to the author by saying that after the return of peace the forests would have to be prepared to be restored to good condition, using radical measures if necessary. He foresaw that a proposal for the forest management law might meet with some resistance, but thought it was important enough to be forced through nevertheless. Professor Saari pointed out that bearing in mind that hardly any other country in the world is dependent upon her forests to such a decree as Finland, the requirement expressed in the draft (forests must be managed with a view to the most advantageous return as regards tree species, quality and quantity) must be considered justified. The author hopes that despite the prevailing resistance foreseen by Osara, a law will be enacted to correct the situation under the present law which tends to leave the management of our forests to the mercy of arbitrary decisions.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown

Forest policy can be traced several hundred years back in Sweden. One of the early restrictions was related to iron industry, which was dependent on supply of charcoal. This led in the 17th century to the regulation of the industry in order to fit its capacity to the sustained yield of the forests. Also the early sawmill industry was kept under supervision in the mining districts in order not to compete with the iron industry of the forests resources.

In 1903 the fears of shortage of wood, caused by a few decades of unrestricted use of forests and the rise of pulp and paper industries, resulted in the first forest law (enacted in 1905). The leading principle of the law was that the owner of the forest had to secure reforestation after felling. When previously the regulation had limited the fellings within the sustainable yield of the forests, the new law aimed at promoting the productive capacity of the forests. New felling methods were developed and the new practices were spread to the forest owners with help of education, propaganda and giving advice. One important factor in the success of the forest law was founding of County forestry boards, which are the main agencies to materialize the constructive ideas of the new forest policy.

The First National Forest Survey was conducted in 1923-29, followed by the second in 1938, and third in 1954. A new forest law came into force in 1923, which prohibited the cutting of immature forests in other ways than by thinning. In 1948, new amendments of the law were introduced, which, for instance allowed the forest owner to put part of the income derived from the timber sales into a bank account to be later used in reforestation.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

• Streyffert, E-mail: ts@mm.unknown

The paper describes the history of legislation concerning the use of forests in Denmark. The land area covered by forests has decreased to only 3–4% of the total land area of Denmark already for several hundreds of years ago. Regulations concerning the right to cut forests have been included in the legislation as early as in the 1200s. In 1781 was enacted a decree that stipulated the use of state forests and peatlands. In 1920, a forest act that concerns all the forests in the state was prepared.

• Oppermann, E-mail: ao@mm.unknown

Forests and forestry in northern Scandinavia is affected by the climate, as well as economic and demographic questions. In northern Norway the issues of forest management are related to broadleaved forests, in Northern Sweden and Finland, the forests are mainly coniferous. These forests are still mostly primeval forests as the exploitation of the forests have begun slower than in the south. The Finnish forests are mainly owned by the state which makes the challenges of forestry a management problem within the Forest Service. In Sweden, the rational use of forest resources of the north has been lively discussed. Rational management of forests has begun in the southern and central parts of the country, but as the rationalization process reached the northern Sweden, many biological, economic and forest policy problems emerged. This paper outlines the forest resources, forest policy and legislation (so called lappmarkslag, an act that regulate the use of forest in the region) concerning the problems of forest management in northern Sweden.

• Schager, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown

The third part of the six-article series about protection forest in Northern Finland describes prevention of forest fires in the pine timber line area. The article gives a proposal for a forest fire decree. According to the proposal, lighting a campfire should be prohibited in dry and windy times. Vegetation should be cleared around a campfire in the summertime. The local people should be obliged to help to extinguish any forest fire, and given compensation for the work. The compensation would be claimed from the person who lit the fire, if that is known. A fine is collected if forest fire breaks out by negligence. 

The article is divided in six parts. The parts II and III of the article series are included in the same PDF. A German summary is in a separate PDF.

• Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown

The article represents, based on meteorological data from 1900-1910 and 1911-1915 and annual reports of forest directorate with descriptions or statistics about wind damages of trees in state owned lands, the biggest storms in Finland and the damage they have caused to forests. The most powerful storms of the studied period and damages they caused are presented.  

• Bonsdorff, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown

There are lot of storm damages in the Finnish forests. They are particularly common in forests logged as strips or with clear cuts, but not absent in selection forestry either. To protect the forests from natural disasters requires more intensive management. For the forestry purposes it is important to know the most common wind directions of different parts of the country. The paper finds out which stormy wind directions are most dangerous to Finnish forests and hence need to be mostly taken into consideration when planning logging operations.  The study is based on meteorological data that has been compared with the reports of storm damages in state owned forests.

