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Silva Fennica 1926-1997
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Articles containing the keyword 'peat'

Category : Article

article id 5634, category Article
Leena Finér, Mika Nieminen. (1997). Dry mass and the amounts of nutrients in understorey vegetation before and after fertilization on a drained pine bog. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5634. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8536
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; biomass; peatlands; ground vegetation; field layer; litter; root systems; bottom layer
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Dry mass and nutrient (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, B) contents of field layer vegetation and a combination of bottom layer vegetation and litter (referred to as bottom/litter layer in the text) were studied one year before and three years after fertilization (NPK and PK) on a drained low-shrub pine bog in eastern Finland. The results of an earlier study on the tree layer were combined with those of this study in order to estimate the changes caused by fertilization in the total plant biomass and litter. Before fertilization the average dry mass of the field and bottom/litter layers was 8,400 kg ha-1 and 7,650 kg ha-1, respectively. The above-ground parts accounted for 25% of the total field layer biomass. The dry mass of the field and bottom/litter layers together was < 20% of the dry mass accumulated in the total plant biomass and litter. The corresponding figures for N, P, K, Ca, Mg and B were 44%, 38%, 30%, 38%, 31% and 17%, respectively. Fertilization did not significantly affect the dry mass of either the field layer vegetation or the bottom/litter layer. 33% of the applied P was accumulated in the total plant biomass and litter on the PK-fertilized plots, and 25% on the NPK-fertilized plots. For the other elements, the proportions on the PK-fertilized plots were K 31%, Ca 6%, Mg 11% and B 13%. On the NPK-fertilized plots, the corresponding figures were N 62%, K 32%, Ca 6%, Mg 9% and B 13%. Except for B and K, the accumulation of fertilizer nutrients in the understorey vegetation and litter was of the same magnitude or greater than the uptake by the tree layer.

  • Finér, E-mail: lf@mm.unknown (email)
  • Nieminen, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown
article id 5616, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Timo Penttilä. (1997). Individual-tree basal area growth models for Scots pine, pubescent birch and Norway spruce on drained peatlands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5616. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8517
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; site quality; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; forest drainage; mixed models; peatlands; growth models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models for individual-tree basal area growth were constructed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in drained peatland stands. The data consisted of two separate sets of permanent sample plots forming a large sample of drained peatland stands in Finland. The dependent variable in all models was the 5-year basal area growth of a tree. The independent tree-level variables were tree dbh, tree basal area, and the sum of the basal area of trees larger than the target tree. Independent stand-level variables were stand basal area, the diameter of the tree of median basal area, and temperature sum. Categorical variables describing the site quality, as well as the condition and age of drainage, were used. Differences in tree growth were used as criteria in reclassifying the a priori site types into new yield classes by tree species. All models were constructed as mixed linear models with a random stand effect. The models were tested against the modelling data and against independent data sets.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Alenius, E-mail: va@mm.unknown
  • Penttilä, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5606, category Article
Pekka E. Kauppi, Pekka Hänninen, Helena M Henttonen, Antti Ihalainen, Eino Lappalainen, Maximilian Posch, Michael Starr, Pekka Tamminen. (1997). Carbon reservoirs in peatlands and forests in the boreal regions of Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5606. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8507
Keywords: climate change; boreal forests; peatlands; global warming; carbon reservoirs; carbon pools; global carbon cycles; biomass carbon; ecological temperature gradient
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The carbon reservoir of ecosystems was estimated based on field measurements for forests and peatlands on an area in Finland covering 263,000 km2 and extending about 900 km across the boreal zone from south to north. More than two thirds of the reservoir was in peat, and less than ten per cent in trees. Forest ecosystems growing on mineral soils covering 144,000 km2 contained 10–11 kg C m-2 on an average, including both vegetation (3.4 kg C m-2) and soil (uppermost 75 cm; 7.2 kg C m-2). Mire ecosystems covering 65,000 km2 contained an average of 72 kg C m-2 as peat. For the landscape consisting of peatlands, closed and open forests, and inland water, excluding arable and built-up land, a reservoir of 24.6 kg C m-2 was observed. This includes the peat, forest soil and tree biomass. This is an underestimate of the true total reservoir, because there are additional unknown reservoirs in deep soil, lake sediments, woody debris, and ground vegetation. Geographic distributions of the reservoirs were described, analysed and discussed. The highest reservoir, 35–40 kg C m-2, was observed in sub-regions in central western and north western Finland. Many estimates given for the boreal carbon reservoirs have been higher than those of ours. Either the Finnish environment contains less carbon per unit area than the rest of the boreal zone, or the global boreal reservoir has earlier been overestimated. In order to reduce uncertainties of the global estimates, statistically representative measurements are needed especially on Russian and Canadian peatlands.

  • Kauppi, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Henttonen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Ihalainen, E-mail: ai@mm.unknown
  • Lappalainen, E-mail: el@mm.unknown
  • Posch, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
  • Starr, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
  • Tamminen, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown
article id 5597, category Article
John C. Brissette. (1996). Effects of intensity and frequency of harvesting on abundance, stocking and composition of natural regeneration in the Acadian forest of eastern North America. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5597. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9242
Keywords: thinning; silviculture; North America; United States; natural regenration; harvest intensity; partial harvest; repeated harvests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In a silviculture experiment in east-central Maine, USA, natural regeneration was sampled to measure the effects of: (1) a range of partial harvest intensities, and (2) repeated partial harvest at one intensity. Under the first objective, five treatments were compared with residual basal areas ranging from 15 to 24 m2 ha-1 for trees ≥1.3 cm diameter at breast height. For the second objective, regeneration was evaluated after four harvests at 5-year intervals. Prior to harvests, the overstory of all the treated stands was dominated by Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr., Picea spp. A Dietr., and Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Eleven species or species groups were identified among the regeneration: A. balsamea, T. canadensis, Picea spp., Thuja occidentalis L., Pinus spp. L., Betula papyrifera Marsh., Acer rubrum L., Betula populifolia Marsh., Populus spp. L., Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. and Prunus serotina Ehrh. Regeneration abundance was measured as counts of seedlings or sprouts taller than 15 cm but with diameters less than 1.3 cm at breast height (1.37 m). Regardless of harvest treatment, total regeneration was profuse, ranging from over 25,000 to nearly 80,000 trees ha-1. Regeneration was dominated by conifers with a total angiosperm component of 10 to 52 percent approximately 5 years after harvest and 11 to 33 percent after 10 years. Consequently, in forests of similar species composition, tree regeneration following partial harvests should be sufficiently abundant with an array of species to meet a variety of future management objectives.

  • Brissette, E-mail: jb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5563, category Article
Margaret Penner, Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (1995). A method for using random parameters in analyzing permanent sample plots. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 4 article id 5563. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9214
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; drainage; competition; sampling; random parameters
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The use of random parameter models in forestry has been proposed as one method of incorporating different levels of information into prediction equations. By explicitly considering the variance-covariance structure of observations and considering some model parameters as random rather than fixed, one can incorporate more complex error structures in analysing data.

Competition indices and variance component techniques were applied to 92 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) -dominated permanent sample plots on drained peatlands in Northern Finland. By quantifying stand, plot, and tree level variation, it was possible to identify the level (stand, plot or tree) at which the explanatory variables contributed to the model. The replication of plots within stands revealed little variation among plots within a single stand but significant variation occurred at stand and tree levels. Positive and negative effects of inter-tree competition are identified by examining simple correlation statistics and the random parameter model.

  • Penner, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Penttilä, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5557, category Article
Klaus Silfverberg. (1995). Forest regeneration on nutrient-poor peatlands: Effects of fertilization, mounding and sowing. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 3 article id 5557. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9208
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula; soil preparation; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; mounding; ground vegetation; sowing; seedling number
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of wood ash and PK fertilization on natural regeneration and sowing of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were studied in field experiments on nitrogen-poor (Ntot 0.87–1.26%) peat substrates. The study material was derived from three drained, nutrient-poor pine mires (64°52’ N, 25°08’ E) at Muhos, near Oulu, Finland. The experimental fields were laid out in 1985 as a split-split-plot design including the following treatments; mounding, natural regeneration and sowing and fertilization; PK (400 kg ha-1) and wood ash (5,000 kg ha-1). The seedlings were inventoried in circles in July–August 1991.

Changes in the vegetation were small and there were no statistical differences due to the fertilization treatments in the ground vegetation. PK or ash fertilization did not cause vegetation changes harmful to Scots pine regeneration on nitrogen-poor peatlands. Both sowing and fertilization significantly increased the number of pine seedlings, but not their height. Wood ash increased seedling number more than PK fertilizer. The number of seedlings varied from 7,963 (control) to 42,781 ha-1 (mounding + sowing + ash). The seedling number was adequate for successful regeneration even on non-mounded, non-fertilized naturally regenerated plots.

The number of birch seedlings varied more than that of pine (370–25,927 ha-1). Mounding especially increased the number of birches. The difference between PK fertiliser and ash was less pronounced than that for pine. In addition, to the field studies the effects of ash and PK fertilizer on the germination of Scots pine seeds was studied in a greenhouse experiment. Soaking in ash solutions strongly reduced seed germination, while the PK solution was less harmful.

  • Silfverberg, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5550, category Article
Jyrki Hytönen. (1995). Effect of repeated fertilizer application on the nutrient status and biomass production of Salix ’Aquatica’ plantations on cut-away peatland areas. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5550. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9201
Keywords: biomass production; fertilization; fuelwood; peatlands; short-rotation forestry; Salix 'Aquatica'
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of repeated fertilizer treatment on biomass production and nutrient status of willow (Salix ’Aquatica’) plantations established on two cut-away peatland areas in western Finland were studied over a rotation period of three years. Comparisons were made between single fertilizer applications and repeated annual fertilization.

The annually repeated fertilizer application increased the amounts of acid ammonium acetate extractable phosphorus and potassium in the soil as well as the concentrations of foliar nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compared to single application. Depending on the fertilizer treatment and application rate, annual fertilizer application resulted in over two times higher biomass production when compared to single fertilizer application over a three-year rotation period. The effect of phosphorus fertilizer application lasted longer than that of nitrogen. The optimum fertilization regime for biomass production requires that nitrogen fertilizer should be applied annually, but the effect of phosphorus can last at least over a rotation of three years. Potassium fertilizer treatment did not increase the yield in any of the experiments during the first three years. The leafless, above-ground yield of three-year-old, annually NP-fertilized willow plantations was 9.5 t ha-1 and the total biomass, including stems, leaves, roots and the stump, averaged 17 t ha-1.

  • Hytönen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5544, category Article
Jyrki Hytönen. (1995). Effect of fertilizer treatment on the biomass production and nutrient uptake of short-rotation willow on cut-away peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 1 article id 5544. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9195
Keywords: biomass production; fertilization; fuelwood; nutrients; peatlands; short-rotation forestry; Salix; consumption
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of fertilized treatment on the soil nutrient concentrations, biomass production and nutrient consumption of Salix x dasyclados and Salix ’Aquatica’ were studied in five experiments on three cut-away peatland sites in western and eastern Finland during three years. Factorial experiments with all combinations of N (100 kg ha-1 a-1), P (30 kg ha-1 a-1) and K (80 kg ha-1 a-1) were conducted.

The application of P and K fertilizers increased the concentrations of corresponding extractable nutrients in the soil as well as in willow foliage. N-fertilization increased foliar nitrogen concentration. An increase in age usually led to decreases in bark and wood N, P and K concentrations and increases in bark Ca concentrations. N-fertilization increased the three-year biomass yield 1.5–2.7 times when compared to control plots. P-fertilization increased the yield only in those experimental fields whose substrates had the lowest phosphorus concentration. K-fertilization did not increase the yield in any of the experimental fields. The highest total biomass yield of NPK-fertilized willow after three growing seasons, 23 t ha-1, was distributed in the following way: wood 42%, bark 19%, foliage 17%, stumps 6% and roots 16%. As the yield and stand age increased, more biomass was allocated in above-ground wood. Three-year-old stands (above-ground biomass 18 t ha-1) contained as much as 196 kg N ha-1, 26 kg P ha-1, 101 kg K ha-1, 74 kg Ca ha-1 and 37 kg Mg ha -1. By far the highest proportion of nutrients accumulated in the foliage. The bark and wood contained relatively high proportions of calcium and phosphorus. With an increase in age and size, the amount of nitrogen and potassium bound in one dry-mass ton of willow biomass decreased while that of phosphorus remained unchanged.

  • Hytönen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5525, category Article
Jari Miina. (1994). Spatial growth model for Scots pine on drained peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 1 article id 5525. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9159
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; growth models; linear models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A spatial growth model is presented for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on a dwarf-shrub pine mire drained 14 years earlier. The growth model accounts for the variation in tree diameter growth owing to the competition between trees, the distance between tree and ditch, and the time passed since drainage. The model was used to study the effect of tree arrangement on the post-drainage growth of a pine stand. Clustering of trees decreased the volume growth by 9–20% as compared to a regular spatial distribution. Stand volume growth, for a given number of stems, was at its maximum and variation in diameter growth at its minimum when the stand density on the ditch border was 1.5–5 higher than midway between two adjacent ditches.

  • Miina, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5503, category Article
Juha Heiskanen. (1993). Variation in water retention characteristics of peat growth media used in tree nurseries. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 2 article id 5503. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15664
Keywords: density; production; water retention; container grown plants; porosity; growth media; substrates; planting stock; hydraulic conductivity; Sphagnum peat media; physical properties
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The water retention characteristics and their variation in tree nurseries and related physical properties were determined for commercially produced growth media made of light slightly humified Sphagnum peat. A total of 100 samples of peat media were collected from filled seedling trays in the greenhouses of four Finnish nurseries in 1990. In addition, the physical properties were determined for two growth media made of compressed peat sheets and chips. The variation in water retention characteristics in nurseries was described using linear models with fixed and random effects. The sources of variation in the mixed linear models were producer, grade, batch (greenhouse) and sample (tray).

The water retention of the peat media at different matric potentials was comparable to that given in the literature. The media shrank an average of 0–16% during desorption. The peat grades were finer than the Nordic quality standards for peat growth media. Particles < 1 mm increased and particles 1–5 mm decreased the water retention characteristics measured. The greatest total variation in water retention was at -1 kPa. The water retention of the peat media differed least at -5 and -10 kPa. The water retention characteristics of media from different producers usually differed significantly. The grades, on the other hand, did not differ from each other in their water retention characteristics nor were there significant interactions between producer and grade. The batch effect was marked but was lower than the effect within batches, where the sample (tray) effect was greater than the effect due to random measurement error. At -10 kPa, the measurement error was, however, clearly greater than the sample effect. The random measurement error was comparable to the batch effect. Aeration of the growth media is dependent on the water content retained between saturation and -1 kPa. The water availability to seedlings at the nursery phase is affected mainly by water retention between -1 and -10 kPa.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5470, category Article
Juha Heiskanen, Jukka Laitinen. (1992). A measurement system for determining temperature, water potential and aeration of growth medium. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 1 article id 5470. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15629
Keywords: peat; diffusion; measuring methods; matric potential; oxygen; sensors; growth media
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A measurement system developed for the parallel and real-time measurement of temperature, matric potential and oxygen diffusion rate (ODR) of a growth medium was assessed. The system consisted of a portable computer, a datalogger, temperature sensors, tensiometers and an ODR-meter with Pt-sensors.

For the measurements, proper sensor contact with the growth medium was needed. For matric potential measurement, appropriate shape and material of the tensiometer tips should be selected for different measurement purposes. The determination of oxygen diffusion rate is based on single, non-continuous measurements. The ODR-measurement required special care with the insertion and handling of the electrodes and selection of applied voltage. The ODR-measurement of a coarse peat medium was applicable only at matric potentials > -5 kPa. This measurement system was shown to be useful and suitable for accurate determination of thermal-, water- and aeration conditions of a growth medium under greenhouse conditions.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laitinen, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5436, category Article
Leena Finér. (1991). Root biomass on an ombrotrophic pine bog and the effects of PK and NPK fertilization. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 1 article id 5436. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15590
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; peatlands; ground vegetation; root biomass
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) living root biomass (ø≤ 10 mm) was 640 g/m2 on the studied low-shrub pine bog before fertilization, and that of the ground vegetation almost the same. The total root necromass was 23% of the biomass of living roots. The length of the pine roots was 2,440 m/m2. The biomass of living roots and root necromass were mostly located in the top 20 cm layer of the soil. The ø < 1 mm pine root fraction accounted for almost 90% of the pine root length; in contrast, over 50% of the biomass was in the 1–10 mm thick root biomass, pine root length and PK (MgB) fertilization did not affect total living root biomass, pine root length, nor the root necromass during the three-year observation period.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Finér, E-mail: lf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5432, category Article
Risto Rikala, Helen J. Jozefek. (1990). Effect of dolomite lime and wood ash on peat substrate and development of tree seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 4 article id 5432. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15586
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; germination; height; nutrients; pH; dry weight; electrical conductivity; Sphagnum peat
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Effect of dolomite lime and wood ash (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 kg m-3) on the chemical composition of low humified Sphagnum peat was studied. Germination of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and the subsequent growth of these seedlings were investigated in a greenhouse experiment. Nutrient concentrations in shoots and roots of pine seedlings were also analysed. The pH of peat increased asymptotically from 3.8 to about 7.0 with increasing lime regimen and to about 8.0 with increasing ash regimen. Wood ash linearly increased electrical conductivity and P, K, and Ca concentrations of peat. Rate of germination, within 7 days, of pine and spruce was best at low pH (<5) while birch seeds had a slightly higher pH optimum (4–6). Germination capacity, within 21 days, was not affected by pH or application regimen of either lime or ash. Pine and spruce seedlings grew best with lime and ash doses of 0.5–2.0 kg m-3, the pH of peat being 4–5. Lime and ash treatments did not affect the growth of birch seedlings, but wood ash increased nutrient concentration of pine seedlings.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Rikala, E-mail: rr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Jozefek, E-mail: hj@mm.unknown
article id 5429, category Article
Hannu Mannerkoski, Veikko Möttönen. (1990). Maan vesitalous ja ilmatila metsäaurausalueilla. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 3 article id 5429. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15583
English title: Soil water conditions and air-filled porosity on ploughed reforestation areas.
Original keywords: maanmuokkaus; turvemaat; maavesi; maaveden potentiaali; huokostilavuus; pohjavedenpinta; vesipotentiaali; metsäauraus; kivennäismaat
English keywords: site preparation; Finland; peatlands; soil moisture; ground water table; water potential; soil aeration; forest ploughing; mineral soil sites
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Five ploughed research areas from Finnish Norther Karelia were selected for comparison studies of plough ridges and untouched soil. Measurements were made at a depth of 10 cm in sample plots on both mineral and paludified mineral soil and peatland parts of these areas. In summer 1987 daily soil water matric potential was measured using tensiometers, and volumetric soil moisture content and density were determined from soil samples at two dates during the summer. Water characteristics of the core samples were also determined. On paludified mineral and peat soils the water table depth from the soil surface was measured.

The results indicated that in plough ridges matric potential was lowest. Plough ridges were also seen to dry and wet faster and to a greater degree than untouched soils. In untouched soils, soil water relations and aeration were not affected by the distance to the furrow. The effect of the plough ridge was smallest on peatland, where there was a good capillary connection from plough ridge to the ground water, if the ditches were not very effective. The soil in the ridges did not dry too much to restrict seedling growth. The untouched surface soil in poorly drained peat and paludified minear soil was, at least in a rainy growing season, often and also for long times so wet that 10% minimum air space required for good seedling root growth was not available.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Möttönen, E-mail: vm@mm.unknown
article id 5426, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1990). Pohjoisen havumetsävyöhykkeen suot ja niiden metsätaloudellinen hyväksikäyttö. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5426. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15580
English title: Peatlands of the boreal zone and their utilization in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäojitus; suot; soiden ojitus; havumetsävyöhyke
English keywords: forestry; peatlands; drainage of peatlands; boreal zone
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is a review on utilization of peatlands in forestry in the countries of boreal zone: Finland, Norway, Sweden, Canada, the United States and the Soviet Union. First, the concept of peatlands, the types of peatlands throughout the zone are defined, and the use of natural peatlands is described. Finally, the drainage of peatlands for forestry purposes in the countries is reviewed. According to the statistics, a total of 13 million ha of peatlands have been drained in Fennoscandia and the Soviet Union.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5420, category Article
Toyohiro Miyazava, Jukka Laine. (1990). Effect of macroclimate on the development of Scots pine seedling stands on drained oligotrophic pine mires. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5420. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15574
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; regeneration; drained peatlands; plantations; ditch spacing; effective temperature sum; microtopography
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The influence of different fertilization treatments and ditch spacings on the height growth of young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedling stands growing under various climatic regimes were determined. Comparisons were made between naturally regenerated and planted seedling stands. The effective temperature sum had a stronger effect on the height growth of planted seedlings, and in Northern Finland the planted seedlings seemed to be influenced to a greater degree by the adverse climatic conditions. The heavier the dose of fertilizer that had been applied, the greater the difference in growth caused by macroclimate. A considerably larger proportion of natural seedlings were located on hummocks compared with that of planted seedlings, irrespective of the region. On plots with wider ditch spacings, seedlings growing on hummocks were superior in height growth to those on flat surfaces.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Miyazava, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5411, category Article
Eero Paavilainen. (1990). Effect of refertilization of pine and birch stands on a drained fertile mire. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5411. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15563
Original keywords: mänty; koivu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; hieskoivu; jatkolannoitus; hivenravinteet
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula; fertilization; Betula pubescens; drained peatlands; tree litter; micronutrients
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Refertilization with PK, about 15 years after the first fertilizer application, increased tree growth and the amount of nutrients in tree litter in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (mainly Betula pubescens Erhr.) stands on a drained fertile mire in Northern Finland (65°34 N’, 25°42’ E). The increase in growth and nutrient contents after refertilization was greatest in the mature pine stand where the application of nitrogen and micronutrients gave an additional response compared to the PK-application.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Paavilainen, E-mail: ep@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5370, category Article
Harri Rantonen, Juhani Päivänen. (1989). Kasvatusmetsien metsänhoidollinen tila ojitusalueilla puunkorjuun jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 1 article id 5370. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15529
English title: Silvicultural condition of tree stands after thinning on drained peatlands.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; harvennusvoimakkuus
English keywords: forest management; harvesting; forest drainage; silviculture; drained peatland; thinning intensity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The area of stands studied by line plot survey was 594 ha. On the basis of the length of the inventory line the estimated proportion of harvesting strips was 14% and that of ditch openings 6% of the area. The calculated strip road spacing was 29 m. The option of the minimum diameter made it difficult to use the number of stems as criterion for thinning intensity. Thinning intensity evaluated according to the basal area had been stronger than recommended with low values of dominant height and milder with high values. The estimated removal according to stumps was 38 m3/ha on the average between the strips. The real removal has, however, been larger than that, as the strip road openings are made in connection with the first thinning.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Rantonen, E-mail: hr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown
article id 5344, category Article
Ilari Lumme. (1988). Early effects of peat ash on growth and mineral nutrition of the silver birch (Betula pendula) on a mined peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 5344. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15501
Keywords: Betula pendula; fertilization; nitrogen; silver birch; peat ash; mined peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two-year-old silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) seedlings were fertilized with three peat ash dosages (10, 50 and 150 metric t/ha) and planted at three densities (2,000, 10,000 and 25,000 seedlings/ha). The peat and mineral soil were mixed together by deep ploughing before peat ash application. The results indicate that the 10 t/ha of peat ash may be too low a dosage and 150 t/ha too high for the silver birch seedlings. The 50 t/ha ash dosage increased growth markedly, obviously due to an enhancement in soil and foliar P, Mg and Ca content, soil pH, microbial activity and mobilization of soil organic nitrogen. Both foliar and soil P were already enhanced with the 10 t/ha peat ash dosage. The K content of the peat ash was low, however, and it may be that fertilizer K should be applied later.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lumme, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5342, category Article
Ilari Lumme, Timo Törmälä. (1988). Selection of fast-growing willow (Salix spp.) clones for short-rotation forestry on mined peatlands in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5342. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15499
Keywords: biomass production; breeding; Salix spp.; short-rotation forestry; willows; Salix viminalis; Salix myrsinifolia; winter hardiness; clone selection; mined peat areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Possibilities of developing suitable willow (Salix spp.) clones for short-rotation forestry on mined peatlands in the north-western area of Finland were studied in a field experiment in which 300 willow clones were tested during 1985–87. Most of the tested clones started to grow from cuttings on limed and fertilized peat soil. Salix viminalis L. clones of southern origin had a higher leafless above ground biomass production than the well adapted control clone and the local Finnish willows, but their winter hardiness was not satisfactory. The growth habit of some southern willows was also better than that of the control clone. It was also possible to select clones with good sprouting capacity. There were few Salix myrsinifolia Calisb. clones of Finnish origin, which had better cold tolerance than all other willows tested and higher biomass production than that of the control clone. The most critical factor to be selected for this is the optimal combination of winter hardiness and biomass production. This is attempted by selecting clones on the basis of this experiment for a breeding program.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lumme, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
  • Törmälä, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown
article id 5341, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Jukka Laine. (1988). Suopuustojen rakenteen kehitys ojituksen jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5341. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15498
English title: Post-drainage development of structural characteristics in peatland forest stands.
Original keywords: metsikön rakenne; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; eri-ikäisrakenne; runkoluku; läpimittajakauma
English keywords: stand structure; drained peatlands; diameter distribution; forest drainage; uneven-aged structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of drainage on structure of tree stands is analysed by comparing the average structural characteristics (e.g. diameter distribution) of stands in the data for different drainage age classes and selected site types. The material consists of ca. 4,400 relascope sample plots, which are part of a large drainage area inventory project. The uneven-aged structure of the virgin peatland forest is preserved for several decades after drainage. This is enhanced by the post-drainage increase of small-diameter trees, especially birch. The number of trees per hectare increased during a period of ca. 30 years and levelled off thereafter. The increase in the number of saw log stems is clearly related to the fertility of the site and its geographical location.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5340, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1988). Development in techniques for studying forest roads on peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5340. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15497
Keywords: moisture content; peatlands; bearing capacity; settlement; forest roads; measurement methods; subsurface profiling; microwave
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A light seismic method, a short-pulse radar and a microwave probe are tested in assessing the properties of a forest road constructed on peatland. The light seismic method gave reliable values for estimating the bearing capacity of the road. It was found that bearing capacity was mostly dependent on embankment thickness, but quality of fabric might also have an influence. Embankment thickness and peat depth can be measured on the radiogram, and some additional information on road bed and peat obtained. The microwave peat probe permits recording of the continuous moisture profile in situ, which improves accuracy of planning.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5317, category Article
Ilari Lumme, Markku Yli-Halla. (1987). Behaviour of certain phosphorus and potassium compounds in a sedge peat soil. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5317. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15474
Keywords: fertilization; nitrogen; peatlands; potassium; willows; Salix; fast-growing willows; slow-released fertilizers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The solubilityof various phosphorus and potassium compounds in a sedge peat soil was studied in an incubation experiment aimed at screening potential fertilizers for the cultivation of fast-growing willows. (KPO3)n proved not to be a source of the slow-released K regarded as most desirable for this kind of cultivation as it was hydrolysed completely in the soil during incubation. Phosphorus from easily soluble or hydrolysable compounds (superphosphate, KH2PO4, (KPO3)n) was bound in the soil largely by Al and Fe and elevated the level of readily soluble P considerably, whereas rock phosphates were found to be practically unchanged after incubation and did not contribute to the readily soluble P in the soil. Apatites proved to be quite insoluble and are therefore assumed to be unsuitable as P fertilizers for fast-growing willows, which have a high nutrient demand.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Lumme, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
  • Yli-Halla, E-mail: my@mm.unknown
article id 5237, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Jukka Laine. (1985). Duration of the height growth response of young pine stands to NPK-fertilization on oligotrophic pine bogs in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 5237. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15416
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; drained peatlands; Scots pine; Finland; climate; growth; degree days
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This is the latest report in a series of publications from an on-going investigation which is concerned with the influence of different fertilization treatments and ditch spacings on the growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings and transplants growing on nutrient drained poor bogs in different parts of Finland. This paper concentrates on duration of the growth response to NPK-fertilization on the experimental plots. The experiment was established and the treatments performed in 1965–66.

The results show that climate, expressed as effective temperature sum (dd°C, threshold +5°C) has a clear influence on the duration of the fertilization effect. In Southern Finland (>1,200 dd°C), the duration was at least 15 years. In Central Finland (1,200–1,000 dd°C), it appears to be almost 10 years, and in Northern Finland (<1,000 dd°C), slightly shorter. The amount of fertilizer applied clearly influenced the duration of the fertilization effect. The dosage of 500 kg/ha (N 14, P 7.8, K 8.3 per cent) had, on average, a shorter duration than the greater dosages of 1,000 and 1,500 kg/ha. However, there was no clear difference between the latter two dosages.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5234, category Article
Eino Mälkönen, Eero Paavilainen. (1985). Hydrological amelioration and forest practice on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 5234. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15413
Keywords: drainage; peatlands; peatland forestry; hydrology; forest research; bibligraphies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This bibliography consists of monographs, papers published in periodicals and journals and collections of scientific papers from research and educational institutes, and transactions from scientific congresses, seminars, symposia and meetings.

The publications have been divided into three basic sections. In each section the publications are listed in alphabetical order by the author(s) or title. The total number of the titles in this bibliography is 465.

