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Silva Fennica 1926-1997
1990-1997
1980-1989
1970-1979
1960-1969
Acta Forestalia Fennica
1953-1968
1933-1952
1913-1932

Articles containing the keyword 'rest'

Category : Article

article id 5638, category Article
Markku Tykkyläinen, Pentti Hyttinen, Ari Mononen. (1997). Theories of regional development and their relevance to the forest sector. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5638. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8540
Keywords: forest policy; forest economics; regional development; restructuring; resource community; geography
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper elaborates upon various theories to explain economic development and restructuring in the forested regions of advanced countries. The concepts of communities based on the forest sector and the concept of restructuring are discussed before presenting the diversity of relevant theories. Different theoretical approaches in geography and regional and socio-economic sciences are analysed, and the paper concludes that each theory gives only a partial explanation of restructuring under certain conditions. This paper recommends that an explanatory framework should take into account – in addition to general explanatory factors – sectoral, local-specific and policy-related factors and the role of human agency in attempts to explain restructuring and development.

  • Tykkyläinen, E-mail: mt@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hyttinen, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Mononen, E-mail: am@mm.unknown
article id 5637, category Article
Janne Uuttera, Harri Hyppänen. (1997). Relationship between forest management planning units and spatial distribution of forest habitat components in Koli National Park. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5637. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8539
Keywords: Finland; forest management planning; forest habitat distribution; Geographic Information Systems; kriging-interpolation; Koli National park
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study examined the relationships between forest management planning units and patches formed by forest habitat components. The test area used was a part of Koli National Park in North Karelia, eastern Finland. Forest management planning units (i.e. forest compartments) were defined by using a traditional method of Finnish forestry which applies aerial photographs and compartment-wise field inventory. Patches of forest habitat components were divided according to subjective rules by using a chosen set of variables depicting the edaphic features and vegetation of a forest habitat. The spatial distribution of the habitat components was estimated with the kriging-interpolation based on systematically located sample plots. The comparisons of the two patch mosaics were made by using the standard tools of GIS. The results of the study show that forest compartment division does not correlate very strongly with the forest habitat pattern. On average, the mean patch size of the forest habitat components is greater and the number of these patches lower compared to forest compartment division. However, if the forest habitat component distribution had been considered, the number of the forest compartments would have at least doubled after intersection.

  • Uuttera, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hyppänen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
article id 5636, category Article
Timo Pukkala, Jyrki Kangas, Matleena Kniivilä, Anne-Mari Tiainen. (1997). Integrating forest-level and compartment-level indices of species diversity with numerical forest planning. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 4 article id 5636. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8538
Keywords: simulation; heuristics; biodiversity conservation; forestry decision-making; environmental planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study proposes a technique which enables the computation of user-defined indices for species diversity. These indices are derived from characteristics, called diversity indicators, of inventory plots, stand compartments, and the whole forest holding. The study discusses the modifications required to be made to typical forest planning systems due to this kind of biodiversity computation. A case study illustrating the use of the indices and a modified forest planning system is provided. In the case study, forest-level species diversity index was computed from the volume of dead wood, volume of broadleaved trees, area of old forest, and between-stand variety.