The most storm damage take place during the growing season, and to some extent in late fall. The regeneration felling should take place against the primary direction of the stormy winds. The paper represents the most common wind directions for different parts of the country. However, the wind directions may vary from the primary with local conditions such as altitude differences. 

• Bonsdorff, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown

Questions of the small size of non-industrial private forest (NIPF) holdings in Finland are considered and factors affecting their partitioning are analysed. This work arises out of Finnish forest policy statements in which the small average size of holdings has been seen to have negative influence on the economics of forestry. A literature survey indicates that the size of holdings is an important factor determining the costs of logging and silvicultural operations, while its influence on the timber supply is slight.

The empirical data are based on a sample of 314 holdings collected by interviewing forest owners in 1980–86. In 1990–91 the same holdings were resurveyed by means of a postal inquiry and partly by interviewing the forest owners. The principal objective was to collect data to assist in quantifying ownership factors that influence partitioning among different kinds of NIPF holdings. Thus, the mechanism of partitioning was described and a maximum likelihood logistic regression model was constructed using seven independent holding and ownership variables.

One out of four holdings had undergone partitioning in conjunction with a change in ownership, one fifth among family owned holdings and nearly a half among jointly owned holdings. The results of the logistic regression model indicate, for instance, that the odds on partitioning is about three times greater for jointly owned holdings than for family owned ones. Also, the probabilities of partitioning were estimated and the impact of independent dichotomous variables on the probability of partitioning ranged between 0.02 and 0.01. The low value of Hosmer-Lemeshow test statistics indicates a good fit of the model, and the rate of correct classification was estimated to be 88% with a cut-off point of 0.5.

The average size of holdings undergoing ownership changes decreased from 29.9 ha to 28.7 ha over the approximate interval 1983–90. In addition, the transition probability matrix showed that the trends towards smaller size categories mostly concerned the small size categories. The results can be used in considering the effects of the small size holdings for forestry and if the purpose is to influence partitioning through forest or rural policy.

• Ripatti, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown

The presence/absence data of 27 forest insect taxa (Retinia resinella, Formica spp., Pissodes spp., several scolytids) and recorded environmental variation were used to investigate the applicability of modelling insect occurrence based on satellite imagery. The sampling was based on 1,800 sample plots (25 m by 25 m) placed along the sides of 30 equilateral triangles (side 1 km) in a fragmented forest area (approximately 100 km²) in Evo, Southern Finland. The triangles were overlaid on land use maps interpreted from satellite images (Landsat TM 30 m multispectral scanner imagery 1991) and digitized geological maps. Insect occurrence was explained using either environmental variables measured in the field or those interpreted from the land use and geological maps. The fit of logistic regression models carried between species, possibly because some species may be associated with characteristics of single trees while other species with stand characteristics. The occurrence of certain insect species at least, especially those associated with Scots pine, could be relatively accurately assessed indirectly on the basis of satellite imagery and geological maps. Models based on both remotely sensed and geological data better predicted the distribution of forest insects except in the case of Xylechinus pilosus, Dryocetes sp. and Trypodendron lineatum, where the differences were relatively small in favour of the models based on field measurements. The number of species was related to habitat compartment size and distance from the habitat edge calculated from the land use maps, but logistic regressions suggested that other environmental variables in general masked the effect of these variables in species occurrence at the present scale.

• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown

The aim of the study was to determine how timber truck transport business succeeds in the competition within its sector, and the effect it has on profitability structure of the sector. Furthermore, strategic groups were looked at in depth, as well as the competitive strategies of the most successful companies and groups of companies. The theoretical competitive strategy was operationalized.

A total of 53 timber truck transport entrepreneurs were interviewed. The average age of the entrepreneurs was 51 years. Of the businesses, 35% were partnership companies, 6% open companies, and 59% self-employed. The business owned an average 1.5 trucks, and at the time of interviewing their average age was four years. Nearly nine out of ten entrepreneurs had no schooling for the line of business, and four out of five had no short-term training. The attitude of the timber truckers toward their activities was more like that of self-employed persons than that of entrepreneurs. A total of 61.5% of them reporter that they carried on entrepreneurship simply to assure themselves a job.

The operational profitability of the sector has been good in the years 1984 to 1990, and the business profitability fairly good. The median equity ratio in the sector has remained at about 20% and the ratio of debts to turnover about 40%. The sector has been more profitable than forest machine contracting primarily due to the barriers to entry into the sector.