  • Mälkönen, E-mail:
  • Paavilainen, E-mail:
article id 5232, category Article
Carl Johan Westman, Jukka Laine, Michael Starr. (1985). A comparison of gravimetric and volumetric soil properties in peatland and upland sites. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 1 article id 5232. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15411
Keywords: nutrients; peatlands; soil properties; upland soil; hydrological properties; volumetric soil properties
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Transects from upland to peatland sites were laid out so as to encounter a wide range of nutritional and hydrological conditions and volumetric soil samples were taken at 20 m intervals. For organic material, in particular peats, the correlation of ignition loss with CEC and total N were clearly higher when the variables were expressed volumetrically. The volumetric expression of variables made comparison of soils with varying organic matter contents possible. In preliminary analyses of the relationships between soil variables and dominant height of the tree stand on mineral soil sites volumetric exchangeable bases, pH and C/N -ratio in the raw humus layer showed a significant correlation.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
  • Starr, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5217, category Article
Pentti Sepponen. (1984). Pohjoissuomalaisten metsäammattimiesten käsityksiä metsien ja soiden marjantuotoskyvystä. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 3 article id 5217. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15396
English title: Observations of forest specialists in Northern Finland on the berry yield capacity of forests and swamps.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; ojitus; metsätyypit; suotyypit; puolukka; luonnonmarjat; mustikka; marjasato; hilla; karpalo
English keywords: northern Finland; Vaccinium myrtillus; Vaccinium vitis-idaea; wild berries; berry yield; forest types; peatland types; berry crop; Rubus chamaemorus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A survey was carried out among forest foremen and forest technicians to record their observations on the value of various swamp and forest types as producers of berries and on the effect of drainage of peatlands upon the berry yields. Comparative agreement existed on the best blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) forest types and on the best lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) forest types of rather dry upland sites. Fuscum pine swamps or fuscum bogs were considered best for the most part as regards the yield of cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.). The replies showed rather great dispersion.

Agreement existed as well on the relation between drainage of peatlands and the yields of our economically most important swamp berries, cloudberry and cranberry. 90% of those responding were of the opinion that drainage reduces the cloudberry yield in the long term and a full 97% indicated that cranberry crop diminishes as well.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5212, category Article
Heikki Kurimo. (1984). Simultaneous groundwater table fluctuation in different parts of virgin pine mires. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 2 article id 5212. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15391
Keywords: peatlands; hydrology; groundwater table; pine bogs; groundwater table fluctuations; pine swamp
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study discusses the amplitude of the simultaneous groundwater table fluctuations in different parts of pine mires, and factors influencing it. The assumption generally used in hydrological computations that the simultaneous vertical fluctuation in the groundwater table in different parts of mires are equal does not hold good in detail. Numerous cases were detected where the fluctuation at one place did not correspond to that at another site to a statistically significant degree. The main reason for the unequal fluctuation at the different sites seems to be the difference in the microtopography and in the hydraulic conductivity between the sites.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kurimo, E-mail: hk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5198, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Jukka Laine, Jarmo Lepola. (1983). Lannoitus- ja sarkaleveyskokeita karujen rämeiden uudistamisessa ja taimikoiden kasvatuksessa. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 4 article id 5198. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15181
English title: Fertilization and ditch spacing experiments concerned with regeneration and growth of young Scots pine stands on nutrient poor pine bogs.
Original keywords: mänty; luontainen uudistaminen; istutus; uudistaminen; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; taimikot; pituuskasvu; sarkaleveys
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; regeneration; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; planting; ditch spacing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of variations in the intensity of drainage and NPK fertilization on the natural regeneration and planting results and the subsequent development of seedling stands under various climatic conditions on drained nutrient poor pine bogs was investigated in a 16-year-old study.

Comparison of height development of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands on drained peatlands to that of pine stands growing in mineral soil sites show that in Southern Finland the most efficient forest improvement measures (10 m ditch spacing and 1,000 kg/ha NPK-fertilization) resulted in growth that corresponds a to a height index of a stand in a Vaccinium type site. Less efficient treatment (30 m ditch spacing and no fertilizer) resulted in growth corresponding the development of young stand in a Calluna type site. In Northern Finland the effect of fertilization on height growth was almost negligible. This is possibly due to a decrease in the nitrogen mobilization from south to north of Finland. Thus, it seems evident that fertilization of young Scots pine stands on nutrient poor drained peatlands can be recommended only in the southern part of the country.

The effect of ditch spacing is same in the whole country. The narrower the spacing the better the height growth. In the south planted stands thrive better than naturally regenerated stands, but the situation is reversed in the north.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
  • Lepola, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5173, category Article
Heikki Kurimo. (1983). Surface fluctuation in three virgin pine mires in eastern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 1 article id 5173. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15088
Keywords: peatlands; hydrology; eastern Finland; mires; groundwater table; surface fluctuations; pine mire
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Altitude fluctuation of mire surface proportional to that of the groundwater table is presented for three virgin pine mires in Eastern Finland during the growing season 1982. The average amplitude of the surface fluctuation was found to be dependent on the period representing a certain type of weather, being limited to a certain maximum. The average amplitude of the surface fluctuation ranged from 18 to 45 mm; each of the mires followed a fluctuation scale of its own.

The daily fluctuation rates were low, generally 0.5–1 mm. No sudden fluctuation peaks occurred. Regularities in the surface fluctuation were caused by the duration of the period representing continuous sinking or rise of the groundwater table, and magnitude of it. The daily rate of the surface fluctuation related to that of the groundwater table was smaller in the beginning of such period than at the end of the same period. The one-directional rise or sinking of the altitude of the mire surface according to the groundwater table fluctuation is responsible for the autocorrelation of the long-term regression data.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kurimo, E-mail: hk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5172, category Article
Pekka Hynninen, Pentti Sepponen. (1983). Erään suoalueen ojituksen vaikutus purovesien laatuun Kiiminkijoen vesistöalueella, Pohjois-Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 1 article id 5172. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15087
English title: The effect of drainage on the quality of brook waters in the Kiiminkijoki River basin, Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; soiden ojitus; hydrologia; veden laatu; purot; joet; liukoiset ravinteet
English keywords: water quality; northern Finland; suspended solids; hydrology; draining of peatlands; brooks; rivers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study deals with the effect of forest drainage on some quality factors of brook waters. Under study were several brooks in the basin of the Kiiminkijoki River as well as its main tributary, the Nuorittajoki River. These are located in Northern Finland and belong to the international water program Project Aqua.

The following values were determined for the water samples: pH, electric conductivity, colour, concentration of suspended solids., NO2, NO3, and NH4 nitrogen concentrations, dissolved and total phosphorus, and Ca, Mg, K and Fe concentrations. Water quality in the brooks was monitored prior to and after ditching. A statistically significant change was noted in colour, in the concentration of suspended solids, in the NH4 concentration and in some brooks also in the pH value and in the total phosphorus, K, and Fe concentrations.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hynninen, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown
article id 5163, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1982). Ojitusalueiden taimistojen kehityksestä vuosina 1964-68 toimeenpannun suometsäkilpailun koealojen valossa. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 5163. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15078
English title: Development of seedling stands on drained peatlands in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: metsitys; ojitusalueet; kasvu; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; taimikot
English keywords: afforestation; drained peatlands; Finland; growth; seedling stands; fertilizing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the paper was to describe the development of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seedling stands on drained peatlands and to find out the principal factors influencing their growth. The material under survey consists of 180 sample plots distributed from southern coast of Finland to the Polar Circle.

The most important growth factors have been the accumulated temperature sum, site quality, drainage intensity and silvicultural condition, such as the density of the stand, the proportion of birch in the stand, and the amount of possible shelterwoods. The influence of these factors, and to some extent the influence of fertilizing, and the disturbing effects of some forest damages, such as frost, growth disturbances and elk damages were investigated. Comparisons of the development in the seedling stands on drained peatlands with the known development of seedling stands in mineral soils were made.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5161, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1982). Physical properties of peat samples in relation to shrinkage upon drying. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 5161. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15076
Keywords: peat; density; bulk density; shrinkage; chemicophysical properties; drying; peat type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study discusses the amount of shrinkage of volumetric undisturbed peat samples when drying to an oven-dry (105°C) condition. The amount of shrinkage is related to various physical properties of peat. In addition, some observations were performed on the shrinkage phenomenon during the drying process. The study results may be used when predicting the shrinkage of peat samples with various peat properties. Knowledge of this kind is particularly important in connection with peat harvesting.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5128, category Article
Paavo J. Ollinmaa. (1981). Eräistä ojitetuilla soilla kasvaneen puun fysikaalisista ominaisuuksista. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5128. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15069
English title: Physical properties of wood growing on drained swamps.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; ojitetut suot; reaktiopuu; lujuus; puuaineen tiheys; vuosiluston leveys
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; Scots pine; density; compressive strength; growth rings; Norway spruce Picea abies; bending strength
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The objective of the investigation was to determine the differences between timber grown on a peatland before and after draining, in respect of compressive strength parallel to the grain, static bending strength and density. In addition, the characteristics of boundary zone between the wood formed before, and after the draining with wider growth rings was studied. 41 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and 22 Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) trees were studied.

The compressive strength of pine usually decreased from the butt end upwards, but no trend was observed in spruce wood. In coniferous trees, wide-ringed wood formed subsequent to draining was slightly lighter than the close-ringed wood produced prior the draining. The density of pine as well as spruce increases as the width of the growth rings decrease up to a certain limit. The strength of the different kinds of wood seems to decrease from the butt end upwards.

In both species, the compressive strength parallel to the grain and the bending strength are lowest in such wood that contains exclusively wide-ringed wood formed subsequent to draining. Also, compressive and bending strength increase with decreasing width of the growth rings. The longitudinal shrinkage of compression wood in spruce was several times that of normal wood, and the bending strength was lower than that of normal wood particularly in spruce. The compressive strength parallel to the grain in dry condition was, however, higher than in normal wood both in pine and spruce.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ollinmaa, E-mail: po@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5126, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1981). Koneiden uppoaminen suometsien puunkorjuussa. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5126. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15067
English title: Sinkage of forest machines during harvesting operations on peatlands.
Original keywords: suot; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; metsäkoneet; kantavuus
English keywords: logging; peatlands; timber harvesting; forest machines; carrying capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Questionnaires were sent out to determine the volume of wood harvested from peatlands during 1978 and the harvesting problems encountered. In total there were 110 responses which accounted for 8 million m3 of wood harvested, of which 1.0 million m3 (14%) was harvested from peatlands. The largest proportion of wood harvested from peatlands was during the winter. Most of the respondents reportet that they wait for the soil frost to set before harvesting is started on peatlands. Respondents indicated a total of 263 machines bogging down in to the soil or, for 1978, a total for Finland of 750 to 1,000 machines.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5124, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Samuli Joensuu. (1981). Metsäojituksen hydrologiset seurausvaikutukset. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5124. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15065
English title: The hydrological effects of forest drainage.
Original keywords: ojitus; ojitetut suot; hydrologia; vesistövaikutukset
English keywords: drained peatlands; water quality; drainage; hydrology; discharge
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present paper deals with the most important factors of peatland hydrology and the influence of forest drainage on the hydrology of peatland itself and its surroundings. It is compiled of six seminar papers written by students in the Department of Peatland Forestry in the University of Helsinki. Special attention is paid to the hydrological consequenses of the maintenance of drained areas. Also ways and measures to minimize the negative environmental effects of these treatments are discusses.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Joensuu, E-mail: sj@mm.unknown
article id 5077, category Article
Eero Paavilainen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1980). Toimenpiteet vanhoilla ojitusalueilla. Suomalais-neuvosliittolaisen symposion esitelmät. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 2 article id 5077. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15018
English title: Management of old forest drainage areas – papers presented in Finnish-Soviet symposium.
Original keywords: metsäojitus; Suomi; kokoukset; suometsätiede; soiden ojitus; Neuvostoliitto
English keywords: drained peatlands; Finland; peatlands; forest research; Soviet Union; USSR; symposium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forestry working group of the committee for scientific and technical cooperation between Finland and the Soviet Union initiated cooperation work between the two countries in the field of forestry almost ten years ago. The Finnish organizations the Department of Peatland Forestry, the Finnish Forestry Research Institute, and the Institute of Peatland Forestry of the University of Helsinki participated in the activity. From the Soviet Union the participants have been the Ministry of Forestry, the Russian Federation of USSR, and the Forestry Research Institutes of Leningrad and Estonia.

This paper includes the papers presented in the joint symposium arranged at the Forest Field Station of University of Helsinki on 17.9.1979. The 9 Russian lectures and the 8 Finnish ones, are presented either in their entirety or slightly condensed variably in Finnish, English or Russian. The summary of the seminar is presented in English and in Russian.

  • Paavilainen, E-mail:
  • Seppälä, E-mail:
article id 5016, category Article
H. Vasander, A. Mäkinen, P. Pakarinen. (1979). Kangaskorpimaannosten hivenainejakautumista ja -määristä. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 1 article id 5016. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14870
English title: Trace elements in soil profiles of paludified spruce forests.
Original keywords: maaperä; turvemaat; korvet; maannos; mikroravinteet; hivenaineet; kangaskorpi; raskasmetallit
English keywords: peatlands; soil; gleysol; trace elements; metals
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Gleysol profiles of five southern Finnish sites dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) were described according to the Canadian system of soil classification, and the total contents of five metals (Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe) were analysed in each soil profile. Lead, zinc and manganese showed highest concentrations in the organic surface horizons with a decrease towards mineral soil horizons. Vopper distribution was somewhat irregular. Iron had maximum values in the mineral soil: in A-horizon of Rego Gleysols and in B-horizon of Fera Gleysols. A preliminary comparison of metal pools in soil (root layer) with annual atmospheric input shows that the role of atmospheric deposition is relatively greater in the case of Cu, Zn and Pb than for Fe or Mn.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vasander, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown (email)
  • Mäkinen, E-mail: am@mm.unknown
  • Pakarinen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
article id 4990, category Article
Michael Starr, Carl Johan Westman. (1978). Easily extractable nutrients in the surface peat layer of virgin sedge-pine swamps. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 4990. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14844
Keywords: soil fertility; nutrients; peatlands; sedge-pine swamp
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the nutrient status of surface peat layer from virgin sedge-pine swamps and its relationship to peatland types. When the nutrients are expressed in mg/100 g peat, only easily extractable Ca and Mg correspond to the productivity status of the peatland type. N, P, and K levels in the herb rich sedge-pine swamp are generally lower than in the small sedge-pine swamps, which are the least productive ones. The differences between the site types in all the five nutrients become much clearer when the results are expressed in kg/ha. P, K, and Ca are significantly different between the site types, and correspond to the productivity of the site type. For N and Mg the same tendency can be seen. The organically bound nutrients N, and to a lesser extent, P appear to comply with the hypothesis of an increase in nutrient availability in Southern Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Starr, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown
article id 4924, category Article
Teklé Kapustinskaité. (1975). Puuston kasvu ja turpeen tuhkapitoisuus ojitetuilla soilla. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 3 article id 4924. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14766
English title: Ash content of peatland soils and stand growth in connection with drainage.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; ravinteisuus; puulajit; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; pituuskasvu; rauduskoivu; tervaleppä; Liettua; tuhkapitoisuus; hieskoivu; metsäsaarni
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; birch; Betula pendula; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; tree species; Alnus glutinosa; alder; ash content; fertility; Fraxinus exelsior; ash; Lithuania
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The ash content has been found to correlate with the fertility of peatlands. Relationship between height of 80-year-old stands and ash content of peat in topmost 30 cm layer was examined in Lithuanian conditions. On drained peatlands with ash content of peat from 3% to 8% pine stands increase in height. Ash content of peat being about 7% Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands on drained sites are found to be of equal height. Ash content of peat more than 8–9% has no significant effect on growth of pine or spruce stands. Birch (Betula verrucosa (B. Pendula Roth.) and Betula pubescens Erhrh.), stands are less sensitive to ash content of peat compared with other species. Black alder (Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertn.) stands occurred in sites with ash content of peat more than 8–10%. The height of the stands become equal both in drained and undrained sites in the cases where ash content of peat is about 16–18%. Ash (Fraxinus exelsior L.) stands attain high productivity on drained sites with ash content of peat about 20%.

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  • Kapustinskaité, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4921, category Article
Simo Hannelius. (1975). Ojitusalueiden kulkukelpoisuudesta puunkorjuussa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 3 article id 4921. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14763
English title: On the trafficability of drained peatlands in harvesting.
Original keywords: puunkuljetus; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; metsäkoneet; puustovauriot; kantavuus; routa; koneistuminen
English keywords: soil frost; drained peatlands; thinnings; mechanization; forest haulage; timber harvesting; forwarders; bearing capacity; logging conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

During the next decade there will be a marked increase in the allowable cut in drained peatlands. At the same time, the mechanization in logging proceeds, and in short-distance haulage the use of forwarders will increase. This study, based on literature and some observations, deals with logging conditions in drained peatlands with special reference to the suitability of heavy logging machines for use in such terrain. In addition, soil frost and the bearing capacity of the frozen peat soil were studied.

Freezing of the soil in a drained peatland area depends prevailingly on the weather conditions during early winter. The factors influencing soil freezing of a drained peatland are completely different from those regulating the freezing of natural peat soils. The frost penetrates in general deeper in the drained than virgin peatland. The topmost peat layer does not, however, freeze uniformly. Generally speaking, the bearing capacity of a drained peat soil is lower than that of undrained peat due to lower water content.

It is concluded that heavy logging machines are probably not fitted for use in drained areas on peatland even if the average soil frost values recorded would suggest it. Moreover, because of their extremely superficial root systems, peatland forests are exposed to damages by heavy machines in thinning operations.

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  • Hannelius, E-mail: sh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4920, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1975). Turvetuotannosta vapautuvan maan metsittäminen. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4920. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14776
English title: Afforestation of bogs after industrial exploitation of peat.
Original keywords: mänty; metsitys; lannoitus; suojapuusto; turvetuotanto; jälkikäyttö; tuhka; tervaleppä; suonpohja
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; afforestation; Scots pine; Alnus glutinosa; alder; peat production; after-use; ash
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Peat industry is rapidly expanding in Finland. Consequently, during next decades peat will be removed from thousands of hectares. Because timber production probably is the most rational use of this area after the peat production has ended, some experiments of afforestation of such areas have already been conducted. This article reports results of two experiments which were started in Kihniö, Western Finland, in 1953 and 1964.

In the first experiment fertilization with wood ash proved very effective whereas seeding and planting without fertilization resulted in almost complete failure. In the second experiment, interplanting with grey alder (Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertn.) greatly promoted the growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The effect of slight fertilization lasted a few years only. The reasons for the remarkable effect of alder need further research. Although alder is known as a nitrogen-fixing plant, its beneficial effect was most clearly seen in the K and P contents of pine needles. Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi was beneficial but not necessary. Experiments hitherto show that afforestation of bogs after peat removal is possible although some additional measures like fertilization or interplanting with alder may be needed.

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  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4908, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1974). Sarkaleveyden ja naveroinnin vaikutus pohjavesipinnan syvyyteen ja männyntaimiston kehitykseen lyhytkortisella nevalla. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 4 article id 4908. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14752
English title: The effect of ditch spacing and furrowing on depth of ground water table and on development of a Scots pine plantation on small-sedge bog.
Original keywords: mänty; ojitetut suot; avosuot; pituuskasvu; sarkaleveys; naverointi; kuivatussyvyys; kuivatusteho
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; seedlings; open peatlands; drainage effect; ground water table; ditch spacing; furrowing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the results obtained from an investigation into the effect of ditch spacing, ditch depth and furrowing on ground water table and on development of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantation on open small-sedge bog in Central Finland (60° 50’ N; 24° 20’ E), drained in 1967. The area was planted in 1968 with 2+1 Scots pine transplants, and fertilized with Y fertilizer for peat soils. The seedlings were measured in 1972.

The depth of the ground water table was greater, the narrower the ditch spacing. The water furrows shortened the duration of the high ground water and lowered the ground water table particularly in the case of ineffective drainage. The narrower the ditch spacing within the blocks, the higher were the young trees. On the other hand, the differences in the height of the trees between the ditch spacings were eliminated by the effect of the furrows.

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  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4905, category Article
Reijo Solantie. (1974). Kesän vesitaseen vaikutus metsä- ja suokasvillisuuteen ja linnustoon sekä lämpöolojen välityksellä maatalouden toimintaedellytyksiin Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 3 article id 4905. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14749
English title: The influence of water balance in summer on forest and peatland vegetation and bird fauna and through the temperature on agricultural conditions in Finland.
Original keywords: suokasvillisuus; lämpötila; metsäkasvillisuus; sademäärä; ilmasto; haihdunta; vesitase
English keywords: Finland; climate; precipitation; temperature; forest vegetation; water budget; evaporation; peatland vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The significance of water budget in June and July for forest and peatland vegetation, and consequent effects on fauna, climate and agriculture has been studied.

In June, the difference between evaporation and precipitation is greater than it is later in the summer. North of the line zero difference of evaporation and precipitation, coinciding with a line of sharp change in forest vegetation, the uppermost part of podsol remains wet throughout the summer. During July, the line of zero difference moves from north to south over the greater part of Finland, run-off being minute and podsol at the driest in this month. This line, indicating the length of the period with evaporation greater than precipitation and causing a sharp change in forest vegetation, in frequency of peatlands, amount of growing stock productive capacity of forests etc. This line is significant also for cultivation: because of the lower evaporation north of this line, night temperature below the freezing point often appear in summer.

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  • Solantie, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4891, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1973). Metsäojitustoiminta ja toimenpideraja. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 4 article id 4891. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14729
English title: The profitability limit in forest drainage.
Original keywords: ojituskelpoisuus; kannattavuus; turvemaat; soiden ojitus; menetelmät; metsäojitusboniteetti
English keywords: profitability; drainability; draining of peatlands; methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study describes the relationships between a method developed by the author for the calculation of the profitability of forest drainage and the old biological method. The calculations were based on empirical data, and they aimed at finding out the effect of a variation in the profitability limit in the areas in hectares to be drained, and on the profitability of drainage. The study deals also with the profitability of present-day drainage activities. The results showed that the profitability coefficient (the ratio between the discounted increase in returns and the costs of drainage) averages 3.04 for the whole country. The corresponding value was 5.68 for Southern Finland, 3.19 for Central Finland and 1.67 for Northern Finland.

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  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4889, category Article
Tapio Lehtiniemi. (1973). Turvepuristeet ja männyn kylvö. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 4 article id 4889. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14727
English title: Use of peat briquettes in seeding of Scots pine.
Original keywords: kylvö; mänty; itäminen; kasvualustat; turve; turvebriketti; vakoruutukylvö
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; germination; Scots pine; peat; sowing; seeding; band-sowing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to assess, through field experiments, the possibilities of using peat briquettes in the seeding of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Southern Finland. The briquettes were dug into the soil in the middle of patches of mineral soil. The seeds were covered by a 2-5 mm layer of mineral soil. The seedings were inventoried in the three following autumns.

According to the results, the briquettes were clearly inferior to the control, which was ordinary drill seeding. This was mainly due to the fact that no rain was received after the seeding, and that the third summer from seeding was extremely dry. Abundant germination was observed during the second summer after seeding in both briquette seeding and the control. During more rainy summers the result might have been better.

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  • Lehtiniemi, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4882, category Article
Hannu Mannerkoski. (1973). Ekologisia havaintoja eräältä ojitetulta suolta. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 2 article id 4882. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14718
English title: Ecological investigations in a drained peatland area.
Original keywords: kuusi; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; aluskasvillisuus; turpeen paksuus; ravinteet; ravinnepuutos; puusto
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; drained peatlands; nutrient deficiency; growing stock; nutrients; ground vegetation; thickness of peat
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the relationships between macronutrients, ground vegetation and tree crop on a drained peatland area in Central Finland. The former herb-rich spruce swamp was drained in 1930s. The Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stand was established by planting under a nurse crop of birch, which was removed later.

There was a negative correlation between the thickness of the peat layer and the volume and mean height of the growing stock. This was found to depend on the negative correlation prevailing between the potassium content of the topmost peat layer and the thickness of the peat cover. The deficiency of potassium is clearly discernible as deficiency symptoms in the needles, the intensity of which showed a strong correlation with the stand characteristics studied. Among the nutrient characteristics of the topmost peat layer, total potassium and the N/K and P/K ratios showed the closest correlation with the stand characteristics. The communities into which the ground vegetation was divided differed from each other with regard to the calcium content of the peat substrate.

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  • Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4881, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1973). Harvennuksen vaikutus lumi- ja routasuhteisiin nuoressa turvemaan männikössä. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 2 article id 4881. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14717
English title: The effect of thinning on the snow cover and soil frost conditions in a young Scots pine stand on drained peatland.
Original keywords: mänty; harvennushakkuu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; lumi; lumen syvyys; routa; lumen vesiarvo
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; soil frost; thinning; drained peatlands; Scots pine; snow cover; depth of snow; water equivalent of snow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the results obtained from an investigation into the effect of thinning of different intensity and fertilization on the depth and water equivalent of the snow cover as well as on the depth of the soil frost in a young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand growing on drained peatland in Central Finland. Thinnings and fertilization was carried out in 1968, and the snow cover was followed in the winters 1970/71 and 1971/72.

Only extremely heavy thinnings (60% of the volume) seemed to increase the depth and water equivalent of the snow cover. The indirect effect of fertilization on the snow cover was insignificant. In the clear-cut sample plot of the study, soil frost was either not found at all or the depths of the frozen soil layer was smaller than in the other plots. When deciding the silvicultural measures to be taken in the case of tree stands growing on drained peatlands, there seems to be reason to avoid radical thinnings. Otherwise, the favourable influence of the trees on a site on its water relationships will be diminished.

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  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4877, category Article
Pertti Laatikainen. (1973). Jyrsinturve ja kuorihumus männyn kylvötaimien kasvualustoina muovihuoneessa. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 1 article id 4877. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14707
English title: Milled peat and milled bark as substrate for Scots pine seedlings in greenhouses.
Original keywords: mänty; taimitarha; taimituotanto; lannoitus; kasvualustat; kasvihuoneviljely; kuorihumus; turve
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; nursery; Scots pine; substrate; tree seedlings; greenhouse cultivation; milled peat; milled bark
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to compare the development of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings sown on substrates off milled peat and milled bark. Mille peat, ordinary milled bark, milled inner bark waste, and a mixture of milled peat and milled bark in the ratio of 1:1, were all compared in the plastic greenhouse. In addition, two fertilization applications were used with milled park: ordinary surface fertilization and double surface fertilization. The germination and development were measured twice during the summer.

It is concluded that milled bark seems to be a rather useful substrate for use in plastic greenhouses, as long as its special requirements are taken into consideration. In the first measurement, there were no differences between the treatments, in the second measurements seedlings growing on a mixture of peat and bark were slightly more developed than the others. Growth of the seedlings was slightly better in ordinary milled bark. Double surface fertilization increased disease and mortality compared to ordinary fertilization.

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  • Laatikainen, E-mail: pl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4876, category Article
Tapio Lehtiniemi, Juhani Sarasto. (1973). Kokemuksia rauduksen istutuksesta ojitetuille soille. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 1 article id 4876. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14706
English title: Betula verrucosa plantations on peat.
Original keywords: taimet; turvemaat; uudistaminen; ojitetut suot; kuolleisuus; rauduskoivu; ravinnetasapaino
English keywords: Betula pendula; regeneration; drained peatlands; planting; nutrient deficiency; mortality; seedlings; Betula verrucosa; Godronia multispora
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to assess whether two-year old Betula verrucosa Ehrh. (now Betula pendula Roth.) transplants can be used in afforestation of drained peatlands and what factors affect the development of the young trees. The seedlings were planted in 1967. The site was repair planted next spring due to mortality caused by a undefined fungal disease, and the plantations were fertilized with NPK fertilizer (soil application. The seedlings were measured twice a year until the autumn 1970.

Only 28% of the original transplants, and 73.4% of the repair plantations were alive in 1970. In some cases, fertilization improved the results, while in others it was detrimental to the trees or had no effect on survival. According to peat analysis, the poor survival and development of the plants could be due to the too high ratios of N/Ca and N/P. Stunted or dead trees displayed often necrosis caused by Godronia multispora. According to the experiences, Betula verrucosa plantations are inferior to those obtained with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). In addition, the results indicate that in old draining areas calcium and phosphorus are often too low in comparison to nitrogen.

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  • Lehtiniemi, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 4860, category Article
Pentti Erjala, Jussi Saramäki. (1972). Astiakoemenetelmä suotyyppien lannoitustarpeen määrityksessä. Silva Fennica vol. 6 no. 1 article id 4860. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14663
English title: Determination of the need for fertilizer application of drained peat soils with the pot method.
Original keywords: mänty; suotyyppi; turvemaat; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; ravinteiden puute; lannoitustarve
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; drained peatlands; Scots pine; nutrient deficiency; peatland type; need for fertilizers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The possibilities of using a pot method to determine the need for fertilizer application were studied. Seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) were grown in peat samples that had cylindrical shape with a diameter of 25 cm and height of 35 cm. The samples represented three different peatland types, and were fertilized with two levels of phosphorus, potash and nitrogen. Two transplants were planted per pot. The development of the seedlings was followed for three years.

Phosphorus seemed to be of greatest importance for the growth of the seedlings, but nitrogen was also required in the poorest peatland type. Potash did not give statistically significant results. NPK application gave the best response. The usability of the method was studied by following the development of the roots. It seemed that the diameter of the pots was too small and restricted the growth of the root systems.

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  • Erjala, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saramäki, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 4839, category Article
Erkki Timonen. (1971). Auraus- ja kaivuriojien koon ja muodon muutoksista. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4839. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14641
English title: The changes of the size and shape of ditches made by plows and tractor diggers.
Original keywords: suot; turvemaat; ojat; aura; kaivinkoneet; ojien painuminen
English keywords: draining of peatlands; ditches; plows; tractor diggers; drain digging; draining plough
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The changed in size and shape of ditches made by draining plows and tractor diggers were followed over a one-year period after the draining in four different peatland types. The material consists of 51 ditches made with each method in dwarf-shrub pine bog, herb-rich spruce swamp, in herb-rich sedge bog and sedge pine bog. The measurements were made immediately after the digging, and one month and a year later.

Ditches made by plowing and surrounded by peat became shallower quickly during the first 2–3 days after plowing due to the pressure of the surrounding peat. Ditches made with tractor diggers did not become shallower as fast, and their bottom did not widen to the same extent than plown ditched. During the first year, machine-made ditches change in a same way as handmade ditches, especially when compared to ditches made by tractor digger.