At the stand level, the area of old forest was replaced by stand age, and variety was described by within-stand variety. All but one of the indicators were further partitioned into two to four sub-indicators. For example, the volume of broadleaved trees was divided into volumes of birch, aspen, willow, and other tree species. The partial contribution of an indicator to the diversity index was obtained from a sub-priority function, determined separately for each indicator. The diversity index was obtained when the partial contributions were multiplied by the weights of the corresponding indicators and then were summed. The production frontiers computed for the harvested volume and diversity indices were concave, especially for the forest-level diversity index, indicating that diversity can be maintained at satisfactory level with medium harvest levels.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Kniivilä, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
  • Tiainen, E-mail: at@mm.unknown
article id 5616, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Timo Penttilä. (1997). Individual-tree basal area growth models for Scots pine, pubescent birch and Norway spruce on drained peatlands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5616. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8517
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; site quality; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; forest drainage; mixed models; peatlands; growth models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models for individual-tree basal area growth were constructed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) growing in drained peatland stands. The data consisted of two separate sets of permanent sample plots forming a large sample of drained peatland stands in Finland. The dependent variable in all models was the 5-year basal area growth of a tree. The independent tree-level variables were tree dbh, tree basal area, and the sum of the basal area of trees larger than the target tree. Independent stand-level variables were stand basal area, the diameter of the tree of median basal area, and temperature sum. Categorical variables describing the site quality, as well as the condition and age of drainage, were used. Differences in tree growth were used as criteria in reclassifying the a priori site types into new yield classes by tree species. All models were constructed as mixed linear models with a random stand effect. The models were tested against the modelling data and against independent data sets.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Alenius, E-mail: va@mm.unknown
  • Penttilä, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5615, category Article
Andrew P. Robinson, Timothy G. Gregoire, Harry T. Valentine. (1997). Cut-off importance sampling of bole volume. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5615. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8516
Keywords: Monte Carlo methods; forest mensuration; mean-square error; two-stage sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Cut-off importance sampling (CIS) is introduced as a means of sampling individual trees for the purpose of estimating bole volume. The novel feature of this variant of importance sampling is the establishment on the bole of a cut-off height, HC, above which sampling is precluded. An estimator of bole volume between predetermined heights HL and HU > HC is proposed, and its design-based bias and mean square error are derived. In an application of CIS as the second stage of a two-stage sample to estimate aggregate bole volume, the gain in precision realized from CIS more than offset its bias when compared to the precision of importance sampling when HC = HU.

  • Robinson, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
  • Gregoire, E-mail: tg@mm.unknown
  • Valentine, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown
article id 5614, category Article
Mika Jääskelä, Kari Heliövaara, Mikko Peltonen, Hannu Saarenmaa. (1997). Comparison of protection methods of pine stacks against Tomicus piniperda. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5614. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8515
Keywords: forest protection; GIS; Tomicus piniperda; timber storage; insect pests; road side landings of timber; pulpwood stacks; protection of timber
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Three most promising protection methods of pine pulp wood stacks against the attacks of Tomicus piniperda L. were compared. The methods were the covering of stacks by fibreglass-strengthened paper or twofold achrylene netting, removing the upper parts of stacks, and enhanced planning of the placement of the timber store using ARC/INFO GIS-software. T. piniperda was observed to strongly prefer the upper parts of the stacks: 90 % of the beetles occurred within 0.5 meters of the top of the stacks. Covering of the stacks decreased the attack density of T. piniperda, and the protection effect of covering was 80 %. Due to long transport distances and fragmentation of forest landscape the relocation of timber store was found to be an unsuitable method in the practical level. Also, taking into account the costs of the method, removing of the upper parts of stacks was considered to be the optimal solution.

  • Jääskelä, E-mail: mj@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
  • Peltonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
  • Saarenmaa, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 5613, category Article
Mikko Peltonen, Kari Heliövaara, Rauno Väisänen. (1997). Forest insects and environmental variation in stand edges. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 5613. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8514
Keywords: forest management; bark beetles; biodiversity; distribution; edge effect; forest ecology; occurrence
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Distribution and occurrence of bark beetles and other forest insects in relation to environmental variation were analysed by multivariate methods. Eight different forest edges were studied using 10 x 10 m sample plots that formed 200 m linear transects perpendicular to the forest edge. Forest edge affected the distribution of insect species only in the edges between mature, non-managed spruce stands and clear cuts or young seedling stands, but not in the pine stands. The occurrence of the selected forest insects mainly depended on variables associated with the amount and quality of suitable woody material. The most significant environmental variables were forest site type, crown canopy coverage, tree species, number of stumps, number of dead spruce trunks and amount of logging waste at site. Quantitative classification of species and sample plots showed that some specialized species (Xylechinus pilosus, Cryphalus saltuarius, Polygraphus poligraphus and P. subopacus) adapted to mature spruce forests, tended to withdraw from the forest edge to interior stand sites. By contrast many generalized species (Pityogenes chalcographus, P. quadridens, Pissodes spp., Hylurgops palliatus, Tomicus piniperda, Dryocoetes spp. and Trypodendron lineatum) benefitted from cuttings and spread over stand borders into mature forest.

  • Peltonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 5612, category Article
Gregory S. Amacher. (1997). The design of forest taxation: A synthesis with new directions. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5612. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8513
Keywords: forest policy; North America; forest taxation; literature review; future research; Scandinavia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this paper, different approaches and results concerning forest tax design are reviewed. In particular, comparisons are made between Scandinavian approaches, which rely on the two-period model, and North American approaches, which largely rely on the Faustmann model. Existing work is critically evaluated according to several stylized facts that are common among forest taxation problems. These include the second-best forest policy environment, joint production of public and private forest goods, the dynamic nature of forest capital, public and private ownership, competition between forest and non-forest sectors, and global policy constraints on taxation design. The gaps in addressing stylized facts are used to motivate new research directions. Problems and appropriate public finance literature are identified for investigating forest tax policy under government budget constraints, fiscal federalism, dynamic forest tax design, open economy forest tax policy, and econometric studies of reform. One conclusion reached from discussing future research is that two period and dynamic models will continue to prove useful in analysing taxation design from the government's perspective.

  • Amacher, E-mail: ga@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5611, category Article
Arja Lilja, Timo Kurkela, Sakari Lilja, Risto Rikala.. (1997). Nursery practices and management of fungal diseases in forest nurseries in Finland. A review. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5611. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8512
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; forest nursery; Betula spp.; Finland; damping-off; grey mold; root dieback; scleroderris canker; pine twisting rust; seedlings; fungal diseases; Godronia multispora; Lophodermium needle cast; snow blights; birch rust; stem lesions of birch; leaf lesions of birch; Lophodermium pinastri; Botrytis cinerea; Melampsora pinitorqua; Melampsoridium betulinum
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this article was to collate the literature on fungal diseases that occur on seedlings in forest nurseries. It describes the symptoms of the diseases, the infection pattern of each fungus and the possibilities of controlling the diseases. As background a short introduction is given on forests and nursery practices in Finland.

  • Lilja, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kurkela, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
  • Lilja, E-mail: sl@mm.unknown
  • Rikala., E-mail: rr@mm.unknown
article id 5610, category Article
Timo Tokola, Juho Heikkilä. (1997). Improving satellite image based forest inventory by using a priori site quality information. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5610. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8511
Keywords: forest inventory; stand characteristics; remote sensing; forest surveys; site factors; ancillary data; Landsat TM
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to test the benefits of a forest site quality map, when applying satellite image-based forest inventory. By combining field sample plot data from national forest inventories with satellite imagery and forest site quality data, it is possible to estimate forest stand characteristics with higher accuracy for smaller areas. The reliability of the estimates was evaluated using the data from a stand-wise survey for area sizes ranging from 0.06 ha to 300 ha. When the mean volume was estimated, a relative error of 14 per cent was obtained for areas of 50 ha; for areas of 30 ha the corresponding figure was below 20 per cent. The relative gain in interpretation accuracy, when including the forest site quality information, ranged between 1 and 6 per cent. The advantage increased according to the size of the target area. The forest site quality map had the effect of decreasing the relative error in Norway spruce (Picea abies) volume estimations, but it did not contribute to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) volume estimation procedure.