Cluster analysis, using Ward’s method, was used for seeking out strategic groups. The lengths of the customer relationships proved a significant barrier to mobility. The most successful business used the competitive strategy of cost weighted focussing. This was done through optimization of the capacity utilization rate and through choice of correct customers. The strategic position for successful business was judged to be good in the future. Success in the future will require above all activeness and innovation ability.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

• Mäkinen, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown

Two operative forest site class estimation methods utilizing satellite images have been developed for forest income taxation purposes. For this, two pixelwise classification methods and two post-processing methods for estimating forest site fertility are compared using different input data. The pixelwise methods are discriminant analysis, based on generalized squared distances, and logistic regression analysis. The results of pixelwise classifications are improved either with mode filtering within forest stands or assuming a Markov random field type dependence between pixels. The stand delineation is obtained by using ordinary segmentation techniques. Optionally, known stand boundaries given by the interpreter can be applied. The spectral values of images are corrected using a digital elevation model of the terrain. Some textural features are preliminary tested in classification. All methods are justified by using independent test data.

A test of the practical methods was carried out and a cost-benefit analysis computed. The estimated cost saving in site quality classification varies from 14% to 35% depending on the distribution of the site classes of the area. This means a saving of about 2.0–4.5 million FMK per year in site fertility classification for income taxation purposes. The cost savings would rise even to 60% if that version of the method were chosen where field checking is totally omitted. The classification accuracy at the forest holding level would still be similar to that of traditional method.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Tomppo, E-mail: et@mm.unknown

Biogeographical patterns of the Scolytidae in Fennoscandia and Denmark, based on species incidence data from the approximately 70 km x 70 km quadrats (n = 221) used by Lekander et al. (1977), were classified to environmental variables using multivariate methods (two-way indicator species analysis, detrended correspondence analysis, canonical correspondence analysis).

The distributional patterns of scolytid species composition showed similar features to earlier presented zonations based on vegetation composition. One major difference, however, was that the region was more clearly divided in an east-west direction. Temperature variables associated with the location of the quadrat had the highest canonical coefficient values on the first axis of the CCA. Although these variables were the most important determinants of the biogeographical variation in the beetle species assemblages, annual precipitation and the distribution of Picea abies also improved the fit of the species data.

Samples with the most deviant rarity and typicality indices for the scolytid species assempblages in each quadrat were concentrated in several southern Scandinavian quadrats, in some quadrats in northern Sweden, and especially on the Swedish islands (Öland, Gotland, Gotska Sandön) in the Baltic Sea. The use of rarity indices which do not take the number of species per quadrat, also resulted high values for areas near Stockholm and Helsinki with well-known faunas. Methodological tests in which the real changes in the distribution of Ips acuminatus and I. amitinus were used as indicators showed that the currently available multivariate methods are sensitive to small faunal shifts even, and thus permit analysis of the fauna in relation to environmental changes. However, this requires more detailed monitoring of the species’ distributions over longer time spans.

Distribution of seven species (Scolytus intricatus, S. laevis, Hylurgops glabratus, Crypturgus cinereus, Pityogenes salasi, Ips typographus, and Cyleborus dispar) were predicted by logistic regression models using climatic variables. In spite of the deficiencies in the data and the environmental variables selected, the models were relatively good for several but not for all species. The potential effects of climate change on bark beetles are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

• Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
• Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
• Immonen, E-mail: ai@mm.unknown

The EU’s influence on national forest policies is growing, and the implementation of forest-related policies proposed by the Commission will affect the practice of forestry in Europe. For instance, the Nature Restoration Law sets concrete areal goals for restoring forest ecosystems and for conservation, the Deforestation Regulation requires meticulous tracking of wood’s origin, and the renewed Renewable Energy Directive (RED III) sets new criteria to sustainable forest biomass procurement. So far there have been no studies that have looked into the impacts from the economic and operational point of view. In this study, structural systems analysis was first performed to discover the relevant variables (and their functioning) associated with the roundwood harvesting operations and the operating environment. A scenario approach was then applied to capture the potential levels of implementation of the EU’s forest-related policies. Finally, using different scenarios (low-, moderate- and high-impact) and a systems analysis framework, the impact of alternative levels of implementation was quantified in terms of harvesting costs, measured in € m^–3. The results indicate that with the low- and moderate-impact scenarios the harvesting costs would increase by less than 10% from the current levels in three different regions in Finland. Such an increase (less than 10%) could be tolerated over a period of a few years, but a sudden increase is likely to lead to challenges to the running of businesses. With the high-impact scenario the harvesting costs would increase by between 15% and 18%, depending on the region. This magnitude of increase (of approximately a sixth) corresponds to a severe change in the roundwood harvesting operations and operating environment.

• Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Tekniikankatu 1, FI-33720 Tampere, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1658-3813 E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
• Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6886-0432 E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi
• Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi
• Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi
• Mutanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0533-9356 E-mail: antti.mutanen@luke.fi
• Lindblad, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0009-0003-6766-6587 E-mail: jari.lindblad@luke.fi
• Sikanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.sikanen@luke.fi
• Routa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistonkatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7225-1798 E-mail: johanna.routa@luke.fi

• Munna, Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3008, Morogoro, Tanzania https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8858-0457 E-mail: amabmunna81@gmail.com
• Amuri, Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3008, Morogoro, Tanzania https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3092-3458 E-mail: namuri@sua.ac.tz
• Hieronimo, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3003 Morogoro, Tanzania https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4450-5073 E-mail: phmusigula@gmail.com
• Woiso, Department of Biosciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3038 Morogoro, Tanzania E-mail: dino@sua.ac.tz

Road transport produces 90% of greenhouse gas emissions in timber transport in Finland. It is therefore necessary to understand the factors that affect driving speed, fuel consumption, and ultimately, emissions. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of road characteristics on timber truck driving speed and fuel consumption. Data from the fleet management and transport management systems of two timber trucks were collected over a year. A sample of 104 trips was drawn, and the tracking points were overlaid on the road data in a geographical information system. Thereafter, work phases were determined for the points, and they were visually classified into road and pavement classes. Subsequently, the data of 80 trips were utilised in regression analysis to further study the effects of the visually interpreted variables on driving speed and fuel consumption. Fuel consumption was explained by the proportion of forest roads and distance travelled with a loader, and the number of crossings and season when driving without a load. When driving with a load, both asphalt and gravel pavements decreased consumption, in contrast to an unpaved road. Crossings increased fuel consumption, as did the winter and spring months, and the total laden mass of the truck. In conclusion, the study showed that the functional Finnish road and pavement classes can be used to predict driving speed and fuel consumption.

• Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi
• Ojala, UPM Metsä, Sirkkalantie 13 b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johannes.ojala@upm.com
• Palander, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland (UEF), Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9284-5443 E-mail: teijo.s.palander@uef.fi
• Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6886-0432 E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi

Because today’s tree planting machines do a good job silviculturally, the Nordic forest sector is interested in finding ways to increase the planting machines’ productivity. Faster seedling reloading increases machine productivity, but that solution might require investments in specially designed seedling packaging. The objective of our study was to compare the cost-efficiency of cardboard box concepts that increase the productivity of tree planting machines with that of today’s two most common seedling packaging systems in southern Sweden. We modelled the total cost of these five different seedling packaging systems using data from numerous sources including manufacturers, nurseries, contractors, and forest companies. Under these southern Swedish conditions, the total cost of cardboard box concepts that increase the productivity of intermittently advancing tree planting machines was higher than the cost of the cultivation tray system (5–49% in the basic scenario). However, the conceptual packaging system named ManBox_fast did show promise, especially with increasing primary transport distances and increased planting machine productivities and hourly costs. Thus, our results show that high seedling packing density is of fundamental importance for cost-efficiency of cardboard box systems designed for mechanized tree planting. Our results also illustrate how different factors in the seedling supply chain affect the cost-efficiency of tree planting machines. Consequently, our results underscore that the key development factor for mechanized tree planting in the Nordic countries is the development of cost-efficient seedling handling systems between nurseries and planting machines.

• Ersson, SLU, School of Forest Management, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2442-7482 E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se
• Sundblad, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lars-goran.sundblad@skogforsk.se
• Manner, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4982-3855 E-mail: jussi.manner@skogforsk.se