Immediately after digging the ditches made by tractor digger were 10 cm deeper and 0.13 m3 larger than plown ditches. One year later the values were 7,5 cm and 0.09 m3, respectively. Plown ditches made in the peat were 14.4 cm deeper than ditches that penetrated into the subsoil, for tractor digger the value was 13.2 cm. Ditches made with a tractor digger were deeper than plown ditches both in soils with deep and shallow peat layer.

The changes were largest and fastest in the wettest peatland type herb-rich sedge bog. In herb-rich spruce swamps, which have a shallow peat layer, the shallower plown ditches kept their form better than ditches dug by tractor digger.

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  • Timonen, E-mail: et@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4838, category Article
Kustaa Seppälä. (1971). Metsityslannoituksessa käytetyn lannoitemäärän ja levitystavan merkitys istutustaimiston alkukehitykselle ojitetuilla avosoilla. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4838. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14640
English title: The quantity of fertilizer and application methods used in afforestation of open bogs.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; metsitys; taimet; turvemaat; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; avosuot; kuolleisuus; pituuskasvu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; afforestation; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; mortality; seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the results obtained from an experiment of fertilization of drained treeless peatlands in connection of planting in three sites in Central Finland. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings 2+0 was used. The fertilizer (Y-fertilizer for peat soils, 14% N, 18% P2O5, 10% K2O) was applied in rates of 0, 20, 40 and 80 g/transplant. The fertilizer was strewn either around the plant within a circular patch of 20 cm in diameter, in a ring with a radius of 10 cm and in a ring with a radius of 20 cm. The seedlings were measured two and five years after planting.

The greater the quantity of fertilizer applied and the closer it was applied to the plant the higher was the mortality of transplants. Fertilization increased the mortality during the first two growing seasons after application. Later, however, the mortality decreased to a similar level irrespective the way the fertilizer was applied. In the beginning of the second growing season the fertilized plants showed considerably better height growth than the control plants. The smallest quantity of fertilizer applied produced almost full increase in growth. The pattern of application of the fertilizer had little effect on the growth.

It was concluded that a use of small amounts of fertilizer can be recommended in connection with planting and that it should not be applied very near the seedlings.

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  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4836, category Article
Erkki Lähde. (1971). Anaerobisten olosuhteiden ja aerobisuusrajan esiintymisestä erilaisilla luonnontilaisilla turvemailla ja merkityksestä suotyypin kuvaajana. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 1 article id 4836. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14625
English title: Anaerobic conditions in various virgin peat soils and the significance of the aerobic limit as an indicator of site quality.
Original keywords: suotyypit; turvemaat; luonnontilaiset suot; anaerobisuusraja; puuston kasvu; pohjaveden syvyys
English keywords: Finland; tree growth; virgin peatlands; peatland types; aerobic limit; ground water table
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to increase the knowledge of the anaerobic conditions prevailing in virgin peat soils of different kinds, and on the fluctuation of the aerobic limit. Silver rod method was used to indicate anaerobic conditions and to locate the aerobic limit. The material included 18 peatland sample plots on treeless bogs, in pine bogs and in spruce swamps in Southern Finland. Observations of the discoloration of the silver rods and measurements of ground water level were made from 8 June to 13 August 1968.

The results show that the location of the aerobic limit is dependent of the depth of the ground water table, and usually lies 5–15 cm above the ground water table. Down to 10–20 cm below the aerobic limit, where it reaches maximum, the rate of decomposition of sulfurous organic matter is positively correlated with the distance from the aerobic limit. Deeper it gradually decreases, and in the depth of 25–35 cm no hydrogen sulphide seems to be released.

In the forested peatland types the volume of the growing stock and the increment were dependent on the depth of the aerobic limit only when nutrient content and pH of the peat was more or less constant. Where the aerobic limit was close to the ground surface but the nutrient contents were relatively high, the volume of the growing stock may be comparatively high. Birch (Betula sp.), better than the conifers, is able to stand conditions poor in oxygen. The growing stock was poor in sites where the aerobic limit was near the ground surface, but the nitrogen and phosphorus contents were high, or vice versa. Consequently, aerobic limit is of great importance as an indicator of site quality.

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  • Lähde, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4829, category Article
Juhani Numminen. (1970). Metsäojituksen kannattavuuden alueittainen vaihtelu. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 4 article id 4829. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14618
English title: Regional variation of the profitability of forest drainage in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; kannattavuus; metsäojitus; soiden ojitus; valtion tuet; avustukset; alueelliset erot
English keywords: forest drainage; subsidies; profitability; draining of peatlands; forest improvement; regional differences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study attempts to establish to what extent the present regional allocation of the forest improvement subsidies equalize the profitability of forest drainage in Finland. The benefit/cost ratio has been used to describe the regional variation of the profitability

The study revealed that the forest improvement subsidies granted in 1968, even the highest possible subsidies, did not equalize the profitability of forest drainage. According to the results, the northern regions are at a disadvantage compared to the southern parts of the country. To fully equalize the profitability of forest drainage the average subsidies granted in 1968 should have been raised in the second financing zone from 22 to 32%, in the third zone from 32 to 60%, and in the fourth, northernmost zone from 43 to 86%. The study also suggests that the boundary lines of the financing zones should run, at least in Central and Northern Finland, from southeast to northwest instead from east to west, as it is now.

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  • Numminen, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4817, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Jukka Ouni. (1970). Turvemaiden taimistojen pituuskasvusta. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 4817. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14606
English title: Height growth of seedling stands growing on peatland.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; turvemaat; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; taimikot; pituuskasvu; ylispuusto
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; fertilization; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; peatlands; seedling stands; hold-overs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper presents the results of a contest performed on behalf of the Finnish bank Kansallis-Osake-Pankki and the Central Forestry Board Tapio on growing trees on peatlands. Over 5,000 sample plots were established on drained peatlands in various parts of Finland. The aim was to achieve a best possible growth of seedling stands on peatland. The factors influencing the growth of 85 best Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and 60 best Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.) sample plots were studied.

The height growth of the seedling stands decreased towards the north. Fertilization seemed not to decrease the regional differences; rather on the contrary. On the other hand, fertilization increased height growth, but evidently so that the increase obtained was greater in the southern than in the northern parts of the country. Light fertilization (50 kg/ha of K2O and 60 kg/ha of O2P5) caused a clear increase in height growth while heavy fertilization (100 g/ha of K2O and 120 kg/ha of O2P5), had same effect but to much greater extent than the former. Spruce seedling stands in particular benefitted of the heavy fertilization.

Fertilization did not eliminate the original differences in the quality of the sites in question, but these could still be seen in the height growth after fertilization. The effect of drain spacing on the height growth was not very clear. In dense seedling stands (800 seedlings/ha) the height growth of the dominant seedlings was greater than that obtained in stands of lower density. Hold-overs caused a decrease in the growth of the seedling stands.

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  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ouni, E-mail: jo@mm.unknown
article id 4783, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1969). The bulk density of peat and its determination. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 1 article id 4783. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14569
Keywords: peat; density; volume weight; humification degree
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study determined the correlation between the bulk density, humification degree and laboratory volume weight of the surface peat of virgin and drained peatlands. The material consists of 316 peat samples 250 cc in volume.

The correlation between bulk density and the laboratory volume weight was found to be close. Eliminating the ash and moisture content of air-dry samples did not improve the correlation. There were distinct level differences among peat types; difference between bulk density and laboratory volume weight was the greatest for Sphagnum and the smallest for woody peats. The Carex peats were intermediate. The water content at sampling may partly determine these differences. When the data were treated as a whole, the difference between bulk density and laboratory volume weight seemed to increase, as the water content increased.

The correlation was also close between bulk density and the degree of humification. For all data, multivariable correlation analysis revealed that bulk density was determined for the largest part by the degree of humification, least by the water content at sampling, laboratory volume weight being intermediate. Thus, already the determination of the degree of humification provides a clear picture of the bulk density for each peat type. It can be also determined by fair accuracy on the basis of the laboratory volume weight. The bulk density is required for e.g. water regime studies, to convert the water content of peat measured in weight units into volume percentages.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4770, category Article
Kustaa Seppälä. (1968). Ennakkotuloksia suometsiköiden ojituksen jälkeisestä kehityksestä ja siihen vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 3 article id 4770. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14555
English title: Preliminary results of post-drainage development of peatland stands in Finland.
Original keywords: kasvu; suometsät; turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; kuivatustehokkuus; ojaväli
English keywords: drained peatlands; increment; draining intensity; ditch interval; drainage effect; stand recovery
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present paper is a preliminary report of a project designed to determine the order of profitability of various forest improvement measures – seeding and planting, drainage, and fertilization – in various types of stands and in different parts of the country on drained peatlands. Sample plot data on the effect of draining on increment was derived from areas drained 28– 36 years ago. The study was carried out in the southern half of Finland.

The observations on increment changes are based on two measurements of the sample stands 12 years apart. Supplementary calculations indicate that the stands on drained peatland, depending on site quality and tree species, have either continued to grow like mineral-soil sites of similar fertility or have somewhat increased their growth rate.

The effect of draining intensity was studied using strip measurements. It was found that both the total amount of wood produced (current stand + cutting removal + natural removal) and the current annual volume increment for the 5-year period systematically decrease as the ditch interval increases. The decrease is, however, relatively slight. In Eriophorum vaginatum pine swamps, the total amount of wood produced and the increment show a decrease of ca. 20% with an increase in ditch interval from 20 to 60 metres. In other sites, the decrease is ca. 5-10%

It can be concluded that if the increase in ditch interval do not result in considerably poorer timber assortment distributions than indicates by stand production and increment, it is profitable to pan for a relatively large ditch interval and a slightly smaller than maximum wood production. Supplementary data and check calculations may cause some changes in these preliminary results.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4764, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1968). Istutusajankohdan vaikutus männyn istutuksen onnistumiseen ojitetuilla avosoilla. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 2 article id 4764. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14549
English title: The effect of the date of planting on the survival of Scots pine on drained open peatlands in Finland.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; metsitys; ojitusalueet; turvekankaat; istutusaika; avosuot; syysistutus
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; afforestation; drained peatlands; Scots pine; planting; time of planting; autumn planting; open peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Due to mechanization of draining of peatlands, also open peatlands have been included in the draining projects due to technical reasons. Some research has been published on afforestation of open drained peatlands, but there is yet no experiments that reaches the entire development of the stands. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the possibility of extending the planting season of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) over the entire growing season in drained peatlands, where the water condition of the site is probably not the factor limiting forest development. An open low-sedge swamps in Southern Finland were planted in early summer and two weeks in midsummer in 1967.

In the light of the results, planting Scots pine would seem possible in drained peatlands throughout the growing season. However, plants may suffer considerably from lifting for the plantation in August. The success of planting at the turn of September and October is also uncertain. The nursery must be situated close to the areas to be planted, since the transportation and handling of plants during the growing season must be carried out with extreme care. The seasonality of planting work could be decreased by extending the planting season. In the future, several transplant storing methods should be tried out in connection with similar planting-time experiments.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4725, category Article
Carl Olof Tamm. (1965). Some experiences from forest fertilization trials in Sweden. Silva Fennica no. 117 article id 4725. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14283
Original keywords: Ruotsi; kasvu; lannoitus; turvekankaat
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; fertilization; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; Sweden; increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The many unsolved questions concerning fertilization makes it difficult to forecast accurately its biological and economic consequences. Some of the problems are discussed in this paper. The most common types of forests in Sweden, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands on well-drained mineral soil, respond strongly to nitrogenous fertilizers, but the effect of phosphate, potash or lime is small or nil, at least within 5–10 years after application. The response of nitrogen lasts 4–5 years in pine and somewhat more in spruce.

Drained peatlands usually respond to mineral fertilization, but the improvement brought about by a PK application depends, inter alia, on the nitrogen content of the peat. Peatlands with a peat low in nitrogen need NPK fertilization. For deep peatlands, a moderate or high nitrogen content, a single PK application improves growth conditions for a very long time. Experience of fertilizing shallow peatlands and poorly-drained mineral soil is very limited, but it seems easy to get a growth response either with nitrogen alone or with NPK.

The results of fertilization at the time of planting have not, as a rule, been very good in Sweden. An exception is the afforestation of abandoned fields on drained deep peat, where PK fertilizer around the plant seems to be essential for both survival and growth.

  • Tamm, E-mail: ct@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4696, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1960). Suometsätieteen tutkimustoiminta Suomessa. Silva Fennica no. 108 article id 4696. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9135
English title: Swamp forestry research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; suot; suometsätiede; soiden kuivattaminen; soiden ojitus
English keywords: forestry; Finland; peatlands; forest research; draining of peatlands; research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About one third of the land area of Finland is covered by peatlands, furthermore, some mineral soils are troubled by excess water. Due to the prevalence of peatlands, forest drainage has been the most important form of forest improvement work. Consequently, peatlands have been an extensively studied topic within forest sciences in Finland. This paper gives a review on the central research subjects in science of peatlands, introducing little less than a hundred of the hundreds of publications published in the field. The author describes in more detail research on the formation and area of peatlands, peatland types and their suitability for forest draining, site factors on peatlands, techniques of forest ditching and the management of peatland forests.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4672, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1957). Lettoräme ja sen metsäojituskelpoisuus. Silva Fennica no. 93 article id 4672. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9119
English title: Eutrophic pine bogs and their suitability for draining.
Original keywords: ojituskelpoisuus; kasvillisuus; suot; kasvu; suotyyppi; lettoräme
English keywords: vegetation; tree growth; peatlands; peatland type; fen-like pine swamp; drainability of peatlands; swamps
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There are about 155,000 ha of fen-like pine swamps (eutrophic pine bogs) in Finland, major part of which are situated in Northern Finland. In the classification system for drainability of peatlands, this type of peatlands had been placed in the first class. The study presents a new evaluation for the peatland type, based on vegetation and tree growth.

According to a previous study, the vegetation of fen-like pine swamps can be characterised by distinctive plant communities that seem to reflect the fertility and high pH of the underlying soil. In this study, the fen-like pine swamps were divided in two subtypes based on the vegetation: proper fen-like pine swamps and fen-like pine swamps with ericaceous shrubs. Both have distinctive vegetation, which is described in the article. The distribution of the subtypes seems to be different: fen-like pine swamps with ericaceous shrubs are more common in eastern parts of Northern Finland. The two subtypes could be divided in different drainability classes according to tree growth, proper fen-like pine swamps belonging to class 1 and fen-like pine swamps with ericaceous shrubs to class 4.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4660, category Article
A. Kotiaho. (1957). Viljelyskelpoisuustutkimukset, niiden suoritus ja tulosten tiedoittaminen. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4660. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14061
English title: Arability research, its execution and information of the results.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; viljavuus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; suot; viljelymaa; viljelyskelpoisuus; turvemaat
English keywords: peatlands; arable land; forest education; settlement; arability of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

In 1925-1944 the Finnish Swamp Cultivation Association (now Finnish Peatland Society, Suoseura) carried out research on the arability of peatlands, mostly on state lands that were the main object of settlement work and the arability of which had been little explored. Later the work has been transferred to the Settlement Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (ASO) and some other authorities. ASO has prepared arability maps based on the nutrient analysis of the lands.

  • Kotiaho, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4643, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1954). Aikatutkimuksia metsäojitusten kivitöistä. Silva Fennica no. 84 article id 4643. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9105
English title: Time studies on stone work done in forest drainage.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäojitus; työntutkimus; aikatutkimus; koneellistuminen
English keywords: forest drainage; work study; mechanization; time study; drainage of peatlands; ditches
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

When ditches are dug in forest drainage, smaller stones are removed by hand, but the larger ones require the use of explosives or stone lifting machinery. Use of explosives have been a more common method for the larger stones. Due to development of detonation methods, it has also been used for smaller stones than earlier.

The investigation was a time study comparing five different stone lifting machines. Time needed for different stages of the work was measured. The stages lasted approximately as long for all of the machines. However, the effectivity of the machines could not be determined, because the stones removed were not similar enough. Stone lifting machine Pekka appeared slightly more effective than the other four machines. It was also easy to assemble, disassemble and move.

The article includes a summary in German.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4635, category Article
Paavo B. Mansner. (1953). Suometsien hoito. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4635. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14051
English title: Forest management of peatland forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsäojitus; jatkokoulutus; suometsät
English keywords: forest management; peatlands; forest education; draining of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the factors that limit growth of trees in peatlands, and principles of draining of peatlands.

  • Mansner, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4625, category Article
Olavi Huikari. (1952). Suotyypin määritys maa- ja metsätaloudellista käyttöarvoa silmällä pitäen. Silva Fennica no. 75 article id 4625. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9097
English title: Determination of peatland type considering their drainage value for agriculture and forestry.
Original keywords: ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; kasvillisuus; suot; ravinteisuus; suotyypit
English keywords: vegetation; peatlands; fertility; draining; peatland type; draining of peatland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Growth capacity of peatlands after draining depends largely on quality of the surface peat. The future growth capacity can be determined with considerable accuracy by the vegetation of the peatland. The aim of this study was to draw guidelines to identify the fertility of a peatland and its potential for draining based on its vegetation.

Certain species and plant associations were identified to describe the fertility of different peatland types. Brown mosses indicate an abundant nutrient content of the site, certain herbs moderately abundant nutrient content, sedges (Carex sp.) moderate nutrient content, shrubs poor nutrient content and vegetation indicating an oligotrophic peatland indicates excessively poor nutrient content. The article includes detailed descriptions of the vegetation of different peatland types.

Supplementary features, such as thin peat, flooded parts or abundance of Spangnum fuscum can be used as additional indications to determine the drainability of the site. The article describes an identification tool to determine the drainability of a peatland based on vegetation and the supplementary features of the peatland.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Huikari, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4624, category Article
Polttoainekomitea. (1952). Polttoainekysymys vuonna 1951 : polttoainekomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 74 article id 4624. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9096
English title: The fuel question in Finland in 1951.
Original keywords: polttopuu; komiteanmietinnöt; hiili; polttoaineet; öljy; polttoturve; tuonti
English keywords: firewood; fuel; coal; coke; fuel peat; oil; fuel demand; fuel import
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The government of Finland appointed a committee to make a suggestion of measures to be taken to arrange fuel supply during the heating season. The committee drafted also a plan to regulate and govern the fuel economy.

The committee estimated that the total consumption of coal, coke, firewood, waste wood and fuel peat, converted into pine firewood increased from 33.8 million eu.m in piled measure in heating period of 1952-53 to 42.9 million in 1955-56. According to the report, the demand of fuel is met increasingly through imported fuels, such as coal, coke and oil. The change is mainly due by their lower price and technically easy handling compared to domestic fuels.

The committee suggests that the production of domestic fuels, peat and firewood, should be increased and rationalized. In addition, financial support should be targeted to construct hydroelectric plants. Fuel peat industry should be developed further. The use of oil should be promoted, and boilers able to use different kinds of fuel should be constructed. To be prepared in changes in international situation, stocks of fuel are needed.

  • Polttoainekomitea, E-mail:
article id 4622, category Article
O. O. Tirkkonen. (1952). Suomen metsäojitus 1900-luvun alkupuoliskolla. Silva Fennica no. 72 article id 4622. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9094
English title: Peatland drainage in Finland in the first half of 20h century.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; ojitus; tilastot; yksityismetsät; metsäojitus; suot
English keywords: peatlands; Forest Service; state forests; private forests; statistics; drainage of peatlands; central forest associations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the second National Forest Survey, peatlands covered before the World War II 11,156,000 hectares, 32% of the land area of Finland. The early drainage of peatlands in 1700th century had aimed at preventing frost and increasing area of agricultural land. The experiences proved that drainage of wet forests was lucrative also in the point of view of forestry. The drainage of state-owned forest lands was promoted by the Crown Forest Committee in its report in 1900. The systematic drainage work in state lands begun in 1909. In the end of 1920s 500-700 km of ditches was dug annually.

The drainage of private lands begun after 1928, when forestry promotion work in private forests begun. By the end of 1950, 4,815 forest drainage projects had been approved by the Forest Service in the private lands. In addition, 286,000 ha of peatlands was drained on work organized by the central forest associations in 1930-1950, and 239,272 ha by timber companies in 1902-1950. The drained area totalled 755,892 ha. The area of drainable and drained peatland was estimated to be 4.4 million ha.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Tirkkonen, E-mail: ot@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4620, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1951). Eräs suokasvillisuuden analysoimismenetelmä. Silva Fennica no. 70 article id 4620. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9092
English title: Determination method for peatland vegetation.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; suotyyppi; määritysmenetelmä; lettoräme; kasviyhdyskunta
English keywords: peatland; vegetation; plant community; peatland type; determination method; fen-like pine swamp
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to develop an determination method to define vegetation type of fen-like pine swamps, which are combinations of two peatland types, quagmire and pine swamp. Typical for this peatland type is that the vegetation is very heterogenous. Patches of different types of plant communities are found within a small area, but in a large scale, there are only few main types of plant communities. The commonly used way to use sample plots to study tree stands suit poorly to determine the type of this kind of heterogenous ground vegetation. The article compares strip survey and circular plot survey, of which circular plot survey is determined to be less time consuming. The article describes a way to choose the locations of sample points to achieve most correct areas for different plant communities.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4607, category Article
U. Metsänheimo. (1951). Metsäojitustoiminnasta Perä-Pohjolan valtionmetsissä. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4607. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14003
English title: Forest drainage in state forests in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmetsät; ojitus; metsäopetus; Perä-Pohjola; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: peatlands; forest education; state forests; drainage of peatlands; Northerh Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the history and present stage of forest drainage in Northern Finland. The first peatlands were drained in the area in 1909. About 6% of the 600,000 hectares of peatlands suitable for drainage was drained at the time in Perä-Pohjola. The areas to be drained are characteristically very large.

  • Metsänheimo, E-mail: um@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4567, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1939). Ojituksien kunnossapidosta sekä ojitettujen soiden metsien käsittelystä ja metsittämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4567. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13974
English title: Forest management of forests in drained peatlands and maintenance of ditch network.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; valtion metsät; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; kunnostusojitus
English keywords: peatlands; maintenance; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; drainage of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses forest management practices of drained peatlands and the allocation of responsibilities in draining of peatlands between district forest officers and forest officers responsible of drainage work. Problems has occured in those cases, when the process of draining had lasted so long that at the time of final assessment of the project the first ditches have already needed maintenance.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4536, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1938). Metsän uudistumisen tarkkailusta kovilla metsämailla ja ojitetuilla soilla sekä ojien tarkkailusta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4536. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13945
English title: Inspection of regeneration of forests in mineral soil forests and drained peatlands and checking of ditches.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; ojitus; metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; suot; hoitoalueet; taimettuminen; taimikko; ojitusalueet
English keywords: natural regeneration; drained peatlands; peatlands; seedling stands; forest education; state forests; artificial regeneration; professional development courses; districts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes inspection of forest regeneration of mineral soil forest types and drained peatlands, and inspection of ditches. 

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4530, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1938). Ojitettujen soiden metsittämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4530. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13939
English title: Afforestation of drained peatlands.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; ojitus; metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; metsitys; suot
English keywords: afforestation; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; peatlands; forest regeneration; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes afforestation of drained peatlands. 

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4517, category Article
U. Metsänheimo. (1937). Metsäojituksen vaikutuksesta vesitalouteen. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4517. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14095
English title: Effects of forest draining on water management.
Original keywords: ojitus; suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; vesitalous
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; draining of peatland; ground water level
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the effects of draining of peatlands on water management in the peatland and the surrounding area.

  • Metsänheimo, E-mail: um@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4495, category Article
Mauno J. Kotilainen. (1937). Soiden viljelyskelpoisuuteen vaikuttavista tekijöistä ja valtionmaiden soiden viljelyskelpoisuudesta lähinnä niiden asutusmahdollisuuksia silmällä pitäen. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4495. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13905
English title: Peatlands suitable for agriculture in state lands, and the factors affecting drainability of the peatlands.
Original keywords: suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustila; maanviljely; viljelykelpoisuus; maatila
English keywords: peatland; forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses; homesteads; farm
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation discusses the use of peatlands in agriculture and peatlands' suitability to farming.

  • Kotilainen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4491, category Article
A. J. Cautón. (1937). Kuivaustöitten suorittamisesta metsänkasvattamista varten. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13901
English title: Practices of forest drainage work.
Original keywords: suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; ojitussuunnitelma
English keywords: forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses; drainage plan; drainage system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation gives guidelines for draining of peatlands.

  • Cautón, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4482, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1937). Soiden ojituskelpoisuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4482. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13892
English title: Peatlands’ suitability to draining.
Original keywords: ojituskelpoisuus; suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus
English keywords: forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes different kinds of peatlands and their suitability to draining and forestry.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4473, category Article
Alfred Brandt. (1933). Hiisjärven luonnonpuiston kasvillisuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 32 article id 4473. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9045
English title: Vegetation in the Hiisjärvi protected area in Eastern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; kasviyhdyskunnat; luonnonpuistot; luonnonsuojelualueet; metsätyypit; suokasvillisuus; vesikasvillisuus
English keywords: forest site type; nature reserve; protection of nature; nature park; peatland type; aquatic flora
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Metsähallitus (Forest Service) decided to protect two areas around Hiisijärvi lake in Eastern Finland already in 1916. Later, a natural park was suggested to be established in the area. A survey of the vegetation in the area was composed in 1931-1932. The total land area of the protected area was 3.5 km3. A vegetation map was drawn based on a nature inventory. A detailed description of the forest site types, peatland types, aquatic flora and the vegetation of the area are included in the article. The calcareous soil promotes rich vegetation. Typical for the area are also rich fens. The area can be divided to a eutrophic and a oligotrophic part.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Brandt, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4449, category Article
Oskari Jalmari Lukkala. (1928). Metsähallinnon suonkuivatustoiminnassa saavutettuja kokemuksia sekä suuntaviivoja suonkuivausta koskevan tutkimustyön kehittämiseksi. Silva Fennica no. 8 article id 4449. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8397
English title: Experiences on draining of peatlands in the State forests in Finland by Forest Service and lines along which research on the draining of peatlands should proceed.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; suo; metsänparannus; metsäntutkimus
English keywords: Finland; state forests; draining of peatlands; forest improvement
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Systematic draining of peatlands begun in the state forests of Finland in 1908. It was considered necessary, because 41.4% of the state forests, 5.6 million hectares, consist of peatlands. Of the peatlands, 1.9 million hectares was estimated to be suitable for draining. Furthermore, paludification still continues in the forest lands. By the year 1926, a total of 52,275 hectares of peatland had been drained in the state lands.

Certain factors decide whether the peatland is suitable for draining: the growth increment capacity after draining, technical difficulties in draining, and difficulties in regeneration. Peatland type indicates the growth capacity of the drained peatland. The peatland should turn at least to Vaccinum forest site type or better type to be worth of draining. If the peat layer is thin, the quality of peat is an important deciding factor. The peatland may also be too expensive to drain due to, for instance, long ditches, main ditches difficult to dig, small inclination, uneven surface, and deep cavities at the bottom. The younger the trees of the stand, the faster the growth of the stand revives. The peatlands usually regenerate naturally provided there is sufficient seed trees, and there is seldom need for artificial regeneration.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4443, category Article
Oskari Jalmari Lukkala. (1927). What points of view have to be taken into consideration, when draining swamp lands for afforestation. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4443. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8391
Keywords: peatland; drained peatlands; draining; drainability; growth capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Draining of peatlands requires careful planning because of its costs. Only peatlands that have sufficient growth capacity in future should be drained. The future growth capacity can be estimated based on peatland type, the botanical composition of the peat layers and the quality of the surface peat layer of the swamp.

Also the draining methods should be cost effective. To keep the amount of drains low, the drain network and drain lines should be planned so that each drain has high drain effectivity. Most of the peatlands drained in Finland have been forested. Especially the young trees regain soon their growth when the peat begins to dry. It is recommended to leave the young trees, but most profitable to harvest the older forests in the drained area. Practical experiences have shown that even drained open peatlands can be naturally regenerated. Natural regeneration is almost guaranteed to succeed on peatlands, which have seed trees.

A summary in Finnish is included in the PDF.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Article

article id 7175, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1967). Hakkuun vaikutus ojitettujen soiden vesitalouteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 82 no. 2 article id 7175. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7175
English title: Influence of cuttings on the water economy of drained peatlands.
Original keywords: hakkuut; vesitalous; harvennus; turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; haihdunta; avohakkuu; pohjavesi
English keywords: drained peatlands; thinnings; clear-cutting; fellings; ground water table; interception
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present investigation revealed that the influence of a forest cover on the water economy of the soil is very great in Finland. Cutting of the forest gave cause to a rise of the ground water table, which, when clear-cutting is in question, reached a magnitude of 20–40 cm. The water supplies of the soil increased 40–60 mm. In the winter, too, the ground water remaind at a lower level in the forest than in opening, however, the difference is rather small. Thinnings had same kind of effect as clear-cuttings, but the influence of even heavy thinnings was still relatively small.

The water supplies of the soil after felling decreased mainly due to the decrease in the interception in the canopy. When the water table is at the same level in the forest and in opening, evapotranspiration might be greater in the forest than in openings. However, when the water level is during the growing season considerably lower in the forest than in an opening, the evapotranspiration is strongly decreased in the forest, which means that more water is evaporated and transpirated from the opening than from the forest. Because the water table is at a higher level in the opening than in the forest, runoff from clear-cut areas has exceeded that from the forest. This means that the influence of felling on the water economy of the soil is actually even greater than indicated in this work.