  • Tokola, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikkilä, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
article id 5607, category Article
Paola Virgilietti, Joseph Buongiorno. (1997). Modeling forest growth with management data: A matrix approach for the Italian Alps. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5607. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8508
Keywords: forest dynamics; succession; growth models; matrix models; Italian Alps; Italy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper reports on the possibility and difficulties in building growth models from past Forest Administration records on cut and growth in the Italian Alps. As a case study, a matrix model was calibrated for uneven-aged forests in the Valsugana valley of the Trentino province. The model gave reliable predictions over 30 years, and plausible long-term forest dynamics, including steady-states that are similar to virgin forests. The results support the view that the current forests are deeply altered as to composition, relative to what would obtain from natural growth. They also support the concept of long cyclic changes in natural stands, gradually approaching a climax state. Shortcomings of the data are that they do not come from an experimental design, they are not always accurate, and they must be supplemented with other information, especially concerning mortality. Still, these cheap and available data can lead to workable models adapted to local conditions, with many management applications.

  • Virgilietti, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown (email)
  • Buongiorno, E-mail: jb@mm.unknown
article id 5606, category Article
Pekka E. Kauppi, Pekka Hänninen, Helena M Henttonen, Antti Ihalainen, Eino Lappalainen, Maximilian Posch, Michael Starr, Pekka Tamminen. (1997). Carbon reservoirs in peatlands and forests in the boreal regions of Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 5606. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8507
Keywords: climate change; boreal forests; peatlands; global warming; carbon reservoirs; carbon pools; global carbon cycles; biomass carbon; ecological temperature gradient
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The carbon reservoir of ecosystems was estimated based on field measurements for forests and peatlands on an area in Finland covering 263,000 km2 and extending about 900 km across the boreal zone from south to north. More than two thirds of the reservoir was in peat, and less than ten per cent in trees. Forest ecosystems growing on mineral soils covering 144,000 km2 contained 10–11 kg C m-2 on an average, including both vegetation (3.4 kg C m-2) and soil (uppermost 75 cm; 7.2 kg C m-2). Mire ecosystems covering 65,000 km2 contained an average of 72 kg C m-2 as peat. For the landscape consisting of peatlands, closed and open forests, and inland water, excluding arable and built-up land, a reservoir of 24.6 kg C m-2 was observed. This includes the peat, forest soil and tree biomass. This is an underestimate of the true total reservoir, because there are additional unknown reservoirs in deep soil, lake sediments, woody debris, and ground vegetation. Geographic distributions of the reservoirs were described, analysed and discussed. The highest reservoir, 35–40 kg C m-2, was observed in sub-regions in central western and north western Finland. Many estimates given for the boreal carbon reservoirs have been higher than those of ours. Either the Finnish environment contains less carbon per unit area than the rest of the boreal zone, or the global boreal reservoir has earlier been overestimated. In order to reduce uncertainties of the global estimates, statistically representative measurements are needed especially on Russian and Canadian peatlands.

  • Kauppi, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Henttonen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Ihalainen, E-mail: ai@mm.unknown
  • Lappalainen, E-mail: el@mm.unknown
  • Posch, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
  • Starr, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
  • Tamminen, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown
article id 5569, category Article
Esa-Jussi Viitala. (1996). Assessing the effectiveness of non-profit forestry organisations: An ultimate goal approach. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 4 article id 5569. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8504
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; Finland; forest owners; evaluation; forestry management associations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is an assessment of what in Finland are referred to as local forest management associations (LFMAs); the local units of a non-profit, forestry-promotion institution. First, the concept of organisational effectiveness is explored and an attempt is made to define it with respect to the LFMAs. The study then seeks to identify the environmental constraints, organisational characteristics and managerial practices differentiating the most effective and least effective associations. Discriminant analysis revealed four determinants of effectiveness: agrarian prosperity in the given area, activeness in marketing services to forest owners, the board of governors' role, and goal setting practices. The results thus indicate that the comparison of managerial policies and practices among LFMAs can provide useful information for improving their effectiveness.