Bark beetles are amongst the most aggressive pest agents of coniferous forests. Due to this, many boreal countries have designated laws aiming to lower the risk of bark beetle epidemics. Finland’s forest legislation has pre-emptive measures targeted against bark beetles, and for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), the law concerns pine shoot beetles (Tomicus spp.). This study used data collected around 25 piles of Scots pine roundwood that were harvested in the winter but left in the forest until the following November. Thus, the pine shoot beetles were able to use the piles for breeding. We assessed the number of emerged insects from the piles and the cascading damage they caused in the surrounding forests. All roundwood piles, regardless of their volume, were used by the beetles for breeding. Highest densities of beetle exit holes were found from the parts of the log with thick and intact bark. If the bark of the log was damaged by the harvester head, the number of beetles decreased significantly. Depending on the volume of the roundwood pile, the cascading damage (fallen shoots) was noticeable up to ca. 40–60 m from the roundwood pile. Storing of piles smaller than 50 m³ did not cause excess damage. The number of fallen shoots per tree was generally below the known thresholds for when growth losses can occur. However, the study was conducted in mature forests, and it can be assumed that the recorded damage levels would severely affect the growth of young pines, raising the question of where to store the roundwood. As with other bark beetles, the role of Tomicus beetles as damage agents may change in the future, but based on this as well as past studies, the species can be viewed as a notable damage agents only around long-term wood storage sites in the current northern conditions.

• Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi
• Ylioja, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tiina.ylioja@luke.fi
• Aarnio, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: leena.aarnio@luke.fi
• Hamunen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: katri.hamunen@luke.fi
• Nevalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.nevalainen@gmail.com
• Pouttu, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: antti.pouttu@kolumbus.fi
• Viiri, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; UPM-Kymmene Oyj, UPM Forest, Peltokatu 26 C, PL 85, FI-33100, Tampere, Finland E-mail: heli.viiri@upm.com

Studies of intra-annual growth are particularly useful for understanding tree growth because of their high temporal resolution. This study was performed in Austria and included hourly band dendrometer data of 244 annual tree recordings from six tree species (Picea abies (L.) Karst., Pinus sylvestris L., Larix decidua Mill., Abies alba Mill., Fagus sylvatica L., Quercus spp. (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Quercus robur L.) sampled on five sites with contrasting site conditions in pure and mixed stands and on trees of different social position. Measurements encompassed 1–7 years. Cumulative diameter increment was modelled by logistic mixed-effects models with random effects at the tree and year level. The results showed large differences in seasonal growth patterns between sites, with a clearly shorter growing season at the drier sites. Species specific response on dry sites could be linked to drought characteristics, whereas response on more humid sites was related to light requirements or successional status. The deciduous trees showed earlier growth culmination and shorter growing periods than the evergreen species. Individual tree growth of Quercus spp., P. abies, and F. sylvatica was positively affected by mixture whereas L. decidua, P. sylvestris and A. alba showed no or adverse mixture effects. Mixture effects differed between years and social position. Furthermore, increment culmination was earlier in mixed stands, but shifts were minor. Tree growth differed by social position with dominant trees showing the largest increment and the longest growth duration, with shifts in tree growth patterns due to social position being as large as those between different sites.

• Strieder, Boku, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Department of Forest- and Soil Sciences, Institute of Forest Growth, Peter-Jordan-Str. 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6398-8536 E-mail: emanuel.strieder@students.boku.ac.at
• Vospernik, Boku, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Department of Forest- and Soil Sciences, Institute of Forest Growth, Peter-Jordan-Str. 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4201-6444 E-mail: sonja.vospernik@boku.ac.at

In terms of assessing economic impact, one of the most important elements in the wood supply chain is the measurement of round wood. Besides the one-by-one measurement of logs, logs are often measured when stacked at the forest road. The gross stacked volume includes the volume of the wood, bark and airspace and is widely used for industrial wood assortments. The increasing international attention given to photo-optical measurement systems for portable devices is due to their simplicity of use and efficiency. The aim of this study was to compare the gross volumes of hardwood log stacks measured using one widespread photo-optical app with two manual section-wise volume estimations of log stacks based on the German framework agreement for timber trade (RVR). The manual volume estimations were done starting from the left (RVR_left) and right (RVR_right) sides of the log stacks. The results showed an average deviation of the photo-optical gross volume estimation in comparison to the manual estimation of –2.09% (RVR_left) and –3.66% (RVR_right) while the deviation between RVR_left and RVR_right was +2.54%. However, the log stack gross volume had a highly significant effect on the deviation and better accuracy with smaller deviation were reached for larger log stacks. Moreover, results indicated that the gross volume estimations of higher quality log stacks were closer for the three analyzed methods compared to estimations of poor-quality log stacks.