The results mean that the influence of the forest cover makes up that of drainage. This affects the need for maintenance of ditches. On the other hand, the final cutting will rise the ground water strongly.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7171, category Article
Erkki Lähde. (1966). Vertical distribution of biological activity in peat of some virgin and drained swamp types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 81 no. 6 article id 7171. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7171
Keywords: drained peatlands; peat; decomposition; peatlands; cellulose decomposition; gas exchange; biological activity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The objective of this project was to determine the amount of gas exchange in peat samples collected from several swamps, using the Warburg method in the laboratory measurements. Special attention was directed on the influence of the lowering of the ground water level through drainage, on oxidation-reduction conditions in the samples from both forested and treeless peatlands, by measuring oxygen uptake and CO2 release. The biological activity in situ was determined by the cellulose decomposition rate in the sample plots. The six areas examined were both in drained peatlands and peatlands in natural condition.

The results show that in the sample plots in open swamps there was no consistent differences in the CO2 release rate in peat samples taken from different depths. However, in the sample plots on forested swamps rapid decrease is seen with increasing depth. The decreased biological activity of peat is caused by the oxidation-reduction conditions. The CO2 release rate may also be due to the respiration of tree roots, which are very shallow in peatlands.

The rate of in situ cellulose decomposition experiment and CO2 release indicated by the Warburg measurements appear to be correlated. The results indicate improved conditions for cellulose-decomposing microbes after draining. It is also possible that the biological activity of peat after draining increases to a considerable depth until the decrease of easily decomposable substances limit the activity in an old drainage area. The cellulose decomposition rate would still increase as the oxidation-reduction conditions improve.

  • Lähde, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7157, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1965). Regionality in stand increment and its dependence on the temperature factor on drained swamps. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 78 no. 4 article id 7157. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7157
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; growth; increment; regional increment; stand quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this work was to study, on the basis of material published earlier (Heikurainen 1959), the effect of temperature on stand increment, to find out if there is any differences between Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and to study the effect of site quality on the relationship between stand increment and temperature. The calculations were based on data collected from 396 sample plots on drained peatlands in different parts of Finland.

There seemed to be no differences due to tree species or site quality in the relative amounts of growth under different climatic conditions. Thus, differences in the absolute growth between poor and fertile sites are noticeably smaller in Northern Finland than in Southern Finland. The author suggests that this implies that the lasting maximal increase of growth which can be produced, for instance, by using soil-improving agents must be less in unfavourable conditions than in favourable.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7149, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Juhani Päivänen, Juhani Sarasto. (1964). Ground water table and water content in peat soil. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 77 no. 1 article id 7149. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7149
Keywords: drained peatlands; methods; ground water table; water content of peat
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study deals with correlation between level of ground water table and water content of peat in peatlands drained for forestry. The results have been obtained partly from field studies and partly from experiments in the laboratory.

Both the field and laboratory experiments proved that a close rectilinear correlation exists between the level of the ground water table and the water content of surface peat. A given change in the level of the ground water table corresponds to a smaller change in the water content the deeper the peat layer examined is situated. The change in the water content in the surface layer (0–20 cm) in the cases studied was of such a magnitude that a change of 10 cm in the level of the ground water table corresponded to a change of about 5 volume per cent. In deeper layers the change was smaller. The state of equilibrium regulating the water content of the peat is relatively stable. It is possible that the so-called optimum drainage of a peatland for each tree species can be theoretically determined on the basis of the correlation between the water content of peat and the level of ground water table.

The method used in the study, the repeated weighing of peat samples in their original place, has proved to be very useful and decisively better than the method based on one-time samples. The experiment also indicate that the correlation can be determined with laboratory experiments.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown
  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 7145, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1963). Use of ground water table fluctuations for measuring evapotranspiration. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 76 no. 5 article id 7145. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7145
Keywords: drained peatlands; methods; ground water table; transpiration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Lowering of the ground water table is caused by decrease in the amount of water because of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration of a forest is determined by converting a lowering of the ground water table into a decrease in the amount of water. This paper describes a method to determine the transpiration of tree stands and ground vegetation as well as total evaporation on a Finnish drained peatland, which ground water table was relatively high, by measuring the level of the ground water table.

It was shown that in drained peatlands with relatively high ground water level, the ground water table fell during the day between about 9 a.m. and 6 p.m., and remain at approximately same level during rest of the day. The fall of ground water table was caused by transpiration of the trees and ground vegetation, and could be over 20 mm. Thus, measuring the daily lowering of ground water table can be used to estimate transpiration of the trees. When the method is applied to measuring the total evaporation of longer periods of time, also rainfall, interception, stand rainfall and stemflow have to be measured. The method is applicable only on sites with relatively high ground water level.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7144, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1963). Kuivatuksen tehokkuus ja turpeen lämpötalous. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 76 no. 4 article id 7144. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7144
English title: The effect of drainage degree on temperature conditions of peat.
Original keywords: turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; kuivatustehokkuus; turpeen lämpötila; lämpötalous
English keywords: drained peatlands; drainage effect; moisture; temperature conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The determination of biologically most favourable strip width in peatlands to be drained has been hindered by lack of information of the temperature conditions in the surface peat and in the air close to the ground after drainage of different intensities. Temperature measurements were carried out on peatlands drained to different degrees in Central Finland in the summers of 1960 and 1961. The ground water level in the measuring points, and the strip width served as the criterion for differences in water condition.

When the drainage became more intensive, the temperature of the surface peat decreased. However, temperature differences were small, and discernible only when the differences of water conditions were considerable. The effect of strip condition to temperature seems to be of similar nature than the ground water level. Even in extreme cases temperature differences due to different drainage intensity were relatively small, and seldom exceeded 2°C.

Differences in temperature dependent on the growing stock may be as high as 10°C. Thus, the temperature of the surface peat may be dependent on factors more important than temperature differences caused by aspects of drainage. A well-drained peatland is coldest at the beginning of a growing season compared with poorly drained peatland. The temperature differences increase deeper in the peat. This is caused by the better heat conductivity of the moist peat. Also, daily variations in temperature in the surface peat are large in moist peat.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7132, category Article
Juhani Sarasto. (1961). On classification of peatlands drained for forestry purposes. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 74 no. 5 article id 7132. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7132
Keywords: productivity; peatland; vegetation; drainage; ditching; classification; moor
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study is to find out 1) whether and how the original moor type can be found out based on vegetation regardless the phase of drainage; 2) whether the different phases of draining can be distinguished based on the vegetation; and 3) is it possible to classify the well drained moors into vegetation types that would reflect the productive capacity of the land.

The data consists of samples collected from ditched areas. There are 11 moor types from two climatic ditching zones. The results show that the original moor type can be determined based on vegetation, the phase of drainage can be determined under some limitations, and the classification for productivity can be done for practical purposes.    

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7119, category Article
Paavo J. Ollinmaa. (1960). Eräistä ojitetuilla soilla kasvavan puun fysikaalisista ominaisuuksista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 72 no. 2 article id 7119. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7119
English title: Physical properties of wood growing on drained peatlands.
Original keywords: kuusi; ojitus; mänty; puun laatu; turvekankaat; rauduskoivu; hieskoivu; puuaine; lujuus
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Betula pendula; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatlands; Scots pine; wood; mechanical strength
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The objective of the investigation was to determine the differences between faultless timber grown on a peatland before and after draining, in respect of compressive strength to the grain, volume weight, and shrinkage. In addition, the influence of the boundary zone between the close-ringed wood formed before draining and the wide-ringed wood produced after draining on strength of the timber was studied. The material consisted of 15 sample trees of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), white birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and silver birch (B. Pendula Roth).

The volume weight of wood of the tree species in ascending order is; spruce, pine, white birch, silver birch. The volume weight of Scots pine seems to decrease from the butt end upwards, while no trend was revealed for spruce. In the coniferous trees, the wide-ringed wood formed subsequent to draining was slightly lighter than the close-ringed wood produced prior draining. No distinct trend was seen in the birch species. The volume weight of pine and spruce increased with decreasing width of the growth rings up to a certain limit, after which the conditions inverted.

The compressive strength of the different kinds of wood seems to increase from the butt end upwards, but after height of two meters it begins to decrease considerably. In birch, this point of inversion is in somewhat greater height. In spruce timber, the compressive strength parallel to the grain is lowest for wood which contains exclusively wide-ringed wood formed after draining. The boundary zone between the woods formed before and after draining is very distinguishable, but has no remarkable influence on the compressive strength parallel to the grain. Shrinkage of close-ringed wood is higher in all three principal directions than that of wide-ringed wood. This can be explained by the variations in volume weight and fibrillar orientation of the tracheid walls.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ollinmaa, E-mail: po@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7117, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1961). Metsäojituksen vaikutuksesta puuston kasvuun ja poistumaan hakkuusuunnitteiden laskemista varten. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 71 no. 8 article id 7117. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7117
English title: The influence of forest drainage on growth and removal in Finland. For estimations of allowable cut.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäojitus; kasvu; turvekankaat; hakkuupoistuma; puuston kasvu; tuotto; poistuma
English keywords: yield; peatlands; draining of peatlands; increment; removal; annual increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish forest industry is undergoing a vast expansion, which has raised questions of forest balance. This paper studies the possibilities to increase the amount available timber by means of forest drainage. About third of the Finnish land area is peatlands. The calculations of the investigation are based on Forestry Board districts. Based on earlier studies, there is estimated to be 3,042,000 ha of true drainable swamps, 973,000 ha of poor swamps, 1,381,000 ha of uplands in need of drainage, and 1,205,000 ha of drained peatlands. Therefore, the area of drainable and drained lands totals 6,6 million ha, and requirement of forest drainage 5,4 million ha. The drainage hardly reaches this extent, however. It can be assumed that part of the poor swamps is uneconomical to drain. In addition, a half of the paludified forest land will probably not be drained. Thus, it can be estimated that the area to be drained in the future is about 5 million ha. It seems possible that this area could be drained within about 50 years with the present draining capacity.

Draining of all objects of forests would increase the annual increment of our forests, in time, by about 10.5 million m3. This would signify an increase of 23% compared to the present growth of the forests. The increase in the growth consists mainly of softwood: 16% is birch, and the remaining 84% almost equally of Scots pine and Norway spruce. The increase of growth is relatively slow. Depending on the rate of the drainage program, the mean increase of growth will be reached in about 25–35 years. The increase in removal indicated by the increase in the mean increment will be reached in only 50–60 years.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7111, category Article
Juhani Sarasto. (1960). Turpeen maatuneisuuden määrittämisestä : v. Postin maatumisasteen ja Pjavtshenkon maatumisprosentin vertailu. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 71 no. 2 article id 7111. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7111
English title: Determining decomposition decree of peat with von Post Humification Scale and Pjavtshenko's method.
Original keywords: suot; menetelmät; turve; turpeen maatumisaste
English keywords: peat; peatlands; methods; decomposition of peat; decomposition decree
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Decomposition of the peat using von Post Humification Scale (1–10), developed by Lennart von Post, can be determined based on characteristics of peat, such as fibre integrity, colour and viscosity of exudate, and presence of colloidal particles, of handful of peat squeezed in the hand. It is easy to use and has proved useful in the practical work. The method developed by Pjavthenko is mostly based on specific weight off a dried sample in percentage, and requires analysis in the laboratory. The aim of this study was to compare the results of these two methods by measuring 156 peat samples representing different stages of decomposition.

The methods are based on different principles, which is reflected in small differences of the results. The maximum scores of the methods are clearly in different level. The maximum grade of 9–10 in von Post scale correspond decomposition percentage 51 in the scale of Pjavtsheko. However, the decomposition values in von Post scale are placed evenly on the scale of Pjavtshenko. This suggests that the von Post Scale is consistent and accurately developed. According to the study, the Pjavtshenko method is a good method to validate results of von Post Humification Scale, and can be used when decomposition of peat samples is determined in laboratory.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7490, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1959). Suomalaisista seinäsammaltyypeistä ja niiden asemasta Cajanderin luokitusjärjestelmässä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 69 no. 2 article id 7490. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7490
English title: Finnish feather-moss types and their position in Cajander’s forest site classification .
Original keywords: paksusammalkuusikko; suotyypit; mustikkatyyppi; seinäsammaltyyppi; HMT; Hylocomnium-Myrtillus-tyyppi
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type; peatland types; Myrtillus-type; thick-moss type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Since Finnish professor A.K. Cajander published his theory on forest types, there have been discussion and contradictory studies on certain forest types. This paper is a litterature review on the thick-moss type in Northern Finland and its parallel types in Kainuu and Southern Finland. First, the principles of Cajander’s theory on forest types is described and discussed. It is concluded that Cajander has described forest site types as their common, genuine variants. Borderline variants have been excluded from the description. 

Second, the North Finnish thick-moss type (Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type, HMT) and its position in Cajander’s system is discussed. Concepts of this forest type have varied considerably, and it has been argued that the type does not fit Cajander’s system very well, as it arises as a result of the invasion of other forest types by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) with consequent degeneration of the site.  

The writer concludes findings of the results of the previous studies about MHT and its relations to the Myrtillus type. Cajander in his system included the thick-moss type in the moist upland forests as a type whose vegetation is less exacting than that of the Myrtillus type. This position seems to be the right one. Some factors point out the moist nature of HMT: the ability of Norway spruce to compete, a relatively high persipitation, the humidity of the climate in general and the rather poor water percolation capacity of the moraine soil. The HMT sites are relatively poor. It is stated that the opinion that the thick-moss type is secondary state of development of the Myrtillus type has no plant sociological, ecological, mensurational or silvicultural foundation. The type is probably Finland's most dynamic forest type, but in the natural forest its dynamics are confined to such changes as are permitted within the same forest type. HMT must be described as three series of plant association types, which differ from another to some extent. 

The PDF includes a summary in English. 

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7478, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1958). Tutkimuksia ojitettujen turvemaiden kulotuksesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 67 no. 4 article id 7478. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7478
English title: Studies on prescribed burning of drained peatlands.
Original keywords: mänty; luontainen uudistaminen; kulotus; suot; pintakasvillisuus; turvemaat; uudistaminen; turvekankaat; vesaikko
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; regeneration; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; Scots pine; coppice; peatlands; ground vegetation; prescribed burning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Prescribed burning has been used to treat the mineral soil sites, but the method has been little used in drained peatlands. The course and methods of prescribed burning in drained peatlands, and the effect of burning on sprouting of broadleaved trees, growth of ground vegetation and regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) by sowing was studied in drained pine bogs in Southern Finland. The top layer of the peat was mostly Sphagnum peat. The material included a prescribed burned 12 ha drained peatland area in Tuomarniemi district, in addition to which ten previously burned areas were investigated.

The burning had succeeded mostly well, but also unsuccessfully burned sites were observed. Estinguishing of the fire was easy, and no peat fires occurred. The fire burned only the logging residue, ground vegetation and the dry top layer of the peat. The roots of brushwood and grasses survived in the peat that insulated the top layer from the heat. For instance, the abundance of cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) increased after the fire. Similarly, burning did not affect sprouting of the stumps of downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.). It cannot thus be used as a method to restrict the growth of coppice in regenerated areas. The seeds of Scots pine germinated well on the burned surface. 46% of the seeds developed to seedlings on sphagnum-shrub vegetation and 16% in feathermoss-shrub vegetation.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7476, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1958). Sekametsiköiden juuristoista ojitetulla suolla. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 67 no. 2 article id 7476. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7476
English title: Root systems of mixed forest in drained peatlands.
Original keywords: kuusi; ojitus; mänty; juuristo; koivu; turvekangas; mykorritsa; sekametsikkö
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; birch; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; peatlands; mixed forests; mycorrhiza; Betula sp.; draining; root system; roots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Draining transforms root systems of trees growing in peatlands towards the ones growing on mineral soil. However, even after efficient draining the root systems differ from the root systems of trees growing on mineral soil. This investigation concentrates on root systems of forests of similar mire types growing in similar draining conditions but having different tree species compositions. The peatland, situated in Pieksämäki in Southern Finland, was drained in 1937. Sample plots, measured in 1956, consisted of mixed forest of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and birch (Betula sp.) in different compositions, and were in natural condition.

The sedge pine bog studied in this investigation was shown to have larger total amount of roots and mycorrhiza than in previously studied dwarf shrub pine bogs. This reflects better growth conditions of the better site. The depth of root system was, however, similar. Root systems of birch were deeper than those of the coniferous tree species. Differences between Scots pine and Norway spruce were small. Corresponding differences between the species were found in the density and total number of mycorrhizas. The abundance of mycorrhizas in the roots of birch increased in deeper layers of peat, but decreased especially in spruce roots. In earlier studies the abundance of mycorrhizas decreased in the roots growing in deeper layers in pure Scots pine stands, but no such variation was seen in this study. The result suggest that the deep root system of birch may affect also the root systems of the coniferous trees. On the other hand, birch roots can have advantage over the coniferous trees.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7470, category Article
Juhani Sarasto. (1957). Metsän kasvattamiseksi ojitettujen soiden aluskasvillisuudenrakenteesta ja kehityksestä Suomen eteläpuoliskossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 7 article id 7470. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7470
English title: Understorey vegetation and its development in drained peatlands in the southern half of Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; sukkessio; suotyyppi; aluskasvillisuus; turvekangas; kasvillisuustyyppi
English keywords: succession; vegetation; drained peatlands; peatlands; ground vegetation; peatland type; forest type; plant communities; understorey; mire type; transformed peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to studies following the development of vegetation of drained peatlands, it seems that they have transformed to a relatively stable plant communities during the succession. In earlier studies it was assumed that after drainage a mire type would develop to a corresponding forest site. This investigation studies what kinds of plant communities are formed during succession of different mire types on peatlands drained for forestry in the southern half of Finland. Understorey vegetation was studied in 18 sample plots established by Forest Research Institute on drained peatlands. In addition, sample plots were studied on peatlands in natural state.

The results suggest that understorey vegetation on peatlands drained for forestry have developed into plant communities, the most advanced of which are the so-called dry plant communities. They represent transformed site types, which are the following: drained peatlands with upland herb-rich vegetation, drained peatlands with upland grass-herb vegetation, drained peatlands with upland Myrtillus site type vegetation, drained peatlands with upland Vaccinium site type vegetation, and drained peatlands with upland Calluna site type vegetation. Drained peatlands with upland Cladonia site type vegetation seem to be a temporary type caused by incomplete drainage. The transition between Myrtillus and Vaccinium dominated dry plant communities is not clear, but especially the pure Vaccinium vitis-ideae communities justify its place as an independent plant community. The dry drwarf shrub plant communities are also stable.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7468, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1957). Metsäojien syvyyden ja pintaleveyden muuttuminen sekä ojien kunnon säilyminen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 5 article id 7468. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7468
English title: Changes in depth and top width of forest ditches and the maintaining of their repair.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäojitus; suot; ojat; ojien kunto; ojansyvyys
English keywords: drainage; peatlands; draining of peatlands; ditches; ditch depth; ditch repair
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article deals with forest ditches dug by manual labour in drained peatlands in Central and Southern Finland, ranging in age from 16 to 25 years. The ditches have been allowed to develop in a natural state. A total 1,160 of randomly selected sample plots were studied.

The results show that the originally dug ditch depth has not been the decisive factor from the viewpoint of maintaining the ditch repair. Ditches dug in thick peat layer have maintained their repair better than those dug in thin peat layer. Apparently, the influencing factor is the type of soil, to a certain extent parallel to the thickness of peat layer. In ditches dug mainly in mineral soil, the type of soil has essentially contributed to maintaining the ditch repair. Ditches in coarse-grained soils maintained a better repair than those in fine-grained soils. Also, the steeper the gradient of the ditch the better the ditch repair has been maintained. There was no relationship between the thickness of peat and the filling up of ditch bottom, because of the influence of mineral soil. Filling up of a ditch seems to be mainly due to the sinking of peat. The filling up of ditch bottom was more pronounced in clay-silt soil than in other soil types. The filling up of ditch bottom by varying gradient is due to the fact that with a small gradient the speed of water is so slow as to permit the soil particles to sink to the bottom. Another factor affecting filling up of the ditches is wetness of the peatland. Deepening of ditches happens mainly through erosion, if the gradient is large enough. The study suggests that a 50-m spacing with about 60-cm ditchc depth would be most profitable.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7466, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1955). Rämemännikön juuriston rakenne ja kuivatuksen vaikutus siihen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 3 article id 7466. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7466
English title: Structure of Scots pine root systems in a pine swamp and effect of draining on the structure.
Original keywords: ojitus; suo; mänty; juuristo; räme; mykorritsa
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; Scots pine; peatlands; mycorrhiza; root system; pine swamp; pine pog
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The root system of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) growing on a peatland is restricted, according to earlier studies, on the top layers of the peat above the groundwater level. Drainage of the peatland affects growth of the root system. This investigation aims at studying the root systems on the point of view of draining of peatlands. The structure and distribution, and the growth of mycorrhiza in Scots pine roots in pine swamps varying from natural state to well drained state is studied.

The study shows that Scots pine on pine swamps has more extensive root system than has earlier assumed, it is common to find 1,000 m of roots in one cubic meter in a healthy stand. The trees reach this density of roots early on. In a drained peatland, the total root length is markedly higher than in a similar stand in natural state. The root systems proved to be very shallow. Even in a well-drained site the roots did not grow deeper than 20 cm. 70% of all roots were found in the upper 5 cm layer of peat, and 90% in the upper 10 cm layer. Root systems were deeper in drained peatlands, but the difference was small. In a site in natural state the average depth of the roots was 4 cm, and in a drained site 5 cm. About 85% of the roots were under 1 mm of diameter. Short roots were found only in the fine roots. Draining increases strongly the number of short roots. Mycorrhizas of the types A, B, C and D as well as pseudomychorrizas were found in the pine roots.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7465, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1955). On the seasonal changes of root system of a pine stands on the peatlands. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 2 article id 7465. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7465
Keywords: peatland; pine; seasonal changes; root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The seasonal changes of the roots systems of a pine stand on the peatlands have been studied with samples collected during summers 1952-1954 and winter 1955. There are altogether seven sample areas that are located in the district of Korkeakoski.  

The amount of roots is at the smallest in the spring, increasing then rapidly and peaking at the end of July. After that the amount of roots decreases again against the winter to the same size than in the spring. Variations seem to be similar in every year and also similar to other studies on mineral soils.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7439, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1954). Rämemänniköiden uudistamisesta paljaaksihakkausta käyttäen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 27 article id 7439. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7439
English title: Regeneration of Scots pine stands of pine swamps through clear cutting.
Original keywords: männikkö; luontainen uudistuminen; mänty; suot; alikasvos; uudistaminen; räme; turvekangas; avohakkuu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; regeneration; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; Scots pine; peatlands; seedlings; fellings; undergrowth; pine swamps; clear cutting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Pine swamps are easily regenerated by natural regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Usually seeding felling is used, but also strip system or clear cutting and regeneration along stand edge has been suggested. This article discusses the regeneration by clear cutting and sparing the existing undergrowth. The article focuses on pine swamps to be drained and the ones in natural state.

Pine swamps in natural state usually have plenty of trees of smaller diameter classes, that can be trusted to form the future tree generation after the felling. This shortens the rotation by 20-30 years. The undergrowth has been shown to recover quickly. The method suits for regeneration of drained peatlands but could fit also for regeneration of pine swamps in natural state.

The seedlings in the pine swamps are mainly 1-5 years old, and the stock is changing. It seems that larger trees produce a wider selection of age groups, but the seedlings survive longer under smaller mother trees. Part of the younger generations of seedlings seem to be destroyed when the peatland is drained. Further studies are needed to investigate how the draining and felling are to be performed to spare the young seedlings.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7404, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1950). Suotyyppien liiketaloudellisesta ojituskelpoisuusjärjestyksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 58 no. 4 article id 7404. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7404
English title: Drainability of different peatland types from an economic perspective.
Original keywords: ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; kannattavuus; suotyypit; kasvatuskelpoinen puusto
English keywords: growing stock; peatlands; profitability; draining; drainability; draining of peatlands; classification of peatlands; production capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One of the factors that influence if a peatland is suitable for draining is the time required until fellings bring income, even if it the discounting calculations has uncertainties. This article discusses the factors that affect the economic profitability of draining peatlands.

The profitability of draining increases the more the yield or increase of the yield exceeds the costs of draining. Estimation of the yield is in Finland based on the peatland type, which reflects production capacity of the site. In addition, the growing stock of the site can vary in peatlands within same peatland type. The density and size of ditches affects the draining costs. Thus, productivity based on a peatland type alone does not describe well enough the drainability of a peatland area.

In Finnish classification of site quality of the peatlands, the treeless bogs and rich fens have been given too high a class compared to well stocked spruce swamps and pine swamps. Also, the drainability of two spruce and pine swamps can differ markedly in economic point of view if the tree’s quality, volume and ability to recover differ. The article discusses different methods to assess profitability of draining that have been descibed in the previous studies. It is suggested that the classification of peatlands by their drainability should be more selective.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7384, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1945). Ojitettujen soitten viljavuus eli puuntuottokyky metsätyyppiteorian valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 7384. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7384
English title: Fertility of drained bogs and their production capacity in relation to the theory of forest types.
Original keywords: ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; metsätyyppi; suot; suotyyppi; ojitetut suot; turvekangas; ravinteikkuus; kuivatuksen tehokkuus
English keywords: peatlands; fertility; draining of peatlands; peatland type; forest type; economical drainage value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the theory of peatland types, particular peatland types, after sufficient drainage, change into certain forest types. It has been found, that the range of forest types in peatlands in different stages of draining is as large as on mineral soil; and comprise Cladina, Calluna, Vaccinium, Myrtillus Oxalis-myrtillus and grove types. Poor peatland types change into poor forest types, better for better types. However, a Swedish scientist Mellin suggested that after effective drainage especially oligotrophic bogs, when well drained, change usually into Myrtillus type.

The different conclusions are due to the fact that the same bog type may develop into different forest types according to the effectiveness and duration of the drainage. Greater the decay of the peat bog layer, the more exacting is the type of vegetation which appears. Bog types of classes V, IV and III (Finnish classification of site quality) change into a Myrtillus type, as do the poorer peatland types of class II. The types vary, however, in their economical drainage value. The fact that bogs which in their natural stage are clearly different in their site quality change after through drainage into the same forest type, is explained by the chemical quality of the peat. However, class I and the best types of class II bogs change into better forest types because they as eutropchic bogs are richer in nitrogen and lime. This difference persists despite of effective draining.

It has been shown that the development of eutrophic peatland types at the forest type stage also differs clearly from the development of oligotrophic peatland types. The Finnish classification of drainage value shows correctly the relative drainability when using normal spacing of ditches. The notes on forest types on mineral soil should, however, be replaced by corresponding notes on the transitive types between bog and forest types.

The PDF includes a summary in Swedish and English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7377, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1942). Kuusen taimien paleltuminen ja sen vaikutus ojitettujen soiden metsittymiseen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 7377. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7377
English title: Frost injuries of Norway spruce seedlings and their effect on afforestation of drained peatlands .
Original keywords: kuusi; ojitus; uudistuminen; kylmänkestävyys; turvekangas; pakkasvaurio; keväthalla; ojitettu suo; suojametsä
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; regeneration; drained peatlands; frost damage; peatlands; frost resistance; spring frost; prorective forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the investigation was to study natural regeneration of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in drained peatlands and frost injuries in seedlings, and to compare microclimates of the regeneration areas. The experiments included peatlands in Satakunta in Western Finland. Restocking of the areas with seedlings and their survival was followed in 1935-40 at sample plots that were mainly 1 are large.

Susceptibility to freezing was shown to be dependent on the stage of development of the shoots. Shoots that have just begun to grow contain little water, and withstand better freezing temperatures than shoots in later stages of growth. Damages to the seedlings were observed when the temperatures decreased to -2.8–-4.3 °C. The most severe damage to a seedling was caused by the death of the leading shoot by spring frost.

Norway spruce regenerates easily on moist peatlands, but peatlands with dry surface tend to have little or no seedlings. The species regenerated better in marshy sites than correspondingly fertile mineral soil sites. However, it needs shelter to avoid frost damage. On clear cut spruce swamp the undergrowth spruce seedlings that were left in the site got severe frost damage. If the site had birch (Betula sp.) coppice or undergrowth, spruce seedlings survived in their shelter depending on the height and density of the birch trees. To be effective, the protective forest should have relatively even crown cover. Young spruce seedlings could grow well even under relatively dense birch stand.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7369, category Article
Eino Saari. (1942). Metsäojitusten yksityistaloudellisen edullisuuden määrääminen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 16 article id 7369. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7369
English title: Calculating profitability for draining of peatlands.
Original keywords: ojitus; kannattavuus; suot; menetelmät
English keywords: peatlands; profitability; draining of peatlands; methods; investment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article introduces methods that can be used to calculate economic profitability of draining of peatlands, and discusses their advantages and weaknesses. The time span from draining of a peatland and the future income is usually decades, which makes it difficult to assess profitability for the investment. For instance, income from future fellings depends on chosen rotation time, and price of timber that can fluctuate strongly.

When calculating the profitability, the drained area can be treated as a separate unit of account or as a part of the forest holding. In the first case, several methods can be used. First, yield in terms of value is a suitable method only if the peatland has no existing forest. Second, annual yield of a drained peatland and peatland in natural state can be compared. In this case yield can be defined in several ways. Third method uses value increment of the growing stock. Fourth method estimates value of increment for both the growing stock and land. Fifth method is based on present value of the future felling income, and sixth on actual value of the growing stock and yield in terms of value.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7347, category Article
Aarno Kalela. (1939). On meadows and meadow alike vegetation communities on the Rybachy Peninsula in Petsamo, Lapland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 7347. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7347
Keywords: peatland; plant community; vegetation unit; site classification; meadow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents the characteristics of different vegetation areas (meadows and peatlands) by their distinctive vegetation. The study area is by the Barents Sea and is the northernmost part of continental European Russia. Different sites are classified by plant communities and/or vegetation units.

The article continues on the second PDF-file. 