  • Viitala, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5567, category Article
Pekka Punttila, Yrjö Haila. (1996). Colonisation of a burned forest by ants in the southern Finnish boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 4 article id 5567. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8502
Keywords: boreal forests; forest fires; succession; competition; Formica rufa; Formica ruginodis; ant communities; clear-cut areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The colonisation of a burned clear-cut by ants in southern Finland was monitored using pitfall traps, artificial nest sites, and direct nest sampling from the ground and stumps. Clearcutting and fire seemed to have destroyed wood-ant colonies (Formica rufa group), and also other mature-forest species suffered from fire. Myrmica ruginodis Nylander was able to survive only in less severely burned moist sites, whereas it benefitted from the enhanced light conditions in a non-burned clear-cut. The fire resulted in an essentially ant-free terrain into which pioneering species immigrated. The mortality of nest-founding queens appeared to be high. The results supported the hypothesis that the pioneering species tend to be those that are capable of independent colony founding, followed by species founding nests through temporary nest parasitism. The succession of the burned clear-cut differed from that of the non-burned one, suggesting that habitat selection in immigration and priority effects, i.e. competition, introduce deterministic components in the successional pathways of boreal ant communities.

  • Punttila, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Haila, E-mail: yh@mm.unknown
article id 5566, category Article
Reijo Penttilä, Heikki Kotiranta. (1996). Short-term effects of prescribed burning on wood-rotting fungi. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 4 article id 5566. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8501
Keywords: boreal forests; forest fires; Picea abies; polypores; controlled burning; wood decay; wood-rotting fungi; corticoid fungi; fungal community structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The prefire fungal flora (polypores and corticoid fungi) of 284 dead trees, mainly fallen trunks of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), was studied in 1991 in an old, spruce-dominated mesic forest in Southern Finland. Species diversity of the prefire fungal flora was very high, including a high proportion of locally rare species and four threatened polypore species in Finland.

In 1992 part of the study area (7.3 ha) was clear-cut and a 1.7 ha forest stand in the centre of study area was left standing with a tree volume of 150 m3/ha, and later on (June 1st) in the same year the whole area was burned. Burning was very efficient and all trees in the forest stand were dead one year after the fire. Also, the ground layer burned almost completely.

In 1993 the fungal flora of the 284 sample trees was studied again. Most of the trees had burned strongly and the fungal species diversity and the evenness in community structure had decreased considerably as compared with the prefire community. Species turnover was also great, especially in corticoid fungi. Greatest losses in the species numbers occurred in moderately and strongly decayed trees, in coniferous trees and in very strongly burned trees. Fungal flora of non-decayed and slightly decayed trees, deciduous trees and slightly burned trees seemed to have survived the fire quite well, and in these groups the species numbers had increased slightly as compared with the prefire community.

Fungal species suffering from fire (anthracophobe species) were mainly growing in moderately and strongly decayed trees before the fire, whereas species favoured by fire (anthracophile species) were growing in less decayed trees. No fruitbodies of threatened polypores or other "old-forest species" of polypores were found again after fire. Some very common and effective wood-rotting fungi (e.g. Fomitopsis pinicola, Fomes fomentarius, Antrodia serialis) survived the fire quite well (anthracoxene species). Species favoured by fire were mainly ruderal species which can utilize new, competition-free resources created by fire, and species that have their optima in dry and open places also outside forest-fire areas. Some rarities, e.g. Phanerochaete raduloides and Physisporinus rivulosus, were favoured by fire.

  • Penttilä, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kotiranta, E-mail: hk@mm.unknown
article id 5604, category Article
Nigel Dudley, Jean-Paul Jeanrenaud, Adam Markham. (1996). Conservation in boreal forests under conditions of climate change. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5604. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9249
Keywords: climate change; boreal forests; forest policy; forest protection; nature conservation; climate warming; WWF; World Wide Fund for Nature
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Addressing the potential impact of climate change on boreal forest ecosystems will require a range of new conservation techniques. During the early 1990s, the scope of WWF's (the World Wide Fund for Nature) forest policy work has broadened from a focus on tropical moist forests to a more general consideration of all the world's forests. Climate change is only one of a series of threats currently facing boreal forests.