• Berendt, Department of Forest Utilization and Timber Markets, Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, 16225 Eberswalde, Germany https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6285-7590 E-mail: ferreol.berendt@hnee.de
• Wolfgramm, Landesforst MV Anstalt des öffentlichen Rechts, Forstamt Billenhagen, 18182 Blankenhagen, Germany E-mail: felixwolfgramm@yahoo.de
• Cremer, Department of Forest Utilization and Timber Markets, Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, 16225 Eberswalde, Germany E-mail: tobias.cremer@hnee.de

New mortality models were developed for the purpose of improving long-term growth and yield simulations in Finland, Norway, and Sweden and were based on permanent national forest inventory plots from Sweden and Norway. Mortality was modelled in two steps. The first model predicts the probability of survival, while the second model predicts the proportion of basal area in surviving trees for plots where mortality has occurred. In both models, the logistic function was used. The models incorporate the variation in prediction period length and in plot size. Validation of both models indicated unbiased mortality rates with respect to various stand characteristics such as stand density, average tree diameter, stand age, and the proportion of different tree species, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), and broadleaves. When testing against an independent dataset of unmanaged spruce-dominated stands in Finland, the models provided unbiased prediction with respect to stand age.

• Siipilehto, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi
• Allen, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway; Larson and McGowin Inc., Mobile, AL 36607, USA https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7824-2849 E-mail: micky.allen@nibio.no
• Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7624-4031 E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se
• Brunner, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1668-9714 E-mail: andreas.brunner@nmbu.no
• Huuskonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8630-3982 E-mail: saija.huuskonen@luke.fi
• Haikarainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8703-3689 E-mail: soili.haikarainen@luke.fi
• Subramanian, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-3241 E-mail: narayanan.subramanian@slu.se
• Antón-Fernández, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5545-3320 E-mail: clara.anton.fernandez@nibio.no
• Holmström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SE-23053 Alnarp, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2025-1942 E-mail: emma.holmstrom@slu.se
• Andreassen, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Products, NO-1431 Ås, Norway https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4272-3744 E-mail: kjellandreassen@gmail.com
• Hynynen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jari.hynynen@luke.fi

In wintertime, the payload capacity of a timber truck is reduced by snow that accumulates on the structures of the truck. The aim of this study was to quantify the potential payload loss due to snow and winter accessories and to predict the loss with weather variables. Tare weights of eight timber trucks were collected at mill receptions in Finland over a one-year period. Monthly and annual loss of potential payload was estimated using the tare measurements in summer months as a reference. Each load was also connected with weather data at the location and time of delivery and payload loss explained by the weather data with the aid of regression models. The maximum loss of payload varied between 1560 kg and 3100 kg. On a monthly basis, the highest losses occurred in January, when the median values varied between 760 kg and 2180 kg. Over the year, the payload loss ranged between the trucks from 0.5% to 1.5% (from 1.9% and 5.1% in January) of the total number of loads in the study. Payload loss was found to increase with decreasing temperature, increasing relative humidity and increasing precipitation. Although the average payload loss was not very high, the biggest losses occur just during the season of highest capacity utilization. Big differences were also found in the tare weights between the trucks. The results of the study give incentive to develop truck and trailer structures that reduce the adherence of snow.

• Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi
• Nummelin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomas.nummelin@luke.fi
• Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi
• Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4431-3319 E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi

According to the National Energy and Climate Strategy of Finland in 2016, the demand for forest chips, that is, wood chips made of forest biomass directly for energy use, could even double by 2030 compared to the present situation. A spatially explicit impact analysis of regional supply and demand balances for forest chips was carried out. The balances were calculated as the difference between technical harvesting potentials and demand. First, the technical potentials were estimated based on the national forest inventory data. Secondly, three demand scenarios were defined for 2030 and subsequently deducted from the potentials. The results suggested that there would be increasing competition for feedstock in southern and western Finland, whereas in eastern and northern Finland there would still be surplus potential. Moreover, due to the remarkable deficit of small trees in southern Finland, there might be pressure towards using more pulpwood-sized and/or imported wood in energy production. The results also showed that, in particular, large new plants consuming substantial amounts of forest chips could have a significant effect on the regional availability of forest chips. Moreover, with increasing transport distances, new logistical solutions will be needed.

• Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi
• Nivala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: vesa.nivala@luke.fi
• Salminen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: olli.salminen@luke.fi
• Hurskainen, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Koivurannantie 1, FI-40400 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: markus.hurskainen@vtt.fi
• Kärki, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Koivurannantie 1, FI-40400 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: janne.karki@vtt.fi
• Lindroos, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Vuorimiehentie 3 (Espoo), P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland E-mail: tomi.j.lindroos@vtt.fi
• Asikainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.asikainen@luke.fi

The fusion of optical satellite imagery, strips of lidar data and field plots is a promising approach for the inventory of tropical forests. Airborne lidars also enable an accurate direct estimation of the forest canopy cover (CC), and thus a sample of lidar strips can be used as reference data for creating CC maps which are based on satellite images. In this study, our objective was to validate CC maps obtained from an ALOS AVNIR-2 satellite image wall-to-wall, against a lidar-based CC map of a tropical forest area located in Laos. The reference CC values which were needed for model training were obtained from a sample of four lidar strips. Zero-and-one inflated beta regression (ZOINBR) models were applied to link the spectral vegetation indices derived from the ALOS image with the lidar-based CC estimates. In addition, we compared ZOINBR and logistic regression models in the forest area estimation by using >20% CC as a forest definition. Using a total of 409 217 30 × 30 m population units as validation, our model showed a strong correlation between lidar-based CC and spectral satellite features (root mean square error = 12.8%, R² = 0.82). In the forest area estimation, a direct classification using logistic regression provided better accuracy than the estimation of CC values as an intermediate step (kappa = 0.61 vs. 0.53). It is important to obtain sufficient training data from both ends of the CC range. The forest area estimation should be done before the CC estimation, rather than vice versa.

• Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; (current) University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9352-0114 E-mail: lauri.z.korhonen@helsinki.fi
• Ali-Sisto, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dheikkil@student.uef.fi
• Tokola, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland. E-mail: timo.tokola@uef.fi

Understanding the characteristics of unutilized biomass resources, such as small-diameter trees from biomass-dense thinning forests (BDTF) (non-commercially-thinned forests), can provide important information for developing a bio-based economy. The aim of this study was to describe the areal distribution, characteristics (biomass of growing stock, tree height, etc.) and harvesting potential of BDTF in Sweden. A national forest inventory plot dataset was imported into a geographical information system and plots containing BDTF were selected by applying increasingly stringent constraints. Results show that, depending on the constraints applied, BDTF covers 9–44% (2.1–9.8 M ha) of the productive forest land area, and contains 7–34% of the total growing stock (119–564 M OD t), with an average biomass density of 57 OD t ha^–1. Of the total BDTF area, 65% is located in northern Sweden and 2% corresponds to set-aside farmlands. Comparisons with a study from 2008 indicate that BDTF area has increased by at least 4% (about 102 000 ha), in line with general trends for Sweden and Europe. Analyses revealed that the technical harvesting potential of delimbed stemwood (over bark, including tops) from BDTF ranges from 3.0 to 6.1 M OD t yr^–1 (7.5 to 15.1 M m³ yr^–1), while the potential of whole-tree harvesting ranges from 4.3 to 8.7 M OD t yr^–1 (10.2 to 20.6 M m³ yr^–1) depending on the scenario considered. However, further technological developments of the harvest and supply systems are needed to utilize the full potential of BDTF.

• Fernandez-Lacruz, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9284-8911 E-mail: raul.fernandez@slu.se
• Di Fulvio, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden; International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Ecosystems Services and Management Program (ESM), Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria E-mail: Fulvio.di.Fulvio@slu.se
• Athanassiadis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: Dimitris.Athanassiadis@slu.se
• Bergström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: Dan.Bergstrom@slu.se
• Nordfjell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology (SBT), Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: Tomas.Nordfjell@slu.se

• Storaunet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: stk@skogoglandskap.no
• Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: roj@skogoglandskap.no
• Rolstad, Skogfaglig Rådgivning, Holmsida 126, NO-1488 Hakadal, Norway E-mail: roe@skogoglandskap.no

• Korhonen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi
• Pippuri, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: inka.pippuri@uef.fi
• Packalén, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: petteri.packalen@uef.fi
• Heikkinen, School of Computing, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ville.heikkinen@uef.fi
• Maltamo, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi
• Heikkilä, Finnish Forest Centre, Public Services, Maistraatinportti 4 A, FI-00240 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juho.heikkila@metsakeskus.fi

• Holzleitner, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: franz.holzleitner@boku.ac.at
• Kanzian, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: christian.kanzian@boku.ac.at
• Höller, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: norbert.hoeller@boku.ac.at

• Karttunen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: kalle.karttunen@lut.fi
• Väätäinen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.vaatainen@metla.fi
• Asikainen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.asikainen@metla.fi
• Ranta, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi

• Kangas, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi
• Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
• Mäkinen, Simosol Oy, Riihimäki, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
• Vanhatalo, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kv@nn.fi

• Ersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se
• Bergsten, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ub@nn.se
• Lindroos, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ol@nn.se

• Windisch, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, Yliopistokatu 6, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johannes.windisch@metla.fi
• Sikanen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Science, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ls@nn.fi
• Röser, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, Yliopistokatu 6, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dr@nn.fi
• Gritten, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Science, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dg@nn.fi

• Rørstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: per.kristian.rorstad@umb.no
• Trømborg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: et@nn.no
• Bergseng, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: eb@nn.no
• Solberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: bs@nn.no

• Nurminen, Metsätoimisto Tuomo Nurminen, Joensuuntie 5 B 8, FI-41800 Korpilahti, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi
• Korpunen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
• Uusitalo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ju@nn.fi

• Kanzian, University of Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Institute of Forest Engineering, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: christian.kanzian@boku.ac.at
• Holzleitner, University of Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Institute of Forest Engineering, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: fh@nn.at
• Stampfer, University of Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Institute of Forest Engineering, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: ks@nn.at
• Ashton, Southern Regional Extension Forestry, Forestry Bldg. 4-420, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: sa@nn.us

• Storaunet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: ken.storaunet@skogoglandskap.no
• Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: jr@nn.no
• Toeneiet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: mt@nn.no
• Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: er@nn.no

• Nurminen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences; Forest Agency Tuomo Nurminen, Joensuuntie 5 B 8, FI-41800 Korpilahti, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi
• Heinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi

• Mattila, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: um@nn.fi
• Nuutinen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi

• Vospernik, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Institute of Forest Growth Research, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Stra§e 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: sonja.vospernik@boku.ac.at

• Hickey, University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Resources Management, 2045, 2424 Main Mall, UBC, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: ghickey@interchange.ubc.ca
• Innes, University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Resources Management, 2045, 2424 Main Mall, UBC, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: jli@nn.ca

• Spinelli, CNR/IVALSA, Via Madonna del Piano - Palazzo F, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy E-mail: spinelli@ivalsa.cnr.it
• Nati, CNR/IVALSA, Via Madonna del Piano - Palazzo F, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy E-mail: cn@nn.it
• Magagnotti, CNR/IVALSA, Via Madonna del Piano - Palazzo F, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy E-mail: nm@nn.it

• Lindén, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre c/o Asa Experimental Forest, SLU, S-360 30 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: magnus.linden@ess.slu.se
• Vollbrecht, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre c/o Asa Experimental Forest, SLU, S-360 30 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: gv@nn.se

• Jalkanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anneli.jalkanen@metla.fi

This review systematically analyses and classifies research and review papers focusing on discrete event simulation applied to wood transport, and therefore illustrates the development of the research area from 1997 until 2017. Discrete event simulation allows complex supply chain models to be mapped in a straightforward manner to study supply chain dynamics, test alternative strategies, communicate findings and facilitate understanding of various stakeholders. The presented analyses confirm that discrete event simulation is well-suited for analyzing interconnected wood supply chain transportation issues on an operational and tactical level. Transport is the connective link between interrelated system components of the forest products industry. Therefore, a survey on transport logistics allows to analyze the significance of entire supply chain management considerations to improve the overall performance and not only one part in isolation. Thus far, research focuses mainly on biomass, unimodal truck transport and terminal operations. Common shortcomings identified include rough explanations of simulation models and sparse details provided about the verification and validation processes. Research gaps exist concerning simulations of entire, resilient and multimodal wood supply chains as well as supply and demand risks. Further studies should expand upon the few initial attempts to combine various simulation methods with optimization.

• Kogler, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8811-152X E-mail: christoph.kogler@boku.ac.at
• Rauch, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-4415 E-mail: peter.rauch@boku.ac.at

• Röser, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dominik.roser@metla.fi
• Mola-Yudego, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: bmy@nn.fi
• Prinz, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: rp@nn.fi
• Emer, University of Padova, Department of Land, Agriculture and Forest Systems, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: be@nn.it
• Sikanen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ls@nn.fi

• Kiffner, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: ckiffne@gwdg.de
• Rössiger, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: er@nn.de
• Trisl, Planungsbüro Trisl, In der Schleene 7, 36037 Waake, Germany E-mail: ot@nn.de
• Schulz, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Ecological Informatics, Biometry and Forest Growth, Büsgenweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: rs@nn.de
• Rühe, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: fr@nn.de