  • Kalela, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7331, category Article
Ilmari Paasio. (1936). Suomen nevasoiden tyyppijärjestelmää koskevia tutkimuksia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 7331. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7331
English title: Studies on the peatland types of treeless bogs in Finland.
Original keywords: peatland type; peatland complex; peatland vegetation
English keywords: peatland type; peatland vegetation; peatland complex
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Ground vegetation can be used to determine the fertility of the peatlands. This information is needed when deciding if a peatland is suitable for drainage. The spruce and pine swamp types of Finland have been well established. The aim of the study was to develop further the peatland type classification for treeless bogs in Finland, presented in earlier studies. The treeless bogs consist of diversity of small patches of different vegetation that blend into complexes. Consequently, classification that is based on defining bog complexes makes it easier to determine a peatland type for a larger peatland area. A system describing peatland complexes for treeless bogs is presented with detailed description of the vegetation. The study identifies nine different peatland complex types for treeless bogs.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Paasio, E-mail: ip@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7311, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1934). Metsäojien mittojen ja muodon muuttumisesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 34 article id 7311. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7311
English title: Changing of dimensions and form of forest ditches after the drainage in Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäoja; turpeen painuminen; ojien eroosio
English keywords: erosion; drainage of peatlands; forest ditch; drying of peatland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to investigate how the drain network and dimensions of ditches change after the drainage. The studied drained peatlands were situated in the municipalities of Parkano and Virrat in Central Finland. The ditches were in average 15 and 17 years old. The depth and width in the surface of the peatland were in average one quarter smaller than after the drainage. The width at the bottom of the ditch has, however, almost doubled. Peat had sunken more in peatlands with thick peat layer and higher humidity. Sinking of peat influenced the depth of the ditches. The volume of the ditches decreased about 30%. The decrease of the ditches by the drying and sinking of the peat was greater than the increase caused by erosion.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7308, category Article
U. Metsänheimo. (1934). Havaintoja metsäojituksen kivitöistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 31 article id 7308. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7308
English title: Observations on the removal of stones in drain digging of peatlands.
Original keywords: metsäojitus; ojien kaivuu; kivien poisto; nostolaite; räjähde
English keywords: drainage of peatlands; hoisting devices; explosives; removing stones
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Stones can be removed in drain digging of peatlands by using explosives or hoisting devices. The report is based on observations, and time and motion studies on drainage sites in the state forests in Northern Finland in 1931‒1933. Dynamite has been previously the most common explosive used in drainage sites. The new explosives containing potassium chloride proved to be cheaper, and safer to handle and transport than dynamite. According to the time and motion studies, the use of hoisting devices to lift stones that are removable, was significantly cheaper than explosives.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Metsänheimo, E-mail: um@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7295, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1934). Lounais-Suomen metsien puulajihistoriasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 18 article id 7295. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7295
English title: The history of tree species in southwest Finland.
Original keywords: suo; puulajisuhteet; siitepölyanalyysi
English keywords: peatland; tree species composition; pollen analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Pollen analysis has given information on development of the tree species composition after the ice age, but this kind of studies have not been published in Finland. In this study, pollen analysis was performed in five peatlands in the southwest Finland. According to the analysis, the forests of the area have had similar tree species composition for many thousands of years. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has been the dominant species as long as there has been Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in the area. Norway spruce seems to have arrived about 4,500 years ago. It increased slowly in the beginning, and after reaching a maximum has been slowly decreasing. Before spruce arrived, Betula sp. was more abundant, and seemed to be the dominant tree species in some places. Traces of fire in the peat layers indicate that forest fires have been common before people arrived in the area, and may have beneficial to birch. Like Betula sp., also Alnus sp. were more common before spruce arrived. Also pollen of other broadleaved species, for example, Tilia sp., Ulmus sp. and Corylus could be found. However, Quercus pollen was not found. The paludification of the peatlands had begun at different times which indicates that there has not been a common cause for the development of the peatlands in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7288, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1934). Metsä- ja suotyyppien esiintymisen keskinäisestä suhteesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 11 article id 7288. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7288
English title: The mutual relation between the occurrence of forest site types and swamp types.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; suotyyppi; ravinteikkuus
English keywords: peatland; paludification; fertility
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relation between the occurrence of forest site types and swamp types was studied using data collected in the national line survey of Finnish forests carried out in 1921‒1924. The majority of peatlands in Finland has been formed by forest land becoming paludificated. When the peat layer is thin, the fertility of the peatland depends on the underlying mineral soil, consequently, good swamp types occur on fertile subsoil and poor types on poor subsoil. When the peat layer becomes thicker, the relationship weakens. The surrounding mineral soils influence the quality of the peatland by the runoff from the catchment area. The direct comparison of forest site and swamp types is not possible, because for one forest site type there are several swamp types that have different levels of humidity. According to the study, a very distinct mutual relation can be seen between occurrence of forest site types and swamp types.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7242, category Article
P. Kokkonen. (1929). Observations on the relationship between groundwater level and forest growth on a ditched peatland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 29 article id 7242. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7242
Keywords: peatland; drainage; ground water
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents the observations made on peatland “Savonneva” in summer 1929 in commune Pulkkila, north-west Finland. The study concentrates on the relationship between groundwater level and growth of trees. The areas was first ditched in 1894, when a main ditch and a side ditch were dug. The ditches were repaired several times, last time a year before the study took place.    

Parts of the area has been taken for agricultural purposes, and other areas have been naturally afforested. The size and abundance of trees varies strongly because the drainage of the area has been uneven. Closer to the main ditch the forest grows better than further away. There is a clear line between the afforested and open areas.

It seems that the tree growth decreases faster with certain groundwater levels than if the groundwater level is deeper.  

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Kokkonen, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7229, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1929). The thickness of peat bed and gradients of peatland surface on different peatland types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 16 article id 7229. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7229
Keywords: peatland; afforestation; drainage; forest cultivation; peat bed; gradient
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The type of the peatland and its classification as forest site (height-over-age-classification) are important information when the drainage potential of a peatland is defined. The gradient and thickness of peat bed are also significant.

The observations for the study have been collected in state owned forests in middle-Finland. The thickness and gradient variations have no clear differences between different types of peatlands. The results show that from the view of drainage for afforestation, the peatlands that are good or suitable for afforestation are flatter and more even that those less suitable. The more suitable peatlands also have thinner peat bed and bigger gradient.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

 

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7209, category Article
Aarne Boman. (1927). Tutkimuksia männyn paksuuskasvun monivuotisista vaihteluista Suomen eri osista kerätyn aineiston perusteella. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 32 no. 4 article id 7209. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7209
English title: Studies on annual variations of diameter growth of Scots pine in different parts of Finland.
Original keywords: suo; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; läpimitan kasvu; vuosilusto; auringonpilkut
English keywords: peatland; annual ring; growth ring; sunspots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Discs were collected from sample trees of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in different types of peatlands and mineral soil sites in Kajaani, Rovaniemi, Kuusamo; Suojärvi, Pielisjärvi, Evo and Lokalahti in Finland. The growth ring series of the different areas reach as far as in the 1600th century in some sample plots. The diameter growth shows patterns that repeat in cycles of 7, 11, 21, 35 and 70 years. However, the cycles are not exactly equally long. The average lengths of the cycles are relatively similar both in peatlands and in mineral soil sites.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Boman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7096, category Article
P. Kokkonen. (1923). Tutkimuksia viemärien kuntoon vaikuttavista seikoista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 7096. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7096
English title: Studies on the factors affecting the condition of forest drainage system.
Original keywords: ojitus; suo; metsäojitus; oja; ojaverkosto
English keywords: peatland; drainage system; draining of peatland; ditch
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Approximately 320,000 hectares of peatlands and paludified lands had been drained for agriculture and forestry purposes in Finland by 1920. The ditch network was not optimal in the early drained areas, and the condition of the ditches declined over time. In this study, the condition of drainage system, and the natural processes that affect them, was inspected in 18 drained peatlands.

Several processes can reduce of the size of the ditches. The process of crumbling of soil in the sides of the diches can last up to three years after the draining. Erosion of the main drains, caused by water flow can, however, continue longer. The ditches also sink when the peat dries. Soil frost can affect the ditches, but as the vegetation grows its effect gradually decreases. The vegetation that grows in the ditches may finally block the ditch completely.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kokkonen, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7094, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1923). Tutkimuksia ojitettujen turvemaiden metsänkasvusta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 27 no. 1 article id 7094. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7094
English title: Studies on the growth of drained peatlands in Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; läpimitan kasvu; pituuskasvu; turvekangas
English keywords: Scots pine; height growth; drained peatland; diameter growth; draining
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Only about 24,000 hectares of peatlands have been drained in the state lands by the 1921. The aim of this study was to define how much the growth of the trees in the drained peatland revives. Sample plots were measured in previously drained peatlands that had sufficient Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) tree stand. A stem analysis was performed to one of the sample trees. The evenness of the stands was dependent on how evenly the peatlands had dried when the stand was regenerated. Thus, the sample stands were not always fully stocked. However, they had capacity to develop towards evenly structured forests as the peatlands continued to dry further. The diameter and height growth of the dried peatlands have corresponded the similar stands in mineral soil sites. In trees that have grown stunted in the peatlands, the diameter growth seems to increase faster than the height growth. The volume growth is slightly smaller than in the similar mineral soil sites due to less favorable stem form. After the draining, the roots of the trees continued to grow from the old branches of root, but start then to form new roots. When the ground water level drops, the root layer grows deeper.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7086, category Article
P. Kokkonen. (1923). Observations on the root system of pine on marshy soils. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 11 article id 7086. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7086
Keywords: pine; peatlands; root growth; root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data has been collected during 1919 and 1920 in different region of Finland. The studied peatlands varied from fuscum pine swamps to pine swamps and partly to better sedge pine swamps.

The study presents five different forms of root systems. The root growth of pine on peatlands seems to vary strongly from the root form on mineral soils. On the peatlands, where the ground water near to soil cover is, can the roots grow only near the soil surface where the conditions are suitable. For the pine typical tap root is in most cases absent or grows along the soil surface. Also the frost heaving, snow and characteristics of peat affect the root system.   

  • Kokkonen, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7068, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1921). Tilastoa Pohjois-Suomen metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 7068. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7068
English title: Statistics of forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; suotyyppi
English keywords: forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation of the forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland differ markedly from those in Southern Finland, also the vegetation of the subtypes in the north is distinctive. A line survey was conducted to study the distribution of forest and peatland site subtypes in Northern Finland.

The vegetation of rich grass-herb forest types differs little from the poorer grass-herb forest types in Northern Finland. They abundance decrease towards north. The main fresh mineral soil sites are Myrtillus site type, Hylocomnium-Myrtillus site type and their paludified forms. The abundance of the fresh mineral soil sites decreased towards north so that in Kemi the proportion was 20.5 and in Lapland 12.0%. A transition from the fresh to the drier site types is gradual. The Vaccinium site type that is dominant in the south, is rare in the north, where it is replaced by Empetrum-Vaccinium type. The proportion of dry forest sites increase towards north, in average their distribution is 25% of the lands. There are numerous subtypes, which can be merged in to four main site types: Calluna, Cladina-Calluna, Myrtillus-Cladina and Cladina site type. The peatlands are more abundant in the southern part of the study area. The most common peatland types are pine swamps.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7057, category Article
Viljo Kujala. (1921). Havaintoja Kuusamon ja sen eteläpuolisten kuusimetsäalueiden metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18 no. 5 article id 7057. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7057
English title: Observations of forest and peatland site types in Norway spruce areas in Kuusamo.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; suotyyppi; kuusimetsäalue
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The forest and peatland site types can be identified based on the ground vegetation. Grazing, forest fires, fellings and other interferences, altitude and soil, however, change the species composition. In Kuusamo area, the land is mountaneous, but the moraine layer is mostly continuous. Thus, there is relatively little rocky sites. In addition, the calcareous soil is more fertile than in the most parts of the country. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is common on Hylocomium-myrtillus site type, where vegetation differs to some extent from the corresponding forest site types in the southern parts of the country. These changes seem to be caused by the thin stands in the north. In the southern parts of the Kuusamo area, the stands are denser which affects the vegetation. In areas that have been burned, the dominant tree species is mostly Betula sp., and Norway spruce may grow in understorey, and the ground vegetation is herb-rich. The forest become thinner, the higher the altitude. This changes also ground vegetation. Norway spruce is also dominant species in the spruce swamps and transition zones between spruce swamps and the open peatland types.
  • Kujala, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7056, category Article
Väinö Auer. (1921). About stratification of peatlands in middle Ostrobothnia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18 no. 4 article id 7056. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7056
Keywords: peatland; stratification; moor; relics; Subboreal; subfossil
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the characteristics and emergence and development of four peatlands in middle Ostrobothnia, Finland. In addition, the age of the Rahkaneva and Kurmunneva peatlands was determined and their relationship. The different layers of the peat and the plant relics they contain are represented.

The age determination was based on different layers of the peat that contain different fossils of pollen and pieces of different plant species. The height of the layers was measured. It seems that Rahkaneva has grown into its current area during a warm and dry period in Subboreal. 

  • Auer, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7046, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1920). Suomen soista ja niiden metsittämisestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 16 no. 4 article id 7046. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7046
English title: Peatlands and their afforestation in Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; suo; suotyypit; ojituskelpoiset suot
English keywords: draining of peatlands; peatland types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Peatlands amount to more than a third of the land area of Finland. The article includes a review on the peatland complexes and types, their distribution in Finland and how different peatland types suit for draining. Finnish peatlands have typically relatively shallow peat layer, which influences how they suit for agricultural lands or forestry.  Systematic draining of peatlands has been practiced since 1908 in the state forests. In 1908-1919 Metsähallitus (Forest Service) drained slightly over 200,000 hectares of peatlands, and the forest companies are estimated to have drained about similar area. An estimate of how big proportion of the peatlands would be worth draining is deduced, based on existing statistics of the state lands, and on a line survey. In the state lands 35% of the peatlands, about 2 million hectares, are worth draining. If an estimate of the figures of private lands is added, of the total of 5 million hectares of peatlands in Finland about 54% is suitable for draining.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7045, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1920). Studies on the relationship between the type of the peatland and the peat of its surface. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 7045. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7045
Keywords: peatland; afforestation; drainage; peat; peat type; peat layer
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study is to find out how do the peatlands develop after drainage and how does the type of peat affect the growing conditions of the forest on it. Study is based on measurements made in summer 1919 in about middle Finland (districts of Loppi, Yläne, Kihniö, Nerkoo, Orivesi, Vilppula, Multia and Karstula). The macroscopic identified content of the peat was analyzed: the different peat types were categorized according the species of the most abundant plant remains. The characteristics of the studied peat types are represented.

The conclusion of the study is that when deciding about the suitability of the drained peatland for afforestation, the thickness and content of the peat must be considered in addition to peat type.   

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7043, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1920). Tutkimuksia soiden kantokerroksista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 16 no. 1 article id 7043. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7043
English title: Studies on stump layers in peatlands in Finland.
Original keywords: turve; ilmasto; kantokerros; turveprofiili; soistuminen; kanto
English keywords: paludification; climate; peat profile
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The investigations that have studied peat layers in peatlands have shown that the peatlands in several countries have layers containing tree stumps of different tree species. The stump layers have been explained by local hydrological changes that have caused paludification, or changes in climate.

Peat layers were studied in drained peatlands in Finland, and ditches were used to study the peat profiles. A peatland in Multia in Central Finland was studied in more detail. Tree stump layer patterns that would support the climate change explanation was not found in the Finnish peatlands. The peat changes usually gradually more oligotrophic towards the surface. The stump layers seemed to be caused by local drier periods. According to the layers of Sphagnum-peat near the bottom of the peatlands and the pollen studies indicate that the peatlands have been formed at different times. In South-West Finland, the peat profiles had more apparent layer patterns than in Central Finland, but these were not considered to be caused by changes in climate.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7029, category Article
Väinö Auer. (1920). The development of the hummock ridges on the peatlands. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 7029. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7029
Keywords: peatland; hummock ridge; moor; rimpi
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study about the formation of hummock ridges on the peatlands is based on research conducted between years 1915-1919 in Pyhäjoki area in middle Ostrobothnia area in Western Finland, in Kuusamo and Kuolajärvi in north-east Finland, and in different parts of Finnish and partly also in Norwegian Lapland.   

The hummock ridges and the “rimpis” are evolutionary in close connection with each other. Hence the sliding of peat plays an important role in the formation of hammock ridges. The formation of regularly positioned hummock ridges requires sloping surface of the moor, where the water flow or the movement of the peat goes in one direction. Formation of hummock ridges is determined by climatic factors, particularly by the floods and other weather conditions in spring time. 

Conclusion of the study is that the theories up to now about the formation of hummock ridges have not understood the phenomenon completely. The different morphological factors affect by themselves or together by the formation of regular groupings of the hummock ridges.     

The article contains an abstract (Zusammenfassung) in German.
  • Auer, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7028, category Article
A. L. Backman. (1919). Torvmarksundersökningar i mellersta Österbotten. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 12 no. 1 article id 7028. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7028
English title: Peatland studies in central Ostrobothnia in Finland.
Keywords: Finland; peatlands; Forest Service; state forests; peatland type; Ostrobothnia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The studies were conducted in 1913-1916 in state forests of Finland as a part of a large survey of peatlands by the Forest Service’s districts in Ostrobothnia in the Western Finland. The area and type of peatlands were estimated based on data of National Land Survey of Finland. In the 36 counties of Ostrobothnia, the total area of peatlands was approximately 1.4 million hectares. 30% of the peatlands are treeless bogs, 45% pine swamps, 5% spruce swamps, 15% areas resembling pine swamps and 5% areas resembling spruce swamps. The article describes in detail different peatland types and their vegetation within these classes. The peatlands were divided into five classes by their suitability for drainage and forestry or agriculture. In addition, the depth of peat, height growth of the peat and formation of peatlands in the area are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Backman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7019, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1919). Tutkimuksia viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta etenkin Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 7019. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7019
English title: Studies on distribution of fertile lands in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: viljavuus; metsätyyppi; kasvupaikkatyyppi; kasvillisuustyyppi; maalaji
English keywords: soil; fertility; peatland type; vegetation type; site class; forest soil type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents a survey on distribution of fertile lands, soil types and site classes in Savo and Karelia in the central and eastern parts of Finland. The survey was based both in existing publications and statistics, a line survey, and visual observations during field trips. The site quality classification is based on the vegetation and occurrence of indicator plant species. The article lists distribution of indicator species in different forest site types on maps of the area. In addition, a review of history of land use and agriculture give indications of the location of the fertile lands in the area. A map of the forest site types in different parts of the area illustrate the data collected from the different sources.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7533, category Article
Antti Tanttu. (1915). Development of the hummocks and hummock ridges on the peatland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 4 no. 1 article id 7533. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7533
Keywords: hummock ridge; hummock; peat bank; string on “aava” bogs; rimpi moore; flark fen; Eriophorum vaginatum
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The hummocky peatlands are fairly common in Finland. Peatlands with hummock ridges are rare in southern Finland but become more common in northern parts of the country.

In the incompletely drained flark fens the development of the hummocks can be studied particularly well because they can be found in different development phases there. The phenomenon is more common in drained peatlands than in the peatland on their natural state.

The development of the hummock ridges is close related to development of the hummocks. The hummock ridges are formed only under certain circumstances.  

Height increment of the hummock ridges is restricted by the same factors that prevent the unrestricted height increment of the hummocks. The hummock ridge may sink due to its own weight in unfrozen swamp, it may be eroded by frost, wind, flowing water or ice.  Dead trees, shading or other detriments may prevent the growth of secondary peat.  

  • Tanttu, E-mail: at@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7530, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1913). Studies about Finnish peatlands. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 2 no. 3 article id 7530. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7530
Keywords: peatland; peatland type; indicator plant; swamp type; peatland classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first part of the article presents an overview of peatlands and their classification on the basis of e.g. their nutrient content in Finland. The second part (a separate pdf file) represents the different types of peatland with their indicator plants in Finland. 

Peatlands can be classified in several ways, depending on the purpose of the classification. There are also differences whether an area is considered biologically or geographically as a peatland. For agricultural or forestry purposes the peatlands can be classified on the basis of their nutrient content.

Article also discusses the three ways of emergence of peatlands and the variations of water relations of peatlands.    

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7669, category Article
Leena Finér. (1991). Effect of fertilization on dry mass accumulation and nutrient cycling in Scots pine on an ombrotrophic bog. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 223 article id 7669. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7669
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; biomass; fertilization; litterfall; drained peatland; nutrients; production; accumulation; nutrient uptake
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first three-year effects of PK(MgB) and NPK(MgB) fertilization on the dry mass accumulation and nutrient cycling were studied in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand growing on a drained low-shrub pine bog in Eastern Finland. The total dry mass of the tree stand before fertilization was 78 tn/ha, of which the above-ground compartments accounted for 69%. The annual above-ground dry mass production was 6.3 tn/ha, 51% of it accumulating in the tree stand.

The study period was too short for detecting any fertilization response in the stems. The total dry mass accumulation was not affected, because the increase in foliar and cone dry masses after both fertilization treatments, and that of the living branches after NPK fertilization, were compensated by the decrease in the dry mass of dead branches.

The nutrients studied accounted for 392 kg/ha (0.49%) of the total dry mass of the tree stand before fertilization. The amounts were as follows; N 173 kg/ha (44%), Ca 90 kg (23%), K 58 kg/ha (15%). The rest (18%) consisted of P, Mg, S and micronutrients combined. The unfertilized trees took up the following amounts of nutrients of the soil: N 15.6, Ca 12.8, K 4.1, P 1.3, MG 1.7, and S and Mn 1.5 kg/ha. The uptake of Fe and Zn was 510 and 130 g/ha and that of B and Cu less than 100 g/ha. More than 50% of the nutrient uptake, except for that of K and Fe, was released in litterfall. The results indicated very efficient cycling of K, Mn and B between the soil and trees.

The fertilized stands accumulated more N, P, K and B than the unfertilized ones during the tree-year study period. The increased accumulation corresponded to 35% (52 kg/ha) of the N applied on the NPK fertilized plots, 10% of the P, 25% of the K and 10% of the B on the PK and NPK fertilized plots. The increased amount of B released in litterfall after fertilization was equivalent to 4% of the applied B. Fertilization inhibited the uptake of Mn and Ca.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Finér, E-mail: lf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7655, category Article
Leena Finér. (1989). Biomass and nutrient cycle in fertilized and unfertilized pine, mixed birch and pine and spruce stands on a drained mire. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 208 article id 7655. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7655
Keywords: fertilization; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; peatland; biomass allocation; nutrient cycle; stand modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

At the beginning of the investigation period the total biomass of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands on the ordinary sedge pine mire was 48 t/ha. The biomass of the mixed stands of Scots pine and birch (Betula pubescens Erhr.) on the herbrich sedge pine mire was 91 t/ha, out of which 60% was from pine. The biomass of the Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) on the Vaccinium-Myrtillus spruce mire was 148 t/ha. The average annual net increment of the stand biomass was 5.8 t/ha in the unfertilized pine stand and 6.7 t/ha in the NPK and micronutrient fertilized one during the six-year investigation period. The corresponding figures in the mixed stand were 7.2 t/ha and 7.6 t/ha. The net increment of the biomass in the unfertilized spruce stand was 6.9 t/ha and in the fertilized 8.4 t/ha. A considerable proportion of the net increment was lost to the ground as litter in all stands.

The nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper and boron cycles were investigated. The annual nitrogen uptake from the soil was 26–42 kg/ha, that of phosphorus 2.5–3.4 kg/ha, potassium 4.5–12 kg/ha, calcium 12–29 kg/ha, magnesium 2–4 kg/ha, iron 1.4–6.6 kg/ha, manganese less than 2 kg/ha and the other nutrients only some grams. Only part of the fertilized nutrients was fixed in the stand.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Finér, E-mail: lf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7644, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1987). Site classification in estimation of fertilization effects on drained mires. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 198 article id 7644. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7644
Keywords: drained peatlands; needle analysis; peatland type; multivariate methods; edaphic properties; NPK fertilization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Multivariate methods are used to classify pine mires on the basis of edaphic properties into fertility groups in order to estimate the effect of fertilization in relation to site fertility. The data is based on two field inventories of NPK fertilization experiment in which 2,624 sample trees on 164 sample plots from 19 experimental fields were measured on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated stands. The edaphic properties (total contents of nutrients and related properties) are based on 1,350 volumetric sub-samples of fertilized and non-fertilized control plots.

In a DECORANA ordination, based on standardised volumetric soil variables N-P and acid-base gradients jointly describing trophic status were distinguished. Mainly on the basis of these two gradients a TWINSPAN analysis divided the material into five edaphic groups. To independently allocate sample plots into fertility groups, discriminating multiple regressions were formed using the TS edaphic groups as class variable.

The effect of N, P, K, NP, NK, PK, and NPK treatments on tree growth was estimated on the basis of change in relative basal area increment during two growth periods. During five-year period immediately after fertilization N and P treatments evoked the strongest increase in growth. On the nutrient poor sites, the effect was almost double that on the fertile sites. The effect of N was short lasting while the P treatment still affected growth after 5–11 years. Although K treatment had little influence on tree growth needle samples collected 11 years after fertilization indicated increased K uptake on fertilized plots.

Generally, the effect of fertilization on absolute stand volume growth was small. During the 11-year study period the total increase in growth gained with NPK was some 3–4 m3/ha. Despite strong relative response of individual sample trees, due to low stand volume fertilization (and drainage) had practically no effect on volume growth on the sites of lowest fertility.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7637, category Article
Jouko Silvola, Jukka Välijoki, Heikki Aaltonen. (1985). Effect of draining and fertilization on soil respiration at three ameliorated peatland sites. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 191 article id 7637. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7637
Keywords: wood ash; soil respiration; drained peatlands; nitrogen fertilization; groundwater table; PK fertilization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Soil respiration readings are reported for three ameliorated peatland sites of different types, covering a period of four years, during which the sites were drained and treated with various fertilizers. Respiration is shown to increase exponentially with temperature, varying mostly in the range 100–500 mg CO2 m-2 h-1. The changes in soil respiration followed those in surface temperature with a time-lag of approximately 3–3.5 hours. At one site, where the groundwater table dropped by about 0.5 m after ditching, soil respiration increased 2.5-fold within a few weeks, whereas at the other two sites both the fall in the groundwater table and the resultant changes in soil respiration were small.

The fertilizers tested were slow-dissolving PK, fast-dissolving PK, wood ash, slow-dissolving PK + urea, slow-dissolving PK + Nitroform (urea formaldehyde) and slow-dissolving PK + urea + a micro-element mixture. Application of fast-dissolving PK + urea led to a rapid increase in soil respiration at the site poorest in nutrients, and slow-dissolving PK to a slow increase in respiration. The greatest, steady increase of all was achieved by treatment with ash. At the sites with a higher natural nutrient content the application of fertilizers usually led to a decline in soil respiration lasting 1–2 years, after which the initial level was normally regained. Treatment with micro-elements caused an initial fall in soil respiration values in all three biotopes, followed by a pronounced increase.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Silvola, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
  • Välijoki, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown
  • Aaltonen, E-mail: ha@mm.unknown
article id 7631, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1983). Taimitarhamaiden fysikaalisia ja kemiallisia ominaisuuksia sekä niiden suhde orgaanisen aineksen määrään. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 184 article id 7631. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7631
English title: Physical and physio-chemical properties of forest tree nursery soils and their relation to the amount of organic matter.
Original keywords: viljavuus; taimitarhat; turve; maa; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti; kasvualusta; orgaaninen aines; vedenpidätyskyky
English keywords: peat; soil density; soil; substrate; fertility; nurseries; cation exchange capacity; organic matter; water retention capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aims of the present study were to determine physical and physio-chemical properties of some Finnish forest tree nursery soils, and to examine relationships between these properties and the amount of organic matter in the soil.

The following soil tillage layer properties of 33 fields belonging to 8 forest tree nurseries were determined: soil particle size distribution, organic matter content, bulk density and density of solids, total pore space, soil water volume at potentials pF 2.0 and 4.2, available water content and air space at potential pF 2.0, active acidity, electrical conductivity index and cation exchange capacities at pH 4.5 and 8.0. The soil texture class of the tillage layer parent material was sand, only in a few cases did higher percentage of silt and clay indicate a morainic nature of parent material. The amount of organic material in the soils varied within wide limits, reflecting differences in amelioration policy between the single nurseries.

Relationships between the physical properties of the soil parent material and those related to fertility were in most cases strongly influenced by the amount of soil organic matter. Soil density values decreased as the organic matter content increased from 2 to 25%, giving rise to the increase in the total pore space. However, the amount of water held at potential pF 2.0 and the available water content did not increase with increasing organic matter content. This was due to the absence of the particle fraction in the sand. Nursery soil amelioration, involving in most cases a mixture of Sphagnum peat with sand, thus gives rise to an increase in the content of drainable water.

Cation exchange capacities were positively correlated with the organic matter content. However, the absolute number of exchange sites expressed as equivalents in the tillage layer did not increase in accordance with the increase in organic matter content due to the influence of the organic matter content upon the ratio of solids in the voids.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7623, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1982). Tutkimuksia radioaaltomenetelmien soveltuvuudesta turvemaiden kulkukelpoisuuden arvioimiseen. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 176 article id 7623. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7623
English title: Studies on the possibilities of using radar techniques in detecting the trafficability of peatlands.
Original keywords: turvemaat; menetelmät; ojitetut suot; maasto; tutka; kulkukelpoisuus; turpeen kosteus
English keywords: peat; radar; peatlands; trafficability; methods; terrain
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The possibilities of using microwave techniques in detecting the trafficability of peatlands is discussed. Three microwave methods were tested. 1) A FM-CW radar using 1.01.8 GHz frequency was used to measure the frost thickness of peat layer. It was possible to follow the variations in snow and frost layer thickness. Total reflected power might indicate the wetness class of the peatland, which is also a trafficability factor. 2) A short-pulse radar with 100 MHz frequency was tested in summer condition. Good profiling of peat layers was obtained, giving basic information for trafficability analysis. 3) A mapping of brightness of temperature of peatlands in summer conditions using a 790 MHz radiometer. The measured brightness temperature was correlated with vegetation cover, thus giving some information of trafficability.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7619, category Article
Carl Johan Westman. (1981). Fertility of surface peat in relation to the site type and potential stand growth. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 172 article id 7619. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7619
Keywords: peatlands; fertility; site classification; sedge mires
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fertility of surface peat from sedge pine mires was studied by measuring several edaphic growth factors: bulk density, volume weight of organic matter, ash content, acidity, electric conductivity, effective cation exchange capacity, degree of base saturation, and total contents of N, P, K, Ca and Mg. The 168 temporal sample plots were situated on virgin sedge mires in different parts of Finland, and the 30 permanent sample plots on two uniform sedge mires.