Planning conservation strategies that take account of global warming is not easy when there are many computer models of climate change, sometimes predicting very different ecological effects. Climate change could result in some particularly extreme problems for the boreal forest biome. A summary of the problems and opportunities in boreal forests is presented. WWF has also been drawing up strategies for conservation on a global, regional and national level. The organization has concluded that conservation strategies aimed at combatting climate change need not be in direct conflict with other conservation planning requirements. However, proposals have emerged for ways to address the impacts of climate change that would have detrimental impacts on existing conservation plans.

  • Dudley, E-mail: nd@mm.unknown (email)
  • Jeanrenaud, E-mail: jj@mm.unknown
  • Markham, E-mail: am@mm.unknown
article id 5603, category Article
Jari Parviainen. (1996). Tasks of forest biodiversity management and monitoring deriving from international agreements. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5603. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9248
Keywords: forest management; biodiversity; forest protection; sustainable forestry; international agreements; criteria of sustainability; Helsinki process; Montreal process
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Four governmental efforts are underway to reach consensus on indicators of sustainable forestry. Through the Helsinki process, European countries have developed and reached a pan-European, binding consensus, The Montreal process includes non-European Temperate and boreal forest countries, the International Tropical Timber Organization (lTTO) have developed guidelines for the sustainable management of natural tropical forests, and the countries around the Amazon basis have developed a joint initiative for creating guidelines of sustainable forest management of the Amazonian tropical rain forests. It is estimated that as many as 15–20 distinct processes are under way in the private sector by non-profit organizations and for-profit companies, some domestic and other international in scope. Perhaps the most wide-ranging definition work of non-governmental organizations is the undertake by the Forest Stewardship Council, FSC. The paper discusses the Helsinki and Montreal processes and the tasks for research.

  • Parviainen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5602, category Article
Anatoly Pisarenko, Valentin Strakhov. (1996). Development and utilization of Russian forest resources. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5602. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9247
Keywords: forest management; wild berries; forest resources; forest products; natural products; Russian Federation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A presentation based on the historical development of Russia is given in the form of an overview of the development of Russian forest resources, of the wood, non-wood, and biological aspects of the forest ecosystem. The list of non-wood forest resources includes resin, saps, oils, berries, wild nuts, mushrooms, hay harvesting, game animals, etc. The dynamics of the system are presented in the light of the data of the Forest State Account (FSA) of Russia for the period 1956–1993. The most significant changes in the dynamics of Russia's forest resources are related to concentrated, large-scale wood harvesting operations. The dynamics of non-wood resources follow the process of the economic recession in all parts of the forest sector of Russia, the said recession having begun in the mid-1980s. The forests of Russia are considered to be of immense social and cultural value and a globally significant factor contributing to the sustainable development of forest resources.

  • Pisarenko, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
  • Strakhov, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown
article id 5601, category Article
Jari Parviainen. (1996). Impact of fire on Finnish forest in the past and today. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5601. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9246
Keywords: forest fires; biodiversity; Finland; prescribed burning; forest ecology; wildfires; slash and burn cultivation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Nearly every forest land in Finland has been burnt down by a wildfire at least once during the past 400–500 years. Slash and burn cultivation (1700–1920) was practised on 50–75 percent of Finland's forests, while prescribed burning (1920–1990) has been applied to 2–3 percent of the country's forests. Because of land-use changes and efficient fire prevention and control systems, the occurrence of wildfires in Finland has decreased considerably during the past few decades. Owing to the biodiversity and ecologically favourable influence of fire, the current tendency is to revive the use of controlled fire in forestry in Finland. Prescribed burning is used in forest regeneration and endeavours are being made to revert old conservation forests to the starting point of succession through forest fires.

  • Parviainen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5600, category Article
Anton K. Chtchoukine. (1996). North European platyphyllous forests: biodiversity dynamics and climate changes in northwest European Russia. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5600. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9245
Keywords: biodiversity; reforestation; climatic change; tree species composition; broadleaved forests; deciduous forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Distribution, biodiversity and reforestation dynamics of the platyphyllous forests in the Northwest European Russia were investigated. Data assembled from 21 landscape regions (250–350 km2 each) show special features of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill., Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), mountain elm (Ulmus glabra Mill.) and English oak (Qurecus robur L.) reforestation during the last two decades. New tendencies were found for the taiga areas with natural Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) vegetation. Natural platyphyllous reforestation in cut spruce areas poses as supposed a special question for forest management policy in the relationship to global climate changes. Feasible unsustainability of the common types of succession (Norway spruce - European birch (Betula pendula Roth); Norway spruce - European aspen (Populus tremula L.)) is discussed. Biodiversity of herbs, shrubs and tree species of platyphyllous forests is high and complex and is situated in 4–15 old-growth relics in each landscape region. Low-level genotype heterogeneity of nemoral flora species of such isolated populations is presumed. Special biodiversity conservation regulations are proposed.

  • Chtchoukine, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5599, category Article
Vadim V. Gorshkov, Irene J. Bakkal. (1996). Species richness and structure variations of Scots pine forest communities during the period from 5 to 210 years after fire. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5599. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9244
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; biodiversity; succession; Scots pine; forest ecology; Russian Federation; fire ecology; postfire recovery
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Postfire recovery of species diversity (including a number of species, entropy of species relative coverage (Shannon index of species diversity) was studied in lichen and green moss site types of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in the central part of the Kola Peninsula. The results obtained indicate the difference in the dynamics of characteristics of biodiversity of forest components during postfire recovery. The stabilization of separate components of forest community varies in time from 5–15 to 120–140 years after the fire. Characteristics of the dwarf shrub and herb stratum recovered and stabilized 5–15 years after fire, while the complete stabilization of characteristics of moss-lichen cover is observed in community with fire ages of 90–140 years. Species richness of tree stratum recovered 120–140 years after fire. Time of complete stabilization of species richness of the community was estimated 120–140 years after fire. The size of the area over which characteristics of the biodiversity were estimated effected the mean values and, in most cases, the character of variation of studied characteristics. Over an area of 1 x 1 m dynamics of characteristics of species diversity coincide in forests of the studied types. Regardless of forest type within the area of 100 m2 species richness recovered 30 years after the fire (i.e. 3–5 times earlier than the establishment of the complete stabilization of the forest structure). That means that floristic composition of the forest remained unchanged from 30 to 210 years after the fire.

  • Gorshkov, E-mail: vg@mm.unknown (email)
  • Bakkal, E-mail: ib@mm.unknown
article id 5598, category Article
Timo Kuuluvainen, Kari Leinonen, Markku Nygren, Antti Penttinen. (1996). Statistical opportunities for comparing stand structural heterogeneity in managed and primeval forests: an example from boreal spruce forest in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5598. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9243
Keywords: boreal forests; Norway spruce; biodiversity; Picea abies; stand structure; semivariance; spatial analysis; K-function; structural variation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The horizontal and vertical stand structure of living trees was examined in a managed and in a primeval Norway spruce-dominated forest in Southern Finland. Tree size distributions (DBHs, tree height) were compared using frequency histograms. The vertical distribution of tree heights was illustrated as tree height plots and quantified as the tree height diversity (THD) using the Shannon-Weaver formula. The horizontal spatial pattern of trees was described with stem maps and quantified with Ripley's K-function. The spatial autocorrelation of tree sizes was examined with semivariogram analysis. In the managed forest the DBH and height distributions of trees were bimodal, indicating a two-layered vertical structure with a single dominant tree layer and abundant regeneration in the understory. The primeval forest had a much higher total number of trees which were rather evenly distributed in different diameter and tree height classes. The K-function summaries for trees taller than 15 m indicated that the primeval stand was close to complete random pattern. The managed stand was regular at small distances (up to 4 m). The semivariograms of tree sizes (DBH tree height) showed that the managed forest had a clear spatial dependence in tree sizes up to inter-tree distances of about 12 meters. In contrast, the primeval spruce forest had a variance peak at very short inter-tree distances (< 1 m) and only weak spatial autocorrelation at short inter-tree distances (1–5 m). Excluding the understory trees (h < 15 m) from the analysis drastically changed the spatial structure of the forest as revealed by semivariograms. ln general, the structure of the primeval forest was both horizontally and vertically more variable and heterogeneous compared to the managed forest. The applicability of the used methods in describing fine-scale forest structure i discussed.