The results showed that peat bulk density and volume weight of organic matter tend to increase with increasing site quality. Ash content increased gradually in the site series from small sedge mire to the herb-rich sedge mire. The relationship between the total content of macronutrients in peat and the site quality is clear. The importance of bulk density in evaluating the site quality is further emphasized when taking into account its significant correlation to contents of N and P. The soil variables follow the accepted quality gradient of the site series. Consequently, the plant sociologically based site classification seems to reflect satisfactorily the average soil properties. However, the within site variation was significant.

  • Westman, E-mail: cw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7604, category Article
Jukka Laine, Hannu Mannerkoski. (1980). Lannoituksen vaikutus mäntytaimikoiden kasvuun ja hirvituhoihin karuilla ojitetuilla nevoilla. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 166 article id 7604. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7604
English title: Effect on fertilization on tree growth and elk damage in young Scots pine stands planted on drained, nutrient-poor open bogs in Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; mänty; kasvu; hirvituhot; lannoitus; taimikot; typpi; nevat; fosfori
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; nitrogen; drained peatlands; Scots pine; growth; phosphorus; seedlings; elk damages; open pogs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An attempt was made in this study to determine which nutrients and in what amounts should be used in the fertilization of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedling stands on nutrient-poor open bogs in order to obtain optimum seedling growth and to minimize the risk of elk damage.

The most important nutrient to improve seedling growth in the experiments was phosphorus. Already rather small amounts produced a significant effect although the effect of higher dosages seemed to be longer lasting. After fertilization also nitrogen gave significant increase in growth. The number of seedlings damaged by elk increased the most on N-fertilized plots. Also, phosphorus increased the occurrence of elk damage, but effect seemed to be related to the better growth and more suitable size of P-fertilized seedlings. The effect of potassium on seedling growth and on occurrence of elk damage was negligible.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown
article id 7588, category Article
Niilo Söyrinki, Risto Salmela, Jorma Suvanto. (1977). Oulangan kansallispuiston metsä- ja suokasvillisuus. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 154 article id 7588. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7588
English title: The forest and mire vegetation of the Oulanka National Park, Northern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; Lappi; suotyypit; kansallispuistot; suojelualueet
English keywords: vegetation; Finland; Lapland; nature conservation; forest types; national parks; peatland types; vegetation types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Oulanka National Park is situated in the district of Kuusamo on the eastern border of Finland, close to the Arctic Circle and within the coniferous forest zone. It covers a surface area of 107 km2, and is known for the richness of its vegetation and flora, a product of a varied bedrock pattern including occurrences of dolomite. A description is given of the vegetation of the 9 forest and 47 peatland types distinguishable in the area by means of tables based on quadrat surveys. The distribution of each forest and peatland type is described in a vegetation map. The vegetation types are discussed in terms of the structure of their soil and the ecological and floristic features of their plant cover.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Söyrinki, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown (email)
  • Salmela, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown
  • Suvanto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 7584, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Jukka Laine. (1976). Lannoituksen, kuivatuksen ja lämpöolojen vaikutus istutus- ja luonnontaimistojen kehitykseen rämeillä. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 150 article id 7584. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7584
English title: Effect of fertilization, drainage and temperature on the development of planted and natural seedlings on pine swamps.
Original keywords: ojitus; mänty; taimet; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; räme; turvekangas; lämpöolot; sarkaväli
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; drained peatlands; Scots pine; temperature; seedlings; ditch spacing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents some preliminary results of a 10-year-old study the purpose of which is to determine the effect of simultaneous variations in the intensity of drainage and fertilization on the development of planted and natural seedlings on peatlands under various climatic conditions. The development of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings appeared to be better the more intensive the degree of drainage and fertilization used. The increase in the temperature sum had a positive effect on the development of pine seedlings and decreased the mortality rate.

The best growth result was obtained with a 10 m ditch spacing and strong fertilization. As it is difficult to decrease the 10 m ditch spacing for cost reasons, it can be concluded that on such oligotrophic peatlands as were used in this experiment, only an average growth level in the seedling stands can be reached even with the most efficient forest improvement measures. Broadcast fertilization used in the experiment, at least in large doses, increases seedling mortality, as well as the coverage of the ground vegetation, particularly that of cottongrass and fireweed, and also the shrub height, thus increasing competition. It cannot be recommended for afforestation, and today spot fertilization is used. According to this experiment natural seedlings seem once they have recovered after the first years, to grow better than the planted seedlings. This was true especially in the north and in areas, where drainage was not efficient. The height and height growth of the seedlings were to a large extent dependent on the temperature sum.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 7573, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1974). Nutrient removal from Scots pine canopy on drained peatland by rain. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 139 article id 7573. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7573
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; Scots pine; precipitation; nutrients; peatlands; macronutrients; stem flow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to assess the contents and quantities of macronutrients reaching the ground with precipitation, stemflow and throughfall in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands growing on drained peatland, one of which was unfertilized and two of which had been fertilized three growing seasons before the measurements were carried out.

According to the results, the quantities of nutrients reaching the ground with precipitation were relatively large as compared, for example, with those removed with the stem wood carried away from the forest in logging. The nutrient most exposed to leaching from the canopy is potassium. Both the content of potassium in rainwater penetrating the canopy and the quantities reaching the ground are highest in stemflow, decreasing when moving from under the tree crowns toward the edge of the crown projection and into openings in the canopy. The results for phosphorus were similar, although not as clear as for potassium.

The contents of NO3-N were smaller in stemflow than in precipitation. The results did not support assumptions according to which nitrate nitrogen is leached from the canopy or is taken up by the canopy from precipitation. In the case both of precipitation and of throughfall and stemflow, the quantities of nitrite nitrogen recorded were smaller than the degree of precision applied in the determinations carried out (0.01 mg/1). The contents of NH4-N were on average higher in stemflow and throughfall than in precipitation.

Fertilizer application (600 kg/ha of N-P2O5-K2O, 14-18-10) increased the contents of potassium in stemflow and throughfall. A slight increase in phosphorus was also observed. Leaching of inorganic nitrogen was not affected by fertilization.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7566, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1973). Ojitusalueiden puuston kasvun jatkumisesta ja alueellisuudesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 132 article id 7566. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7566
English title: Regional variation and continuity of stand growth in old forest drainage areas.
Original keywords: kasvu; soiden ojitus; turvekankaat; kasvun vaihtelu; ojat
English keywords: drained peatlands; peatlands; increment; ditches; variation in increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study deals with the development during the 1950s and 1960s of a stand growing on peatlands which had been drained in the 1930s. The following characters were determined by measurements: the volume of the growing stock, the volume increment, the relative increment, the increment percent and the increment curves. Moreover, the possible changes taking place in the difference between tree growth along the ditches and in the middle of the strip between ditches were studied. In addition, the regional variation in increment was studied; this question was studied as the regression between the relative growth and the temperature sum. The results were compared with other Finnish investigations into the regional variation of increment.

The volumes of the growing stock had increased during the course of twelve years by 70–10 m3 /ha depending on the site type and climatic zone concerned. The relative increment had dropped in each case studied. As a matter of fact, this is only to be expected because the volumes had increased and the absolute growth had remained more or less unchanged. The development of the increment percent was compared with mineral soil stands in the case of Southern Finland, both uncut stands and stands treated with cuttings. According to the results obtained, the development of the increment percent was better in the present material than in uncut forests, but in some cases it did not reach the level of tended stands. The revival of the tree crop after draining takes place at different rates in the vicinity of and, on the other hand, at greater distances from the ditches and that this relationship is dependent on the fertility of the site.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7565, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1973). Soiden metsänkasvatuskelpoisuuden laskentamenetelmä. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 131 article id 7565. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7565
English title: A method for calculation of the suitability of peatlands for forest drainage.
Original keywords: ojituskelpoisuus; suot; soiden ojitus; metsänkasvatuskelpoisuus
English keywords: peatlands; drainability; draining of peatlands; profitability of draining of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is a part in a more comprehensive series of investigations into the profitability of forest improvement measures. The present paper describes a new method for calculation of the suitability of various peatlands for forest drainage. According to this method, the net profit is calculated as the difference between the gross profit and the costs, and the profitability coefficient, as the ratio between the gross profit and the costs. The most important factors used for calculation of the gross profit and the costs are as follows: the site quality index, the volume of the tree stand capable of development at the time of draining, the temperature sum and the stumpage development at the time of draining, the temperature sum and the stumpage price. For use in the field, simplified auxliary tables have been worked out.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7563, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1973). Hydraulic conductivity and water retention in peat soils. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 129 article id 7563. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7563
Keywords: peat; peatlands; hydraulic conductivity; water retention capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is a part of a larger study of the basic hydrologic properties of peat. This part of the study deals with the hydraulic conductivity and water retention capacity of peat and with their dependence on some of its structural properties. The data of the study was collected in Central Finland (61°50'N; 24°20'E) from drained peatlands. The limits of the quantitative range of variation in the hydraulic conductivity of peat can be put at 2.0 x 10-6 and 1.1 x 1O-2 cm/sec. The variation occurring in the hydraulic conductivity of peat is extremely large. At saturation peat contains 82–95 volume per cent of water. The bulk density of peat seemed to be the factor best able to explain its water retention capacity. The quantity of water which can be removed from a site by draining decreases with increasing bulk density in such a way that it, in the case of well decomposed peat (bulk density 0.20 g/cm3) is slightly less than one third of that for slightly decomposed peat (bulk density 0.05 g/cm3). Also, the possibilities to estimate the quantities of water superfluous, available and unavailable to the plant cover is discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7560, category Article
Matti Palo. (1972). Kaivuriurakoitsijain välinen kilpailu ja metsäojan hinnan alueellinen vaihtelu. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 126 article id 7560. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7560
English title: Competition among tractor-digger contractors and regional variation of forest drain prices.
Original keywords: ojitus; suot; kilpailu; hinnat; kaivuyrittäjät; kaivuriurakoitsijat; hintakilpailu; urakkahinnat
English keywords: competition; peatlands; prices; draining of peatlands; price competition; tractor-digger contractors
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland The Central Forestry Board Tapio conducts forest drainage operations on swamps owned mainly by private individuals. This drainage is almost totally financed by the Government either as loans or subsidies. The local contractors have left bids about new forest drainage projects, and the best bid has won the contract. The trend of the average price for forest drains has been declining during the last 11 years although digging costs have increased. The aim of this study was (1) to explain the regional price variation of forest drains made by tractor-diggers and (2) to describe competition among tractor-digger contractors and to measure its effect on prices.

Correlation and regression analyses support the hypothesis that competition among tractor-digger contractors has decreased forest drain prices, especially in 1967. In the course of the last two years this competition effect has been lessening. The most significant other variables explaining price variations were the proportion of winter drainage, length of drainage work done for each participant in the project, and density of drains.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Palo, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7559, category Article
Kustaa Seppälä. (1972). Ditch spacing as a regulator of post-drainage stand development in Norway spruce and in pine swamps. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 125 article id 7559. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7559
Keywords: drained peatlands; growth; draining intensity; ditch spacing; volume increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is based on data collected from 411 sample plots in various parts of Finland situated on peatlands which had been drained in the 1930's. The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of ditch spacing on the volume, increment and structure of timber crops growing on drained peatlands. The ditches had been spaced 70–90 m apart, and the sample plots were placed strip wise along the ditches.

The results of the study indicate that the influence of ditch spacing on both the total volume and the volume increment is greater, the poorer the site. On the other hand, the influence of ditch spacing on the structure of the stand as described by means of the mean diameter as weighted by the basal area, seems to be of similar magnitude in all the sites covered by the study.

Generally speaking, the influence of ditch spacing on stand development is surprisingly small, even in extreme cases. The total volume and the increment of the growing stock decrease by about 20% when the ditch spacing increases from 20 to 60 m, the corresponding decrease in the mean diameter having a magnitude of 10%. This was interpreted to be due to the fact that the main part of the superior growth along the margin of the ditch is spent in compensating for the space lost in the area taken up by the ditches.

On the basis of the results obtained it was concluded that the best solution in forest drainage from the economic viewpoint is to employ relatively wide ditch spacings, which leads to a rate of stand development somewhat below the potential.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7557, category Article
Matti Keltikangas. (1971). Sarkaleveyden vaikutus ojitusinvestoinnin taloudelliseen tulokseen. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 123 article id 7557. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7557
English title: Effects of drain spacing on the economic results of forest drainage investments.
Original keywords: kannattavuus; suotyyppi; soiden ojitus; sarkaleveys; kuivatusteho; investointi
English keywords: profitability; draining of peatlands; peatland type; investment; drain spacing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to determine how the spacing of drains affects the economic results of forest drainage projects. On the basis of empirical material consisting of 411 sample plots, it is presented marginal cost curves showing how many meters more of drains it is needed to increase the value of stock, 35 years after the drainage, by a value equivalent of one cu.m of coniferous pulpwood. Results indicate that wider spacings ought to be used on poor sites, on sloping swamps, and in the north.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7548, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Pertti Veijola. (1971). Lannoituksen ja sarkaleveyden vaikutus rämeen uudistumiseen ja taimien kasvuun. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 114 article id 7548. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7548
English title: Effect of fertilization and ditch spacing on regeneration and seedling growth in pine swamps.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; taimet; lannoitus; turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; taimikuolleisuus; räme
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatlands; Scots pine; planting; mortality; seedlings; fertilizing; pine bogs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1965 and 1966 a total of 25 experiments were laid out in various parts of Finland in order to find out the effect of simultaneous variation in the intensity of drainage and fertilization on the development of plantations and natural seedling stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) growing on pine swamps. The fertilizer used was Y fertilizer for peat soils, a fertilizer mixture containing 14 % N, 18 % P2O5 and 10 % K2O. It was applied in rates of 500, 1,000 and 1,500 kg/ha. The ditch spacings studied were 10, 20 and 30 m. The present paper is a preliminary report on a series of studies, the experiments will be observation for a total of 15–20 years.

Mortality of the planted seedlings was found to be the higher after the first growing season, the larger the quantity of fertilizer that had been applied. Fertilizing caused an increase in seedling mortality even after the first growing season following application. At the end of the fifth growing season the height of both natural and planted seedlings is the greater, the larger the quantity of fertilizer that has been applied. Analysis of the height growth of the seedlings showed that larger quantities of fertilizer did not increase growth in the same proportion. The occurrence of growth disturbances is the greater, the more fertilizer has been applied.

Fertilization also changed the composition of ground vegetation. The in the beginning of the experiment  birch (Betula sp.) was absent in the area, but was found in the stands the greater abundance the higher application of the fertilizer.

From the viewpoint of growth of the seedlings the best results were obtained with the greatest intensity of fertilization and the narrowest ditch spacing used in the study. The results also show that strong fertilization and a high degree of drainage intensity are not capable of bringing about any particularly good growth on peatlands which originally are relatively poor in nutrients. The growth values now obtained equal only one third of those obtained on peat soils of greater fertility.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Veijola, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown
article id 7547, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1971). Pohjavesipinta ja sen mittaaminen ojitetuilla soilla. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 113 article id 7547. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7547
English title: Ground water table in drained peat soils and its measurement.
Original keywords: turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; pohjaveden pinta; pitkäaikaisvaihtelut
English keywords: drained peatlands; ground water table; seasonal variations; daily variations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study deals with the ground water table in the soil of drained peatlands and with the technique used for its determination. The terms depth and height of the ground water table are defined in the paper. Because of the fact that the surface of peatlands moves under the influence of a great number of different factors, the depth of the ground water table and the height of the ground water table are not parallel concepts. The present paper concentrates on the depth of the ground water table.

Observations on the depth of the ground water table in the sample plots in 1966-67 and 1968-69 show that the maximum of the late summer usually exceeds that of the early spring, and that the minimum occurring in the period of snow melting is more clearly discernible than that of the fall. Great differences occur in the depths of the ground water table in different sample plots. These differences are due to the specific properties of the peat of different peat layers, which are expressed in terms of the ground water coefficient. The duration of the depth of the ground water table proved to be a useful way to express the long-term changes.

Four kinds of short-term fluctuations in the ground water table were observed: a) the ground water table falls during the night hours, although the rate of falling is slower than in daytime, b) the ground water table rests at the same depth during the night, whereas during the day it clearly falls, c) the descent of the ground water table is similar throughout the whole 24-hour period, d) the ground water table rises during the night hours and falls in daytime. Occurrence of these types are discussed. Typical short-term fluctuation is the fall due to evaporation in the daytime.

The third part of the paper discusses the techniques used to measure the changes in ground water table.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7538, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1970). The effect of thinning, clear cutting, and fertilization on the hydrology of peatland drained for forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 104 article id 7538. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7538
Keywords: fertilization; thinning; drained peatlands; throughfall; clear-cutting; hydrology; ground water table; snow cover; runoff
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of cutting of different intensities on the hydrology of drained peatland. The study concerned with measuring changes in the ground water level, throughfall, and snow cover, and specially runoff. This study focused on the phenomena that occur during the growing season. Seven sample plots were measured in an area in Central Finland which had been drained about 50 years earlier and had Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand of uniform age.

To survey the hydrological effects of cuttings, 20%, 40% and 60% of the stand volume was removed in thinnings. In addition, one sample plot was clear-cut. During the first two years after cutting the interception diminished, and throughfall increased by 7% for the 20% thinning, by 8% for the 40% thinning and by 12% for the 60% thinning. Clear cutting increased the throughfall by 29%. The thinnings increased the depth of the snow cover the more the heavier the thinning.

Even the lightest thinning raised the ground water table, but the difference between 20% and 40% thinning was not marked. Cuttings increased runoff the greater the heavier the cutting. The hydrological changes of fellings were detrimental for the site. However, there was a marked change only between the 40% and 60% thinnings. Fertilization had a favourable effect on the hydrology of the peatland by increasing the depth of ground water table, and decreasing the throughfall.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7601, category Article
Erkki Lähde. (1969). Biological activity in some natural and drained peat soils with special reference to oxidation-reduction conditions. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 94 article id 7601. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7601
Keywords: drained peatlands; peat; decomposition; ground water table; oxidizing conditions; reducing conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to collect information on biological activity in the topmost 30 cm peat layer in certain natural and drained peatlands of different fertility, covered by different stands.

The results showed that if the ground water table in peatland sites is located in the immediate vicinity of the ground surface (about 5-10 cm in depth), conditions are reducing, and often even anaerobic, up to the ground surface. By means of drainage the aerobic limit can be dropped to a greater depth. This will occur because of the aerobic limit closely follows the fluctuation of the ground water table.

Although, by means of drainage, the aerobic limit can be lowered to more than 50 cm in depth, rains are followed by a rise of a ground water table and the aerobic limit; hereby a change from oxidizing to reducing conditions takes place. Only by keeping the ground water table and the aerobic limit constantly at the depth of more than 50 cm is it possible to obtain oxidizing conditions in the topmost 20-30 cm peat layer. The anaerobic conditions prevent the tree roots penetrating deeper in the peat.

In reducing conditions cellulose decomposition as well as carbon dioxide release from peat samples is slower than in oxidizing conditions. The rate of cellulose decomposition, however, is essentially dependent on the nitrogen content and the acidity of the peat.

  • Lähde, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7611, category Article
Kustaa Seppälä. (1969). Kuusen ja männyn kasvun kehitys ojitetuilla turvemailla. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 93 article id 7611. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7611
English title: Post-drainage growth rate of Norway spruce and Scots pine on peat.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; kasvu; läpimitan kasvu; turvekankaat; ojitetut suot; pituuskasvu; kasvun elpyminen
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; growth; diameter growth; revival
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study is an attempt to establish the response to drainage of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on some peatland sites, and to determine the revival of the trees and continuance of the growth after drainage. Growth of trees in four types of peatland types of drained peatlands drained between 1908-1918 were studied, and the results were compared with corresponding mineral soil sites

In pine the response to drainage was faster than in spruce in all age classes. Even the oldest groups of trees showed as good growth as trees of the same size growing on mineral soils. The rapidity of revival and the radial growth maximum are affected by the age of the tree at the time of ditching and the site fertility. The size of the trees, too, is of importance for the magnitude of post-drainage radial growth; the influence is similar in different sites. The basal area growth of trees growing on peat usually showed an unbroken increase during the entire post-drainage period. Neither the height growth indicates a decline in growth over time.

In the light of the results from sample tree analysis, it seems that tree growth gradually rises even after the revival period in peatlands originally covered by forest. The are some errors in the comparisons made, but it can be observed that aging of drainage areas as such does not mean that growth conditions become poorer.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Special section

article id 287, category Special section
Mikko Peltoniemi, Juha Heikkinen, Raisa Mäkipää. (2007). Stratification of regional sampling by model-predicted changes of carbon stocks in forested mineral soils. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 287. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.287
Keywords: uncertainty; soil carbon; anticipated variance; forest soil; monitoring; repeated measurement; soil survey; stratified sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Monitoring changes in soil C has recently received interest due to reporting under the Kyoto Protocol. Model-based approaches to estimate changes in soil C stocks exist, but they cannot fully replace repeated measurements. Measuring changes in soil C is laborious due to small expected changes and large spatial variation. Stratification of soil sampling allows the reduction of sample size without reducing precision. If there are no previous measurements, the stratification can be made with model-predictions of target variable. Our aim was to present a simulation-based stratification method, and to estimate how much stratification of inventory plots could improve the efficiency of the sampling. The effect of large uncertainties related to soil C change measurements and simulated predictions was targeted since they may considerably decrease the efficiency of stratification. According to our simulations, stratification can be useful with a feasible soil sample number if other uncertainties (simulated predictions and forecasted forest management) can be controlled. For example, the optimal (Neyman) allocation of plots to 4 strata with 10 soil samples from each plot (unpaired repeated sampling) reduced the standard error (SE) of the stratified mean by 9–34% from that of simple random sampling, depending on the assumptions of uncertainties. When the uncertainties of measurements and simulations were not accounted for in the division to strata, the decreases of SEs were 2–9 units less. Stratified sampling scheme that accounts for the uncertainties in measured material and in the correlates (simulated predictions) is recommended for the sampling design of soil C stock changes.
  • Peltoniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mikko.peltoniemi@metla.fi (email)
  • Heikkinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Mäkipää, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: raisa.makipaa@metla.fi

Category : Research article

article id 22017, category Research article
Andis Lazdiņš, Ainārs Lupiķis, Kaspars Polmanis, Arta Bārdule, Aldis Butlers, Santa Kalēja. (2024). Carbon stock changes of drained nutrient-rich organic forest soils in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 22017. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22017
Keywords: drainage; hemiboreal forests; organic soil; peat compaction; peatland forests; subsidence of the peat layer
Highlights: In moderate nutrient-rich forest site type (Myrtillosa turf. mel.), a significant subsidence of peat layer after drainage is associated with compaction rather than decomposition of peat; In nutrient-rich forest site type (Oxalidosa turf. mel.), a contribution of soil C stock losses to subsidence of the peat layer is significant; In moderate nutrient-rich forest site type (Myrtillosa turf. mel.), type of dominant tree species has higher impact on changes in soil C stock after drainage than in nutrient-rich forest site type (Oxalidosa turf. mel.); Distribution of different forest site types involving soil nutrient status has to be taken into account when CO2 emissions from drained organic soil in forest land are estimated at national level.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Impact of drainage of organic soils in forest land on soil carbon (C) stock changes is of high interest not only to accurately estimate soil C stock changes, but also to provide scientifically based recommendations for forest land management in context of climate change mitigation. To improve knowledge about long-term impact of drainage on nutrient-rich organic soils in hemiboreal forests in Latvia, 50 research sites representing drained conditions (Oxalidosa turf. mel. (Kp) and Myrtillosa turf. mel. (Ks) forest site types) and undrained conditions as control areas (Caricoso-phragmitosa, Dryopterioso-caricosa and Filipendulosa forest site types) were selected. Soil C stock changes after drainage was evaluated by comparing current C stock in drained organic soils to theoretical C stock before drainage considering impact of soil subsidence. During the 53-years period after drainage, the peat subsidence was higher in nutrient-rich Kp forest site type compared to moderate nutrient-rich Ks forest site type (peat subsided by 37.0 ± 4.8 and 23.3 ± 4.8 cm, respectively). In nutrient-rich Kp forest site type, soil C stock decreased by 4.98 ± 1.58 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 after drainage, while no statistically significant changes in soil C stock (0.19 ± 1.31 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) were observed in moderate nutrient-rich soils in Ks forest site type. Thus, in Ks forest site type, the main driver of the peat subsidence was the physical compaction, while in Kp forest site type contribution of organic matter decomposition and consequent soil C losses to subsidence of the peat was significant.

  • Lazdiņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7169-2011 E-mail: andis.lazdins@silava.lv
  • Lupiķis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia E-mail: ainars.lupikis@inbox.lv
  • Polmanis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2579-353X E-mail: kaspars.polmanis@silava.lv (email)
  • Bārdule, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0961-5119 E-mail: arta.bardule@silava.lv
  • Butlers, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3118-1716 E-mail: aldis.butlers@silava.lv
  • Kalēja, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia E-mail: santa.kaleja@silava.lv
article id 10752, category Research article
Oiva Hiltunen, Ville Hallikainen, Teijo Palander. (2023). Analysing the groundwater level and its determinants in a drained peatland forest: a case study in South Lapland, Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 1 article id 10752. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10752
Keywords: peatland; groundwater level; load-bearing capacity; subsoil
Highlights: Mineral subsoils under a peat layer (less than 1 m) affect the groundwater level; During average precipitation, silty subsoil often makes groundwater level remain too high for timber haulage; If the subsoil is sandy and the peat layer is thin, the groundwater level gets lower; The amount of stand evapotranspiration alone is not enough to keep the groundwater level low enough.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In southern Lapland, 70% of drained peatland forests have a peat layer thickness of less than one metre. On these sites, the question is how the subsoil under the peat affects groundwater level and thus timber harvesting. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the peat layer (<1 m) and subsoil on the groundwater level and its variation during the growing season (non-frost) by modelling the factors affecting water level. In sandy soils, the groundwater level rose by 20 cm when the peat layer thickness increased from 20 to 70 cm. In silty soils the effect of the peat thickness on groundwater remained minor. When the subsoil was sand or coarser, the groundwater level was usually deeper than when it was silty or finer. The effect of stand volume (m–3 ha–1) on the groundwater level was rather weak albeit significant. The model explained a significant part of the groundwater surface variation, with a marginal coefficient of determination (R2) of 68%. It seems that the rutting of roads could be avoided in late summer if the precipitation is remarkably lower during that period, or if the subsoil is sandy with thin peat layer on top of it. Because the groundwater level affects the load-bearing capacity of timber-harvesting machinery, it is important to study this issue in more detail in the future.

  • Hiltunen, Lapland University of Applied Sciences, Jokiväylä 11, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: oivah@student.uef.fi (email)
  • Hallikainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@luke.fi
  • Palander, The University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science, Forestry and Technology, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9284-5443 E-mail: teijo.s.palander@uef.fi
article id 10494, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Ari Laurén, Leena Stenberg, Samuli Launiainen, Kersti Leppä, Mika Nieminen. (2021). Defining guidelines for ditch depth in drained Scots pine dominated peatland forests. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 10494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10494
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; peatland; drainage; ditch network maintenance; process model; water table
Highlights: Process-based hydrological model was applied to drained peatland forests representing a wide range of conditions in Finland; Ditch depth keeping the median July–August water table below 0.35 m was defined; Ditch depth depended on climatic conditions, stand volume, peat properties, and ditch spacing; Shallower ditches than recommended in practice proved to be sufficient in most situations.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

We used a process-based hydrological model SUSI to improve guidelines for ditch network maintenance (DNM) operations on drained peatland forests. SUSI takes daily weather data, ditch depth, strip width, peat properties, and forest stand characteristics as input and calculates daily water table depth (WTD) at different distances from ditch. The study focuses on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated stands which are the most common subjects of DNM. Based on a literature survey, and consideration of the tradeoffs between forest growth and detrimental environmental impacts, long term median July–August WTD of 0.35 m was chosen as a target WTD. The results showed that ditch depths required to reach such WTD depends strongly on climatic locations, stand volume, ditch spacing, and peat thickness and type. In typical ditch cleaning areas in Finland with parallel ditches placed about 40 m apart and tree stand volumes exceeding 45 m3 ha–1, 0.3–0.8 m deep ditches were generally sufficient to lower WTD to the targeted depth of 0.35 m. These are significantly shallower ditch depths than generally recommended in operational forestry. The main collector ditch should be naturally somewhat deeper to permit water outflow. Our study brings a firmer basis on environmentally sound forestry on drained peatlands.

  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi (email)
  • Laurén, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ari.lauren@uef.fi
  • Stenberg, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: leena.stenberg@luke.fi
  • Launiainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: samuli.launiainen@luke.fi
  • Leppä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kersti.leppa@luke.fi
  • Nieminen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@luke.fi
article id 10273, category Research article
Lasse Aro, Anssi Ahtikoski, Jyrki Hytönen. (2020). Profitability of growing Scots pine on cutaway peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 3 article id 10273. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10273
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; afforestation; bare land value; financial performance; peat cutaway area; stand-level optimization
Highlights: The potential wood production on cutaway peatlands can be high; Afforestation with seeding or planting was profitable at 3% rate of interest; In northern Finland, the afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization affected the bare land value.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A major after-use option for former peat harvesting areas has been afforestation. The profitability of afforestation with Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.) was studied in two 31–32-year old experiments in southern and northern Finland. The stands were established by seeding and planting, and various fertilization treatments and drainage intensities were tested. The financial performance for each plot was assessed in three steps. First, the costs occurred during the measurement time were summed up according to their present value. Then, for the rest of the rotation (i.e., from the age of 31/32 onwards) the stand management was optimized in order to maximize the net present value (MaxNPV). Finally, bare land values (BLVs) were calculated by summing up the present value of costs and the MaxNPV and converting the sum of the series into infinity. The afforestation method did not affect the mean annual increment (MAI; 9.2–9.5 m3 ha–1 a–1) in the southern experiment. In the northern experiment the afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization had significant effects on the MAI of the stands. The average MAI of the planted pines was 8.9 m3 ha–1 a–1, and for seeded pines it was 7.5 m3 ha–1 a–1. The BLV at an interest rate of 3% was positive for all stands in both regions. In the northern region afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization also had a significant effect on the BLV. When the interest rate was 5%, almost two thirds of the stands had a negative BLV in both regions.

  • Aro, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 4A, FI-20520 Turku, Finland E-mail: lasse.aro@luke.fi (email)
  • Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Paavo Havaksentie 3, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1658-3813 E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
  • Hytönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Teknologiakatu 7, FI-67100 Kokkola, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8475-3568 E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@luke.fi
article id 10055, category Research article
Jaakko Repola, Hannu Hökkä, Hannu Salminen. (2018). Models for diameter and height growth of Scots pine, Norway spruce and pubescent birch in drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 5 article id 10055. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10055
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatlands; forest drainage; mixed model; tree growth model
Highlights: Tree growth strongly correlated with site drainage status; Between-tree competition had a higher impact on tree diameter growth than on height growth; Growth predicted by the constructed models were calibrated using NFI11 data to ensure generally applicable growth predictions level in whole country.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to develop individual-tree diameter and height growth models for Scots pine, Norway spruce, and pubescent birch growing in drained peatlands in Finland. Trees growing in peatland sites have growth patterns that deviate from that of trees growing in mineral soil sites. Five-year growth was explained by tree diameter, different tree and stand level competition measures, management operations and site characteristics. The drainage status of the site was influencing growth directly or in interaction with other variables. Site quality had a direct impact but was also commonly related to current site drainage status (need for ditch maintenance). Recent thinning increased growth of all species and former PK fertilization increased growth of pine and birch. Temperature sum was a significant predictor in all models and altitude for spruce and birch. The data were a subsample of the 7th National Forest Inventory (NFI) sample plots representing northern and southern Finland and followed by repeated measurements for 15–20 yrs. Growth levels predicted by the models were calibrated using NFI11 data to remove bias originating from the sample of the modelling data. The mixed linear models technique was used in model estimation. The models will be incorporated into the MOTTI stand simulator to replace the current peatlands growth models.

  • Repola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@luke.fi (email)
  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90014 University OF Oulu, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi
  • Salminen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.salminen@luke.fi
article id 10013, category Research article
Hardo Becker, Jürgen Aosaar, Mats Varik, Gunnar Morozov, Kristiina Aun, Ülo Mander, Kaido Soosaar, Veiko Uri. (2018). Annual net nitrogen mineralization and litter flux in well-drained downy birch, Norway spruce and Scots pine forest ecosystems. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 10013. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10013
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatland forests; ammonification; effect of tree species; swamp; nitrification; transitional bog
Highlights: The net nitrogen mineralization (NNM) flux in drained peat soils depends largely on the C/N ratio and tree species; The soil NNM process is affected by trees through organic litter input into soil; Pine stand in low-fertility drained transitional bog is dominated by net ammonification; Birch and spruce stands on the fertile drained peat soil with higher pH and N content are dominated by net nitrification.
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The main aim of the current study was to estimate the annual net nitrogen mineralization (NNM) flux in stands of different tree species growing on drained peatlands, as well as to clarify the effect of tree species, soil properties and litter on annual NNM dynamics. Three study sites were set up in May 2014: a downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) stand and a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stand in Oxalis full-drained swamp (ODS) and a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand in Myrtillus full-drained swamp (MDS). The NNM flux was estimated using the in situ method with incubated polyethylene bags. The highest value of NNM was found in stands that were growing on fertile ODS: 127.5 kg N ha–1 yr–1 and 87.7 kg N ha–1 yr–1, in the downy birch stand and in the Norway spruce stand, respectively. A significantly lower annual NNM flux (11.8 kg N ha–1 yr–1) occurred in the Scots pine stand growing in MDS. Nitrification was highest at fertile ODS sites and ammonification was the highest at the low fertility MDS site. For all study sites, positive correlation was found between soil temperature and NNM intensity. The difference in annual NNM between the downy birch stand and the Norway spruce stand growing on similar drained fertile peatlands was due to litter quality. The annual N input into the soil through leaf litter was the highest at the downy birch site where also the C/N ratio of litter was the lowest. The second highest N input into the soil was found in the spruce stand and the lowest in the pine stand.

  • Becker, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: hardo.becker@emu.ee (email)
  • Aosaar, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jyrgen.aosaar@emu.ee
  • Varik, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: mats.varik@emu.ee
  • Morozov, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: gunnar.morozov@emu.ee
  • Aun, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kristiina.aun@emu.ee
  • Mander, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology & Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: ulo.mander@ut.ee
  • Soosaar, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology & Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kaido.soosaar@ut.ee
  • Uri, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: veiko.uri@emu.ee
article id 1687, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Jori Uusitalo, Harri Lindeman, Jari Ala-Ilomäki. (2016). Performance of weather parameters in predicting growing season water table depth variations on drained forested peatlands – a case study from southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 4 article id 1687. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1687
Keywords: peatland; precipitation; bearing capacity; evapotranspiration; mixed linear model; water table depth
Highlights: Four-week precipitation and evapotranspiration explain much of drained peatland water table depth variation during a growing season.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The amount of water in peat soil is one factor affecting its bearing capacity, which is a crucial aspect in planning peatland timber harvesting operations. We studied the influence of weather variables on the variation of drained peatland growing season water conditions, here the ground water table depth (WTD). WTD was manually monitored four times in 2014 and three times in 2015 in 10–30 sample plots located in four drained peatland forests in south-western Finland. For each peatland, precipitation and evapotranspiration were calculated from the records of the nearest Finnish Meteorological Institute field stations covering periods from one day to four weeks preceding the WTD monitoring date. A mixed linear model was constructed to investigate the impact of the weather parameters on WTD. Precipitation of the previous four–week period was the most important explanatory variable. The four-week evapotranspiration amount was interacting with the Julian day showing a greater effect in late summer. Other variables influencing WTD were stand volume within the three-metre radius sample plot and distance from nearest ditch. Our results show the potential of weather parameters, specifically that of the previous four-week precipitation and evapotranspiration, for predicting drained peatland water table depth variation and subsequently, the possibility to develop a more general empirical model to assist planning of harvesting operations on drained peatlands.

  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90014 Oulun yliopisto, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi (email)
  • Uusitalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
  • Lindeman, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: harri.lindeman@luke.fi
  • Ala-Ilomäki, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Jokiniemenkuja 1, FI-01370 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jari.ala-ilomaki@luke.fi
article id 1354, category Research article
Johannes Edvardsson, Anton Hansson. (2015). Multiannual hydrological responses in Scots pine radial growth within raised bogs in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 4 article id 1354. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1354
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; dendrochronology; precipitation; hydrology; river discharge
Highlights: Annual growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at Boreal raised bogs was found to reflect a synthesis of climate controlled moisture variability over the preceding one to four year period; Excessive soil moisture is a growth limiting factor for trees at raised bogs; River discharge data reflect hydrological conditions in peat bogs better than precipitation data.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To explore interactions between climate and peatland hydrology, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) growing at four raised bogs in southern Sweden were subject to a dendroclimatological study. Radial tree growth reflecting climate and water table fluctuations over multiannual periods was detected as significant negative correlations between tree-ring width (TRW) chronologies and the preceding one to four years total precipitation or river discharge. Systematically stronger negative correlations were obtained when river discharge instead of precipitation was compared to radial tree growth. This indicates that river discharge reflect moisture variability of peat bogs better than what precipitation data does. Meanwhile, monthly precipitation and radial tree growth did not show any clear correlation, whereas spring and early summer temperatures had a positive influence on the tree growth. Our study shows that growth variability of bog pines in the Boreal zone reflect hydrological responses related to a synthesis of climate controlled moisture variability over several year periods.

  • Edvardsson, Dendrolab.ch, Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1+3, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland & Quaternary Sciences, Department of Geology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5163-1599 E-mail: johannes.edvardsson@dendrolab.ch (email)
  • Hansson, Quaternary Sciences, Department of Geology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden E-mail: anton.hansson@geol.lu.se
article id 1301, category Research article
Mikko Moilanen, Jyrki Hytönen, Hannu Hökkä, Anssi Ahtikoski. (2015). Fertilization increased growth of Scots pine and financial performance of forest management in a drained peatland in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1301. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1301
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; stand growth; peatlands; needle nutrients; P deficiency; K deficiency
Highlights: All fertilizers containing phosphorus and potassium improved the P and K status and the stem growth of Scots pine still 26 years from application; Wood ash, containing more nutrients than other fertilizers, gave the strongest stand growth response and the highest net present value; Ash fertilizer treatment outperformed other fertilizer treatments and control in net present value, regardless of the applied discount rate, 3%, 4% or 5%.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The long-term effects of fertilization on the needle nutrient concentrations, growth and financial performance of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand was examined in a thick-peated drained peatland forest located in Central Finland. At the trial establishment in 1985, the trees were suffering from P and K deficiencies, but their N status was good. The fertilizer treatments were Control, PK (rock phosphate + potassium chloride), ApaBio (apatite phosphorus + biotite) and wood ash, applied both with and without N and replicated six times. All treatments containing phosphorus and potassium increased foliar P and K concentrations above the deficiency limits up to the end of the study period of 26 years. The effect of the fertilization on stand volume growth of Scots pine was strong and continued still at the end of the study period. The trees on ApaBio and PK plots grew nearly two-fold and those on Ash plots over two-fold compared with the control plots. In a thinning made at the end of the study period the total logging removal on fertilized plots was 1.5–2.2 times greater and included more saw logs than on the control plots. Ash fertilizer treatment outperformed other fertilizer treatments as well as the control. With a 5% discounted equivalent annual income (EAI) of Ash fertilizer treatment was statistically significantly (p=0.009) almost three times higher than that of control. As a conclusion, fertilization (either using PK fertilizers or Ash) in N-rich drained peatlands is a financially feasible method of management.

  • Moilanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Natural resources and bioproduction, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland E-mail: mikko.moilanen@luke.fi (email)
  • Hytönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Natural resources and bioproduction, Silmäjärventie 2, FI-69100 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@luke.fi
  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Natural resources and bioproduction, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi
  • Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Natural resources and bioproduction, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
article id 1192, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Hanna Mäkelä. (2015). Post-harvest height growth of Norway spruce seedlings in northern Finland peatland forest canopy gaps and comparison to partial and complete canopy removals and plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 5 article id 1192. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1192
Keywords: Picea abies; height growth; peatlands; growth models; advance growth; canopy gap
Highlights: Norway spruce seedlings’ height growth recovered within four years after the cutting of canopy gaps; Growth was linearly related to tree height, being highest for tallest seedlings; Seedlings in the 20 m diameter gap and in the central and northern parts in the 15 m diameter gap showed the best growth; In gaps early height growth was 60% of that in peatland spruce plantations but 2–3 times higher than in uneven-aged cut forests.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Recent studies have shown the establishment of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) to be successful in small canopy gaps cut in drained spruce mire stands in northern Finland. The aim of this study was to quantify seedling height growth in gaps and compare it to that observed in other canopy cuttings and plantations. We sampled spruce crop seedlings (maximum density ca. 3000 ha–1) in the spring of 2013 in a field experiment in which canopy gaps of 10, 15 and 20 m in diameter had been cut in winter 2004. The total seedling height in 2013 and the length of annual shoots over the past five years (2012–2008) were recorded in the survey. Seedling height varied from 20 cm to 2.7 m, with an average of 65 cm. The average annual height growth was 7.1 cm. A mixed linear model analysis was carried out to investigate seedling height growth variation. Seedling height was linearly and positively related to growth. Height growth started to increase in the fifth growing season after cutting. Seedling height growth in the 20 m gap was slightly better than in the smaller ones. In the 15 m gap, both the centrally located seedlings and those located at the northern edge grew best. In the 20 m gap, southerly located seedlings grew more slowly than seedlings in all other locations. The average seedling height growth in this study was about 60% of that in peatland plantations, but comparable to that in mineral soil gaps, and 2–3 times higher than in uneven-age cut stands.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Mäkelä, Lapland University of Applied Sciences, Jokiväylä 11 C, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hanna.makela@edu.ramk.fi
article id 993, category Research article
Jori Uusitalo, Jari Ala-Ilomäki. (2013). The significance of above-ground biomass, moisture content and mechanical properties of peat layer on the bearing capacity of ditched pine bogs. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 993. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.993
Keywords: logging; peatland; tree harvesting; trafficability
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Intensive utilisation of peatland forests calls for logging activities to be increasingly carried out in conditions other than those in harsh winter. The low bearing capacity of peatlands forms a severe obstacle for the prevailing harvesting machinery. The aim of this study was to clarify and quantify the significance of above-ground biomass, brash mat, moisture content and mechanical properties of peat layer on the bearing capacity of pine bogs. In-situ driving tests were conducted in Western Finland on a pine bog covering a large variation of growing stock. Portable tools were tested for measuring strength properties of the top layer of peat. According to the results, shear modulus of top layer of peat, volume of trees and the existence of cutting debris are the most important factors affecting bearing capacity. Spiked shear vane was shown to be a promising tool in predicting the strength properties of peat soil.
  • Uusitalo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@metla.fi (email)
  • Ala-Ilomäki, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jari.ala-ilomaki@metla.fi
article id 920, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Jaakko Repola, Mikko Moilanen, Markku Saarinen. (2012). Seedling establishment on small cutting areas with or without site preparation in a drained spruce mire – a case study in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 5 article id 920. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.920
Keywords: Picea abies; site preparation; canopy gaps; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; seedling establishment; clear-cut
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A large proportion of drained spruce mire stands is currently approaching regeneration maturity in Finland. We studied the effect of cutting – small canopy openings (78, 177, and 314 m2) and small clear-cuts (0.25–0.37 ha) – with or without site preparation (scalping) on the establishment of natural Norway spruce seedlings in one experimental drained spruce mire stand in northern Finland. The cuttings were made in winter 2004–2005 and site preparation with scalping in early June 2005. The experimental design was composed of four blocks with altogether four clear-cuts and 33 canopy openings. The seedling establishment was surveyed annually (2006, 2008–2010) from five circular sample plots (one 10 m2 and four 5 m2 plots in size) located within the canopy openings and from 18 circular 5 m2 sample plots systematically located in the scalped and untreated halves of the clear-cuts. Site preparation was found unnecessary, because it resulted in a clearly lower number of seedlings in the openings. A slight negative effect was also found in the clear-cuts. In the two years following the cuttings, the number of seedlings increased quickly in the canopy openings, but more gradually in the clear-cut areas. In 2010, on average 15 500 new seedlings were observed in the canopy openings and 6700 in the clear-cut areas, of which 5050 and 1200, respectively, were >0.1 m tall spruces. The proportion of birch increased in the last two years, being ca. 22% in the openings and 45% in the clear-cuts in 2010. The spatial distribution of seedlings was more uneven in the clear-cuts than in the openings, with 41% and 20% of survey plots empty, respectively.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Repola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@metla.fi
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Oulu Unit, P.O. Box 413, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: mikko.moilanen@metla.fi
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: markku.saarinen@metla.fi
article id 98, category Research article
Meeri Pearson, Markku Saarinen, Kari Minkkinen, Niko Silvan, Jukka Laine. (2011). Mounding and scalping prior to reforestation of hydrologically sensitive deep-peated sites: factors behind Scots pine regeneration success. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 98. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.98
Keywords: soil preparation; peatland forest regeneration; mound; scalp; Scots pine; OM decomposition; excess moisture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Watering up typically ensues after clearcutting forestry-drained peatland forests. Thus, the effectiveness of maintenance drainage and soil preparation procedures becomes paramount for establishing a new generation of commercial forest. Mounding is the primary method of soil preparation applied in regeneration sites lying on deep peat. As raised planting spots, mounds are resistant to waterlogging and assumed to be beneficial for organic matter (OM) decomposition via, e.g., increased soil aeration and temperature, which would also enhance seedling growth. In recent years, however, less intensive and cheaper alternatives like scalping have been sought with some reported cases of success. Our case study investigated the survival and growth of Scots pine outplants in mounds, scalps, and unprepared microsites along a moisture gradient. After three growing seasons, mounding accelerated neither seedling growth nor OM decomposition relative to the unprepared treatment. Survival in mounds was nonetheless superior overall. Scalps behaved as water collecting depressions leading to a catastrophic regeneration result. Based on our findings, water table level (WTL) overrides other growth-controlling factors in excess moisture conditions. To combat watering up coupled with greater than normal rainfall, we recommend reforestation strategies which provide elevated, prepared planting spots (i.e., mounds) or utilize unprepared, higher microforms.
  • Pearson, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: meeri.pearson@metla.fi (email)
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
  • Minkkinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
  • Silvan, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ns@nn.fi
  • Laine, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
article id 97, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Jaakko Repola, Mikko Moilanen, Markku Saarinen. (2011). Seedling survival and establishment in small canopy openings in drained spruce mires in Northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 97. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.97
Keywords: Picea abies; canopy gaps; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; seedling establishment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A large proportion of drained spruce mire stands is currently approaching regeneration maturity in Finland. Traditional regeneration methods with effective site preparation and planting generally result in satisfactory seedling stands also in spruce mires. However, natural regeneration methods may be more appropriate in protecting watercourses and minimizing regeneration costs. We studied the survival of advance growth and establishment of new seedlings in small canopy openings that were cut at three different diameters in two experimental drained spruce mire stands in Northern Finland (Tervola and Oulu) in 2004. The number of seedlings was repeatedly surveyed from five small circular plots (one 10 m2 and four 5 m2 plots in size) located within the opening. Advance growth which survived the cutting and new seedlings were separated in the surveys. The density of advance growth was on average 9000 ha–1 after cutting, and it decreased by 30% during the five-year monitoring period (2006–2010) due to natural mortality. The number of new seedlings increased rapidly within the three years after cutting the openings. In 2010, 11 000–26 000 new seedlings ha–1 in Tervola and 12 000–16 000 ha–1 in Oulu on average were observed. The size of the opening had no clear effect on the regeneration result. The proportion of birch of the new seedlings increased with time and opening size in Tervola. The results show that Norway spruce regenerates naturally in small canopy openings cut in mature drained spruce mire stands.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Repola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jr@nn.fi
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos Research Unit, Muhos, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Parkano, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
article id 106, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Heli Hyttinen, Hannu Marttila, Juha Jämsen, Bjørn Kløve. (2011). Effect of peak runoff control method on growth of Scots pine stands on drained peatlands in central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 3 article id 106. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.106
Keywords: peatland; forest drainage; stand growth; runoff control; water quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In drained peatland forests ditch networks need regular maintenance operations in order to sustain their drainage capacity. These operations however have a significant impact on the quality of the runoff water from the ditched areas. Peak runoff control (PRC) method has been proposed as a possible method to diminish the load to water courses through retention of the runoff temporarily in the ditch network during maximum runoff events using dams with a plastic control pipe. However, blocking water into the ditched area for periods of varying length during the growing season may have a negative impact on the growth of the tree stands. In this study past stand growth was investigated in Central Finland in altogether 10 sample Scots pine thinning stands in which the PRC method has been applied 5 growing seasons earlier. In each stand, a pair of sample plots was established: one plot next to the dam within the influence of periodic flooding and the other one outside the effect of periodic flooding. For determining stand growth, field measurements were made in August 2009. Stand growth near the dam was on average 0.54 m3 ha-1 a-1 lower than farther away from the dam but the analysis of covariance showed that the dam effect was not significant. The results of this study suggest that the PCR method does not decrease Scots pine stand growth during the first five year growth period after ditch cleaning.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Hyttinen, Metsänhoitoyhdistys Keski-Suomi, Viitasaari, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Marttila, University of Oulu, Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Lab, Oulu, Finland E-mail: hm@nn.fi
  • Jämsen, Forestry Centre Keski-Suomi, Pihtipudas, Finland E-mail: jj@nn.fi
  • Kløve, University of Oulu, Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Lab, Oulu, Finland E-mail: bk@nn.fi
article id 122, category Research article
Benoit Lafleur, Nicole J. Fenton, David Paré, Martin Simard, Yves Bergeron. (2010). Contrasting effects of season and method of harvest on soil properties and the growth of black spruce regeneration in the boreal forested peatlands of eastern Canada. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 122. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.122
Keywords: soil disturbance; peatland; Picea mariana; careful logging; clearcutting; paludification; forest productivity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
It has been suggested that without sufficient soil disturbance, harvest in boreal forested peatlands may accelerate paludification and reduce forest productivity. The objectives of this study were to compare the effects of harvest methods (clearcutting vs. careful logging) and season (summer vs. winter harvest) on black spruce regeneration and growth in boreal forested peatlands of eastern Canada, and to identify the soil variables that favour tree growth following harvest. Moreover, we sought to determine how stand growth following harvest compared with that observed following fire. The average tree height of summer clearcuts was greater than that of summer carefully logged stands and that of all winter harvested sites. Summer clearcutting also resulted in a higher density of trees > 3 m and > 4 m tall and in a 50% reduction in Rhododendron groenlandicum cover, a species associated with reduced black spruce growth. Height growth of sample trees was related to foliar N and P concentrations, and to soil total N, pH and available Ca and Mg but not to harvest method or season. Our results also indicate that summer clearcutting could produce stand productivity levels comparable to those observed after high-severity soil burns. These results suggest that summer clearcutting could be used to restore forest productivity following harvest in forested peatlands, and offer further support to the idea that sufficient levels of soil disturbance may be required to restore productivity in ecosystems undergoing paludification.
  • Lafleur, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: benoit.lafleur@uqat.ca (email)
  • Fenton, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: njf@nn.ca
  • Paré, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du P.E.P.S., P.O. Box 10380, Stn. Sainte-Foy, QC G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: dp@nn.ca
  • Simard, Département de Géographie, Université Laval, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada E-mail: ms@nn.ca
  • Bergeron, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: yb@nn.ca
article id 129, category Research article
Mikko Moilanen, Markku Saarinen, Klaus Silfverberg. (2010). Foliar nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium concentrations of Scots pine in drained mires in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 129. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.129
Keywords: peatland; foliar analysis; drainage; site type; nutrient deficiency
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
An imbalanced nutrient status in Scots pine stands on drained mires is primarily a consequence of excess nitrogen (N) in relation to mineral nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). In this study, the variation of foliar N, P, and K concentrations relative to some site and environmental characteristics was examined. Foliar nutrient concentrations were determined on needle samples collected from mires representing different drainage ages, site types, geographical locations and annual weather conditions. In the overall data (n = 971 samples in 333 stands) the foliar N concentration varied between 6.7 and 24.2 mg g-1, the P concentration between 0.83 and 2.32 mg g-1, and the K concentration between 2.22 and 6.23 mg g-1. The original (pre-drainage) mire site type proved to be an important factor in explaining the nutrient status of the trees: on originally forested sites, the nutrient balance (N versus K; N versus P) was mostly adequate, whereas on sparsely forested and treeless sites, K deficiency was common. N deficiency was the most common in forested ‘nitrogen-poor’ sites, while P and K deficiencies were more common in originally treeless or sparsely forested ‘nitrogen rich’ sites, where the nutrient imbalance was also the greatest. Over the whole data, 29% of the cases were diagnosed to be N-deficient, 51% P-deficient, and 25% K-deficient. The foliar N concentration increased with increasing temperature sum. The foliar K concentration decreased with increasing depth of the peat layer. On former treeless or sparsely forested sites, foliar K decreased slightly with increasing drainage age. In contrast, on thin-peated sites the foliar P concentration increased with increasing drainage age. The climate conditions (location), the original site type of the mire and peat thickness should be taken into account when planning silvicultural measures on mires drained for forestry.
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: mikko.moilanen@metla.fi (email)
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
  • Silfverberg, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Muhos and Parkano Research Units, Finland E-mail: ks@nn.fi
article id 161, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Erkki Ahti, Harri Koivusalo, Tuija Mattsson, Sakari Sarkkola, Ari Laurén. (2010). Export of suspended solids and dissolved elements from peatland areas after ditch network maintenance in south-central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 161. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.161
Keywords: drained peatlands; forestry; ditching; hydrochemistry; nutrient export; suspended solids
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Finland nearly 6 million hectares of peatlands are drained for forestry purposes. Ditch network maintenance in the drained peatlands, i.e. cleaning old ditches or digging complementary ditches, deteriorates surface water quality by increasing the export of dissolved elements and suspended solids (SS). Effect of ditch network maintenance on the export of SS, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and dissolved nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) was studied in nine pairs of treated and control (no maintenance) catchments located in southern and central Finland. In this study we extended the paired catchment approach by combining data from several catchments and identifying the treatment effect on SS and element loads from the entire dataset. Following the method of Laurén et al. (2009) we identified how uncertainty in correlation between treatment and control catchments during pre-treatment period is reflected in the estimated treatment effect on SS and element loads. In the experiment, the export of SS increased significantly for the four year study period following the ditch network maintenance and Al export increased for one year. The export of N, P and Fe was not significantly changed and DOC and Mn export decreased after the ditch maintenance operation.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Ahti, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ea@nn.fi
  • Koivusalo, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 15200, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
  • Mattsson, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
  • Sarkkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ss@nn.fi
  • Laurén, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: al@nn.fi
article id 233, category Research article
Raija Laiho, Sakari Sarkkola, Seppo Kaunisto, Jukka Laine, Kari Minkkinen. (2008). Macroscale variation in peat element concentrations in drained boreal peatland forests. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 4 article id 233. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.233
Keywords: drainage; peat soil; nutrient deficiencies; spatial variation; soil nutrients
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Information on the variation in soil element concentrations at different spatial scales is needed for, e.g., designing efficient sampling strategies, upscaling the processes related to carbon cycling, and planning land use and management. In spite of intensive land use, such information concerning peat soils is still scarce. We analyzed the variation in peat mineral element concentrations in boreal peatland forests drained 50–60 years earlier. We wanted to quantify the proportions of variation deriving from differences between regions and peatland basins and from within-peatland heterogeneity, and to model the variation using relatively easily measurable site and soil characteristics. We utilized 878 peat samples representing the 0–20 cm layer and collected from 289 sites in 79 peatland basins. The sites represented three different drained peatland forest site types. The two strongest gradients in the element composition captured by principal component analysis were correlated with both the North-South gradient and the site type variation, and the East-West gradient. In general, most of the variation in the element concentrations was contributed by differences among peatland basins, and variation within the floristically determined sites. Most of the element concentrations were best modeled when either the bulk density or the ash content of the peat, or both, were used in addition to site type and geographical location. The explanatory power remained modest for most element concentrations. As for the P concentrations in soil, however, our models provide means for estimating a large part of the variation among drained pine mire sites.
  • Laiho, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: raija.laiho@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Sarkkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ss@nn.fi
  • Kaunisto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
  • Laine, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
  • Minkkinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
article id 253, category Research article
Riitta Väänänen, Mika Nieminen, Martti Vuollekoski, Hannu Nousiainen, Tapani Sallantaus, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (2008). Retention of phosphorus in peatland buffer zones at six forested catchments in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 253. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.253
Keywords: peatland; buffer zone area; phosphorus; retention
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Our current knowledge of the P retention efficiency of peatland buffer zone areas used to reduce sediment and nutrient leaching from forestry areas is insufficient. Especially the role of P sorption by soil in buffer zones needs closer examination as there is considerable variation in the efficiency of P retention. Six sites in southern Finland were chosen for the study. The buffer zone areas varied between 0.1–4.9% of the catchment area. A total of 10 kg of solute PO4–P was added to the inflow of the buffer zone areas and the concentrations of PO4–P in inflow and outflow were measured for 2–4 years. P retention characteristics of the surface peat were determined with sorption-desorption isotherms before and after PO4–P addition and the effective buffer zone area over which the added P was spread was determined from soil water samples. P retention in the two largest buffer zone areas was complete (100% retention), and the third largest buffer retained 94%. Retention in the three smallest buffer zones was 24%, 95% and 95% of the added P. As a result of P addition reduction in peat P retention capacity was detected in three out of four cases. The effective buffer zone area varied from 67% to 100% of the total buffer zone area. Factors contributing to efficient P retention were large buffer size and low hydrological load whereas high hydrological load combined with the formation of preferential flow paths, especially during early spring or late autumn was disadvantageous. High P retention capacity in peat contributed to the sustainability of P retention. The study showed that even relatively small buffer zone areas are able to efficiently reduce P load.
  • Väänänen, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: riitta.vaananen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Finland E-mail: mn@nn.fi
  • Vuollekoski, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Finland E-mail: mv@nn.fi
  • Nousiainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Finland E-mail: hn@nn.fi
  • Sallantaus, Finnish Environment Institute, Nature Division, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi
  • Tuittila, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: est@nn.fi
  • Ilvesniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
article id 281, category Research article
Florence Renou-Wilson, Edward P. Farrell. (2007). The use of foliage and soil information for managing the nutrition of Sitka and Norway spruce on cutaway peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 281. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.281
Keywords: fertilization; Picea abies; foliar analysis; long-term trend; Picea sitchensis; cutaway peatland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This investigation focuses on the development and nutrient status of the first Sitka spruce and Norway spruce stands established on milled cutaway peatlands in Ireland in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Phosphatic fertilization at planting is critical for the establishment of trees on cutaway peatlands but may not be sufficient to see the stands close canopy. Results from this study indicate the likely demand for P and N fertilizer during the rotation of these plantations. During the ten-year-study period (1994–2004), the nutrient status of both Norway and Sitka spruce stands deteriorated with the passage of time. Twenty-seven out of the twenty-eight examined stands became P deficient before 10 years old and half of the plots were N deficient within 13 to 15 years. Sitka spruce stands became N and P deficient earlier than Norway spruce. Regardless of species, tree stands growing on Sphagnum peat entered the critical N deficiency threshold sooner and were all severely deficient by 2004 compared to 22% of the trees growing on Phragmites peat. The effects of aerial re-fertilization were also site specific and although P deficiency was cured, the trees were likely to suffer from nutrient imbalance (N and Cu especially). These results demand a change of standard fertilization practices, which should be related more specifically to peat type and species requirements. Peat type identification and foliar analysis monitoring should become standard management tools while the long-term continuous monitoring of these new forests would be very valuable throughout their first rotation.
  • Renou-Wilson, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland E-mail: frw@nn.ie (email)
  • Farrell, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland E-mail: epf@nn.ie
article id 280, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Mikko Moilanen, Sirpa Piirainen. (2007). Phosphorus allocation in surface soil of two drained peatland forests following wood and peat ash application – why effective adsorption on low sorptive soils? Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 280. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.280
Keywords: forestry; ash fertilization; peat; aluminium; iron; phosphorus adsorption; phosphorus fractionation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fertilization of drained peatland forests with wood ash and different commercial phosphorus fertilizers (calcium phosphates) generally give similar stand growth responses. However, it has been shown that use of calcium phosphate fertilizers generally lead to highly increased P release to recipient water courses. On the other hand, no corresponding release has been reported after ash fertilization. Soil samples from the surface peats from a nutrient poor and a fertile drained peatland site were collected before and 1–4 years after application of five different types of ash products. The changes over time in the different chemical forms of P in the substrate were studied. The results indicated that the reason for the low liability to leaching of ash fertilizers was that significant amounts of P are adsorbed by Al and Fe during weathering of the ash fertilizers. However, further studies are needed to clarify whether the adsorption of P occurs with the Al and Fe of the ash or the native Al and Fe compounds present in soil before ash fertilization.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Piirainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
article id 300, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Sakari Sarkkola, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2007). Comparing regression estimation techniques when predicting diameter distributions of Scots pine on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 300. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.300
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; drained peatland; dbh distribution; Johnson’s SB function; regression estimation methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We compared different statistical methods for fitting linear regression models to a longitudinal data of breast height diameter (dbh) distributions of Scots pine dominated stands on drained peatlands. The parameter prediction methods for two parameters of Johnson’s SB distribution, fitted to basal-area dbh distributions, were: 1) a linear model estimated by ordinary least squares (OLS), 2) a multivariate linear model estimated using the seemingly unrelated regression approach (SUR), 3) a linear mixed-effects model with random intercept (MIX), and 4) a multivariate mixed-effects model (MSUR). The aim was to clarify the effect of taking into account the hierarchy of the data, as well as simultaneous estimation of the correlated dependent variables on the model fit and predictions. Instead of the reliability of the predicted parameters, we focused on the reliability of the models in predicting stand conditions. Predicted distributions were validated in terms of bias, RMSE, and error deviation in the generated quantities of the growing stock. The study material consisted of 112 successively measured stands from 12 experimental areas covering the whole of Finland (total of 608 observations). Two independent test data sets were used for model validation. All the advanced regression techniques were superior to OLS, when exactly the same independent stand variables were included. SUR and MSUR were ranked the overall best and second best, respectively. Their ranking was the same in the modeling data, whereas MSUR was superior in the peatland test data and SUR in the mineral soil test data. The ranking of the models was logical, but may not be widely generalized. The SUR and MSUR models were considered to be relevant tools for practical forest management planning purposes over a variety of site types and stand structures.
  • Siipilehto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@metla.fi (email)
  • Sarkkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ss@nn.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
article id 340, category Research article
Petteri Muukkonen, Raisa Mäkipää, Raija Laiho, Kari Minkkinen, Harri Vasander, Leena Finér. (2006). Relationship between biomass and percentage cover in understorey vegetation of boreal coniferous forests. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 340. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.340
Keywords: upland soils; peatlands; biomass models; ground vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the present study, the aboveground biomass of the understorey vegetation of boreal coniferous forests was modelled according to the percentage cover. A total of 224 observations from 22 stands in upland forests and 195 observations from 14 different studies in peatland forests were utilized for the present analyses. The relationships between biomass and percentage cover can be used in ecosystem and carbon-cycle modelling as a rapid nondestructive method for estimation of the aboveground biomass of lichens, bryophytes, herbs and grasses, and dwarf shrubs in upland forests and bottom and field layers in peatland forests.
  • Muukkonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: petteri.muukkonen@metla.fi (email)
  • Mäkipää, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: rm@nn.fi
  • Laiho, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: rl@nn.fi
  • Minkkinen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
  • Vasander, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hv@nn.fi
  • Finér, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lf@nn.fi
article id 371, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Erkki Ahti, Hannu Nousiainen, Samuli Joensuu, Martti Vuollekoski. (2005). Capacity of riparian buffer zones to reduce sediment concentrations in discharge from peatlands drained for forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 3 article id 371. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.371
Keywords: ditching; suspended solids; peatlands; erosion; riparian buffer zones; water quality protection
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In 1995–2001, the efficiency of riparian buffer zone areas to reduce the concentrations of suspended solids in discharge from peatlands drained for forestry purposes was studied at 7 locations in south-central Finland. The two largest buffer zones reduced the concentrations of suspended solids by > 70%. The efficiency of the three medium-sized buffer zones to reduce through-flow sediment concentrations was 50–60%, but no reduction occurred at the smallest two buffer areas. Thus, the capacity of buffer zones to reduce sediment concentrations was strongly related to their size. However, significant correlations were also found between reduction capacity and inflow water sediment concentrations, although the correlations at the two smallest buffer zones were low. The use of buffer zones in reducing sediment load from peatlands drained for forestry purposes is recommended, but relatively large areas for efficient removal capacity are needed.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Ahti, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ea@nn.fi
  • Nousiainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hn@nn.fi
  • Joensuu, Forestry Development Centre Tapio, Soidinkuja 4, FI-00700 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sj@nn.fi
  • Vuollekoski, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mv@nn.fi
article id 408, category Research article
Sakari Sarkkola, Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (2004). Natural development of stand structure in peatland Scots pine following drainage: results based on long-term monitoring of permanent sample plots. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 408. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.408
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; tree mortality; stand structure; drainage; dbh distribution
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied the dynamics of stand structure on drained peatland sites in Scots pine dominated stands untreated with thinnings. The data consisted of consecutive stand measurements in 10 permanent sample plots where the monitoring periods varied from 29 to 66 years. We assumed that the stand’s structural development was driven by the natural processes of regeneration, growth, and mortality, all related to inter-tree competition within the stand. The DBH distributions of live and dead trees at different times of post-drainage stand development – smoothed by Weibull function – were analysed to characterise the change in stand structure. The initial uneven-sized structure of the natural, widely-spaced stands became more uneven during the first decades following drainage due to enhanced regeneration. Later, as stand density and mean tree size continuously increased, the DBH distributions approached bell-shaped distributions. Accordingly, the suppressed trees showed their highest mortality rate during the first decades, but the peak of the mortality distribution shifted to larger trees along stand succession. The change in structure was faster in southern Finland than in northern Finland. We assumed the changes in stand dynamics reflected increased inter-tree competition, initiated by enhanced site productivity and increased stand stocking resulting from the ditching operation.
  • Sarkkola, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.sarkkola@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 407, category Research article
Soili Kojola, Timo Penttilä, Raija Laiho. (2004). Impacts of different thinning regimes on the yield of uneven-structured Scots pine stands on drained peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 407. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.407
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; stand structure; silviculture; growth and yield; peatland forestry; intermediate cuttings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Drained peatlands in northern Europe comprise more than 10 million ha of forestland and thus constitute a considerable production potential in forestry. Much of this area consists of stands dominated by Scots pine and close to maturity regarding commercial thinning. The trees within these stands typically vary in terms of age, size, and growth rate. The impacts of silvicultural cuttings on these uneven-structured stands are inadequately known. We simulated the impacts of a control regime with no thinnings, and three different thinning regimes, involving different thinning intensities, on the development of fifteen pine-dominated stands in Finland. The simulations started from the first thinnings and were continued until regeneration maturity. The predicted total yields ranged from 244 to 595 m3 ha–1, depending on site and thinning regime. The highest total yields were observed for the control regime in which 18–38% of the yield was, however, predicted to self-thin by the end of the simulation. Thus, the differences in the yields of merchantable wood were fairly small among the compared regimes. However, the regimes involving thinnings generally needed less time than the control regime to reach regeneration maturity. The mean annual increment of total stem volume was at its highest in the control regime. The highest mean annual increment of merchantable wood was obtained in the regime involving two moderate thinnings, but excluding the most low-productive sites where thinnings did not increase the yield of merchantable wood.
  • Kojola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: soili.kojola@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Laiho, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: rl@nn.fi
article id 413, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Timo Penttilä. (2004). Inorganic and organic phosphorus fractions in peat from drained mires in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 413. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.413
Keywords: tree growth; drained peatland forests; phosphorus availability; sequential fractionation; site type classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Soil samples from 15 eutrophic, 26 herb-rich, 15 tall-sedge, and 11 low-sedge drained peatland sites were analysed for easily soluble and aluminum, iron, and calcium bound phosphorus (P) using the Chang and Jackson sequential fractionation method. Compared to earlier investigations, where only total and easily soluble P contents (e.g. NH4OAc or dilute H2SO4 extractable P) in peat have been analysed, significantly higher differences between sites were observed. The eutrophic sites were characterized by four to six-fold greater Ca-bound organic P and two to three-fold greater Ca-bound inorganic P contents than on the other three site type groups, whereas the average Al-bound inorganic P content of the eutrophic sites was only one-third of that at the other site types. Substantial differences between sites were also observed for Fe-bound inorganic P, i.e. two to four-fold greater Fe-P contents were measured at the herb-rich sites compared with the other three site type groups. The stand volume growth in the 67 studied drained peatland sites correlated significantly with Al-bound organic P and Fe-bound inorganic and organic P. The study showed that a detailed fractionation and discrimination of different forms of soil P is important in increasing the understanding of the relationship between P availability and vegetation community types and stand growth on drained peatlands.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 422, category Research article
Mika Nieminen. (2004). Export of dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus following clear-cutting of three Norway spruce forests growing on drained peatlands in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 2 article id 422. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.422
Keywords: hydrochemistry; forest regeneration; peatland forestry; leaching; nutrient losses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effect of clear-cutting on the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), organic nitrogen (DON), NH4+, NO3–, and P in outflow water from three productive, Norway spruce dominated drained peatlands (RCC, VCC-1, VCC-2) were studied. Changes in runoff and transport loads (concentration x runoff) at two of the catchments during the frost-free period are also presented. Approximately 40% of the area was cut at RCC and VCC-2, and 72% at VCC-1. The volume removed was 250 m3 ha–1 at RCC, 259 m3 ha–1 at VCC-1, and for VCC-2, 317 m3 ha–1. The mean annual increase in outflow concentrations of DOC during the first four years after clear-cutting was 9.0 mg l–1 at RCC, 22.8 mg l–1 at VCC-1 and 8.4 mg l–1 at VCC-2. Corresponding increases in the forms of nitrogen were: 0.23, 0.51 and 0.16 mg DON l–1; 0.06, 0.31 and 0.04 mg NH4+-N l–1; and 0.05, 0.12 and 0.22 mg NO3–-N l–1. Clear-cutting did not significantly (p > 0.05) increase P concentrations. The increase in non-frost season runoff over the first three years after clear-cutting was 107 mm at RCC and 207 mm at VCC-1. The export loads of DOC during the non-frost season increased by 80 kg ha–1 at RCC and by 184 kg ha–1 at VCC-1 over the first three years. Corresponding increases for the other studied solutes were: 1.78 and 3.98 kg DON ha–1; 0.39 and 1.49 kg NH4+-N ha–1; 0.45 and 0.48 kg NO3–-N ha–1, and 0.09 and 0.06 kg P ha–1. The study demonstrated that clear-cutting may significantly increase the export of DOC and different forms of nitrogen from drained productive peatlands while only small increases in phosphorus export may occur.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
article id 433, category Research article
Raija Laiho, Timo Penttilä, Jukka Laine. (2004). Variation in soil nutrient concentrations and bulk density within peatland forest sites. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 1 article id 433. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.433
Keywords: thinning; drainage; peat soil; spatial variation; nutrients; bulk density; sampling; variance components
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The within-site variability of soil characteristics on sites with different soil types remains poorly quantified, although this information is crucial for the success of research on soil properties, and especially for monitoring soil properties over time. We used coefficients of variation and multilevel variance component models to examine the within-site variation of soil (0–30 cm) mineral nutrient concentrations (P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, mg g–1; Mn, Zn, mg g–1) and bulk density (kg m–3) on boreal deep-peat sites. We then evaluated the reliability of the site-level estimates (sample means) obtained using different sampling intensities (numbers of samples per site). Our 11 sites represented a single original site type within the oligotrophic nutrient level. Two of the sites were undrained while the rest had been drained for forestry at different points in time. Overall, P concentrations showed the smallest and Mn concentrations the largest within-site variation. The sampling depth contributed more than 50% of the total variance in all other characteristics except the concentrations of P and Fe, and bulk density. The variance proportions of peatland basin, site (within basin), and sampling location (within site) varied by sampling depth for most soil characteristics. The estimates obtained when using a certain number of samples per site were always more reliable for the 0–30 cm layer’s composite samples than for any single 10-cm layer at any depth sampled. On average, it was found that between 4 (P) and some 200 (Mn) samples per site would be needed for the estimates to have a theoretical 10% maximum deviation.
  • Laiho, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Peatland Ecology Group, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: raija.laiho@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Laine, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Peatland Ecology Group, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
article id 494, category Research article
Antero Varhimo, Soili Kojola, Timo Penttilä, Raija Laiho. (2003). Quality and yield of pulpwood in drained peatland forests: pulpwood properties of Scots pine in stands of first commercial thinnings. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.494
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; thinning; silviculture; pulpwood; fiber; pulping
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The inherent structural dynamics of drained peatland forests may result in a great variation in various wood and fiber properties. We examined variation in fiber and pulp properties i) among stands, ii) among trees within stands, and iii) within trees in young stands dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The stands, selected to cover a maximal range of the potential variation, were all at a stage of development where the first commercial thinnings would be feasible. Differences in the processability of the thinning removals were small. In similar kraft cooking conditions, a 5-unit variation in the kappa number of unbleached pulp was observed among the stands. Stand origin had no effect on pulp bleaching. The wood formed prior to drainage had a higher density, shorter fibers, was slightly slower delignified by cooking, and its yield was slightly lower than that of post-drainage wood. These properties, except for high density, are typical for juvenile wood in general, and at stand level they did not correlate with the proportion of pre-drainage wood. When the variation in fiber and pulp properties was broken down into its components, most of it was derived from tree-level in all the cases. On average, the fiber and pulp properties did not differ from those observed for first-thinning pulpwood from upland sites. Consequently, peatland-grown pulpwood may be mixed with other pulpwood in industrial processes. It would probably be best suited as the raw material for pulps with high bonding requirements, e.g. in the top ply of multi-ply board grades or in some specialty grades.
  • Varhimo, KCL, P.O. Box 70, FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland E-mail: antero.varhimo@kcl.fi (email)
  • Kojola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
  • Laiho, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: raija.laiho@helsinki.fi
article id 492, category Research article
Seppo Kaunisto, Tytti Sarjala. (2003). Foliar potassium concentrations of bilberry, bog bilberry and downy birch as indicators of potassium nutrition of Scots pine on a drained peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.492
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; foliar analysis; dormancy; B. pubescens; deficiency; deficiency limit; needle analysis; potassium; putrescine; V. myrtillus; V. uliginosum
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Leaves of bilberry (V. myrtillus), bog bilberry (V. uliginosum) and downy birch (B. pubescens) were collected five times during a growing season from 18 plots in a drainage area, and needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) once during the following winter from the same plots at Parkano, southern Finland. The aim was to study the potassium nutrition of the test plants and relationships between the foliar potassium concentrations of Scots pine and of the test plants. The estimation of the potassium nutrition of test plants was based on the accumulation of putrescine in foliage. Apart from single observations, elevated putrescine concentrations were found when the potassium concentrations were < 5 mg g–1 in bilberry, < 4 mg g–1 in bog bilberry and < 6 mg g–1 in downy birch, and the highest concentrations below the potassium levels of 3.0–3.5 mg g–1. At the concentrations of 2–3 mg g–1 the accumulation increased pronouncedly in bog bilberry but less in downy birch and only slightly in bilberry. The foliar potassium concentrations in test plants correlated closely with the concentrations in pine needles. The concentrations of all species in August were quite stable at the levels of the severe and slight potassium deficiency of pine (3.5 and 4.5 mg g–1 respectively) indicating that August would be suitable for collecting foliage. The concentrations in bog bilberry were very close to the concentrations in pine at the severe and those in bilberry at the slight deficiency level of pine. All test plants could be used for predicting the potassium nutrition of Scots pine, but additional research is needed for the practical application of the method.
  • Kaunisto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Station, Kaironiementie 54, FIN-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: seppo.kaunisto@metla.fi (email)
  • Sarjala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Station, Kaironiementie 54, FIN-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi
article id 504, category Research article
Sylvain Jutras, Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Hannu Salminen. (2003). Modeling mortality of individual trees in drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 504. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.504
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pubescens; simulation; peatlands; mortality; generalized linear mixed models; multilevel models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Multilevel logistic regression models were constructed to predict the 5-year mortality of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) growing in drained peatland stands in northern and central Finland. Data concerning tree mortality were obtained from two successive measurements of the National Forest Inventory-based permanent sample plot data base covering pure and mixed stands of Scots pine and pubescent birch. In the modeling data, Scots pine showed an average observed mortality of 2.73% compared to 2.98% for pubescent birch. In the model construction, stepwise logistic regression and multilevel models methods were applied, the latter making it possible to address the hierarchical data, thus obtaining unbiased estimates for model parameters. For both species, mortality was explained by tree size, competitive position, stand density, species admixture, and site quality. The expected need for ditch network maintenance or re-paludification did not influence mortality. The multilevel models showed the lowest bias in the modeling data. The models were further validated against independent test data and by embedding them in a stand simulator. In 100-year simulations with different initial stand conditions, the models resulted in a 72% and 66% higher total mortality rate for the stem numbers of pine and birch, respectively, compared to previously used mortality models. The developed models are expected to improve the accuracy of stand forecasts in drained peatland sites.
  • Jutras, Département des sciences du bois et de la forêt, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, Québec, G1K 7P4, Canada E-mail: sj@nn.ca
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Alenius, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: va@nn.fi
  • Salminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 503, category Research article
Jyrki Hytönen. (2003). Effects of wood, peat and coal ash fertilization on Scots pine foliar nutrient concentrations and growth on afforested former agricultural peat soils. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 503. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.503
Keywords: wood ash; afforestation; Scots pine; vegetation control; herbicides; coal ash; peat ash; peat soils
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of ash and commercial fertilizers on the foliar nutrient concentrations and stand growth of Scots pine were studied in four field experiments established on former cultivated peat soils. The aims were to compare ash types (wood, peat and coal ash), study the effects of ash treatment (pelletization), compare ash fertilization with commercial fertilizers, and to study the interaction between ash fertilization and weed control. Foliar samples were collected 1–3 years and 7–8 years after fertilization. In the unfertilized plots, the foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were fairly high, while those of potassium were low in all the experiments. The boron levels were low in three out of the four experiments. Application of either loose or pelletized wood ash, as well as of commercial fertilizers, increased foliar potassium and boron concentrations, and thus successfully remedied the existing nutrient imbalances and deficiencies. Since phosphorus deficiencies are rarely encountered on field afforestation sites, poor-quality wood ash with low phosphorus concentration could be used. Peat ash containing phosphorus, but only small amounts of potassium and boron, was not found to be very suitable for soil amelioration in connection with field afforestation. Coal ash, containing only small amounts of potassium, was a good source of boron for pine even when used in small amounts, and thus it can be used in cases where boron deficiencies alone are encountered. Wood ash significantly increased the height growth of Scots pines in two of the experiments, but peat ash and coal ash had no statistically significant effect. Wood ash increased the number of healthy seedlings. Vegetation control decreased seedling mortality by 24%, increased the growth of pine and decreased the proportion of trees damaged by elk and by deciduous trees.
  • Hytönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@metla.fi (email)
article id 512, category Research article
Juha-Pekka Hotanen. (2003). Multidimensional site description of peatlands drained for forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 512. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.512
Keywords: site index; vegetation; diversity; classification; macronutrients; ordination; peat properties
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Hotanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@metla.fi (email)
article id 603, category Research article
Kari Minkkinen, Jukka Laine, Hannu Hökkä. (2001). Tree stand development and carbon sequestration in drained peatland stands in Finland – a simulation study. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 603. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.603
Keywords: carbon; peatland; drainage; growth models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Drained peatland forests form an important timber resource in Finland. They also form a sink for atmospheric carbon (C) because of the increased growth and C sequestration rates following drainage. These rates have, however, been poorly quantified. We simulated the tree stand dynamics for drained peatland stands with and without cuttings over two stand rotations. Simulations were done on four peatland site types and two regions in Finland with different climatic conditions, using recently published peatland tree growth models applied in a stand simulator. We then calculated the amount of C stored in the stands on the basis of previously published tree-level biomass and C content models. Finally, we developed regression models to estimate C stores in the tree stands using stand stem volume as the predictor variable. In the managed stands, the mean growth (annual volume increment) ranged from 2 to 9 m3 ha–1 a–1, depending on the rotation (first/second), site type and region. Total yield during one rotation varied from 250 to 920 m3 ha–1. The maximum stand volumes varied from 220 to 520 m3 ha–1 in the managed stands and from 360 to 770 m3 ha–1 in the unmanaged. By the end of the first post-drainage rotation the total C store in the managed stands had increased by 6–12 kg C m–2 (i.e. 45–140 g C m–2 a–1) compared to that in the undrained situation. Averaged over two rotations, the increase in the total C store was 3–6 kg C m–2. In the corresponding unmanaged stands the C stores increased by 8–15 kg m–2 over the same periods. At stand level, the C stores were almost linearly related to the stem volume and the developed regression equations could explain the variation in the simulated C stores almost entirely.
  • Minkkinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.minkkinen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Laine, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
article id 636, category Research article
Tuula Nuutinen, Hannu Hirvelä, Jari Hynynen, Kari Härkönen, Hannu Hökkä, Kari T. Korhonen, Olli Salminen. (2000). The role of peatlands in Finnish wood production – an analysis based on large-scale forest scenario modelling. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 636. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.636
Keywords: peatlands; MELA; wood production; forest scenario modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Using the Finnish MELA model, a set of scenarios were produced and used to map the possibilities and risks surrounding the utilisation of peatlands in wood production in Finland. One of the scenarios was an estimate of allowable-cut calculated by maximising the net present value of the future revenues using a four per cent interest rate subject to non-decreasing flow of wood, saw logs and net income over a 50-year period, and net present value after the 50 year period greater or equal than in the beginning. The estimate for maximum regionally sustained removal in 1996–2005 was 68 million m3 per year – approaching 74 million m3 during the next decades. In this scenario, 14 per cent of all cuttings during the period 1996–2005 would be made on peatlands, which comprise ca. 31 per cent of the total area of forestry land. By the year 2025, the proportion of peatland cuttings would increase to over 20 per cent. The increase in future cutting possibilities on peatlands compensated for a temporary decrease in cuttings and growing stock on mineral soils. The allowable-cut effect was especially pronounced in northern Finland, where peatlands play an important role in wood production. In addition, the sensitivity of cutting possibilities for assumptions related to growth and price were analysed. The estimate of maximum sustainable yield as defined here seems to be fairly robust on the whole, except in northern Finland where the cutting scenarios were sensitive to the changes in the price of birch pulpwood. The proportion of peatland stands that are profitable for timber production depends on the interest rate: the higher the rate of interest the less peatland stands are thinned. The effect of cutting profile on future logging conditions and resulting costs were analysed in two forestry centres. If clear cuttings on mineral soils are to be cut first, an increase in future logging costs is inevitable.
  • Nuutinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tuula.nuutinen@metla.fi (email)
  • Hirvelä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Hynynen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Härkönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kh@nn.fi
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Salminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: os@nn.fi
article id 656, category Research article
Klaus Silfverberg, Markus Hartman. (1999). Effects of different phosphorus fertilisers on the nutrient status and growth of Scots pine stands on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 3 article id 656. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.656
Keywords: needles; Scots pine; stand growth; drainage; phosphorus; peat; fertilisation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of the study was to compare the effects of phosphorus fertilisers of different solubility and different phosphorus doses. The material was collected from 8 field experiments situated on drained peatlands in southern and central Finland (60°–65°N). The sites were drained, oligotrophic pine fens and pine bogs, which had been fertilised between 1961 and 1977 with different combinations of N, K and P. In 1991–94 stand measurements and foliar and peat sampling were carried out on 162 sample plots. Apatite, rock phosphate and superphosphate affected basal area growth to a rather similar extent. However, apatite slightly surpassed superphosphate and rock phosphate at the end of the study period in two hollow-rich S. fuscum bogs. Higher doses of phosphorus did not significantly increase the basal area growth. The foliar phosphorus concentrations clearly reflected the effect of the P fertilisation. Especially on the pine bogs basic fertilisation with 66 kg P/ha maintained the needle phosphorus concentrations at a satisfactory level for more than 25 years after fertilisation. The amount of phosphorus in the 0–20 cm peat layer was not significantly increased either by basic fertilisation or refertilisation. The phosphorus reserves in the peat in the individual experiments were between 88 and 327 kg/ha. There was a strong correlation between the amounts of phosphorus and iron in the peat. Large amounts of iron in peat may reduce the solubility and availability of phosphorus. According to the foliar phosphorus concentrations in the basic-fertilised plots, the need for refertilisation seems to be unnecessary during the 25-year postfertilisation period at least. None of the basic fertilisation treatments seriously retarded the basal area growth compared to the refertilised treatments. There seems to be a greater shortage of potassium than of phosphorus, because the foliar potassium concentrations and the amounts of potassium in the 0–20 cm peat layer were very low in several of the experiments.
  • Silfverberg, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: klaus.silfverberg@metla.fi (email)
  • Hartman, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mh@nn.fi

Category : Review article

article id 1416, category Review article
Ulf Sikström, Hannu Hökkä. (2015). Interactions between soil water conditions and forest stands in boreal forests with implications for ditch network maintenance. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 1416. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1416
Keywords: peatland; forest drainage; conifers; tree growth; drainage intensity; ditch deterioration; forest water use; ground-water table; profitability
Highlights: Ditch network maintenance (DNM) may influence soil water conditions less than initial ditching due to reduced hydraulic conductivity of the peat; Stand stocking and management substantially influence soil-water conditions; DNM can lower the GWL and increase tree growth; DNM growth responses of 0.5–1.8 m3 ha–1 yr–1 during 15–20-years in Scots pine peatland stands reported; Greatest need for DNM in the early phase of a stand rotation; Need for better understanding of the link between soil water and tree growth.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

At sites with either peat or mineral soils in large areas of boreal forests, high soil-water contents hamper tree growth and drainage can significantly increase growth. Hence, areas covering about 15 × 106 ha of northern peatlands and wet mineral soils have been drained for forestry purposes. Usually ditches gradually deteriorate, thus reducing their functionality as drains, and ditch-network maintenance (DNM) might be needed to maintain stand growth rates enabled by the original ditching. This article reviews current knowledge on establishing the need for DNM in boreal forest stands, subsequent growth responses, and the financial outcome of the activity. The issues covered in the review are: (i) ditching, changes in ditches over time and the need for DNM; (ii) interactions between soil water and both stand properties and stand management; (iii) ground-water level (GWL) and tree growth responses to DNM; and (iv) financial viability of DNM. Conclusions about the current understanding of issues related to DNM are drawn and implications for DNM in practice are summarized. Finally, gaps in knowledge are identified and research needs are suggested.

  • Sikström, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ulf.sikstrom@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi

Category : Research note

article id 71, category Research note
Jaana Luoranen, Heli Viiri. (2012). Soil preparation reduces pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) damage on both peatland and mineral soil sites one year after planting. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 71. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.71
Keywords: mineral soil; peatland; pine weevil; soil preparation; vole
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied pine weevil (Hylobius abietis (L.)) feeding damage to Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings planted in regeneration areas located on peatlands or on mineral soil sites in Southern and Central Finland. The survey included two planting years and a total of 60 regeneration areas (40 areas on peatlands and 20 on mineral soil sites). Some sites classified as peatland were as transformed or transforming drained peatlands that also contained mineral soil on a prepared surface. The soil preparation method, type of surface material around a seedling, pine weevil, vole-induced or other damage and the health of each seedling were observed in systematically selected circular sample plots. There was slightly more pine weevil damage on peatland than on mineral soil sites. More seedlings were damaged on unprepared peat and humus than on a prepared surface. Seedlings surrounded by a prepared surface had a slightly greater risk of being gnawed by pine weevil when planted on prepared peat compared to planting on prepared mineral soil. Vole damage was observed only in one region during one year. Mounded areas had slightly less vole damage than patched areas. In order to reduce damage caused by pine weevils and voles, it is important to scarify the regeneration area properly before insecticide-treated seedlings are planted. Mounding and patching are recommended so that seedlings can be planted in mineral soil whenever possible, even in the case of peatlands.
  • Luoranen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: jaana.luoranen@metla.fi (email)
  • Viiri, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hv@nn.fi

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