  • Kuuluvainen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Leinonen, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown
  • Nygren, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown
  • Penttinen, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown
article id 5595, category Article
R.A. Fleming. (1996). A mechanistic perspective of possible influences of climate change on defoliating insects in North America's boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5595. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9240
Keywords: climate change; disturbance regimes; boreal forest dynamics; Abies balsamea; natural selection; North America; Choristoneura fumiferana; insect outbreaks; phenological relationships; plant quality; extreme weather; thresholds
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There is no doubt that tree survival, growth, and reproduction in North America's boreal forests would be directly influenced by the projected changes in climate if they occur. The indirect effects of climate change may be of even greater importance, however, because of their potential for altering the intensity, frequency, and perhaps even the very nature of the disturbance regimes which drive boreal forest dynamics. Insect defoliator populations are one of the dominating disturbance factors in North America's boreal forests and during outbreaks trees are often killed over vast forest areas. If the predicted shifts in climate occur, the damage patterns caused by insects may be considerably changed, particularly those of insects whose temporal and spatial distributions are singularly dependent on climatic factors. The ensuing uncertainties directly affect depletion forecasts, pest hazard rating procedures, and long-term planning for pest control requirements. Because the potential for wildfire often increases in stands after insect attack, uncertainties in future insect damage patterns also lead to uncertainties in fire regimes. In addition, because the rates of processes key to biogeochemical and nutrient recycling are influenced by insect damage, potential changes in damage patterns can indirectly affect ecosystem resilience and the sustainability of the multiple uses of the forest resource.

In this paper, a mechanistic perspective is developed based on available information describing how defoliating forest insects might respond to climate warming. Because of its prevalence and long history of study, the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana Clem. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is used for illustrative purposes in developing this perspective. The scenarios that follow outline the potential importance of threshold behaviour, historical conditions, phenological relationships, infrequent but extreme weather, complex feedbacks, and natural selection. The urgency of such considerations is emphasized by reference to research suggesting that climate warming may already be influencing some insect lifecycles.

  • Fleming, E-mail: rf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5594, category Article
Anssi Niskanen, Tapio Rantala, Olli Saastamoinen. (1996). Economic impacts of carbon sequestration in reforestation: examples from boreal and moist tropical conditions. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5594. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9239
Keywords: boreal forests; carbon; forestry; Finland; Philippines; profitability; tropical forests; forest plantations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The impact of carbon sequestration on the financial profitability of four tree plantation cases in Finland and the Philippines were examined. On the basis of stem wood growth; the accumulation of carbon in forest biomass, the formation and decomposition of litter, and the carbon flow in wood-based products were assessed for each reforestation case representing boreal (Finland) and moist tropical conditions (the Philippines). Using different unit values for carbon sequestration the profitability of reforestation was estimated for a fixed 100-year period on a per hectare basis. The financial profitability of reforestation increased notably when the sequestered carbon had high positive values. For example, when the value of carbon sequestration was set to be Twenty-five United States Dollar per megagram of carbon (25 USO/Mg C), the internal rate of return (IRR) of a reforestation investment with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in Finland increased from 3.2% to 4.1 %. Equally, the IRR of reforestation with mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) in the Philippines increased from 12.8% to 15.5%. The present value of carbon sequestration ranged from 39–48% and from 77–101% of the present value of the reforestation cost in Finland and the Philippines, respectively when a 25 USO/Mg C shadow price and a 5% discount rate were applied. Sequestration of one mg of carbon in reforestation in Finland and the Philippines was estimated to cost from 10.5–20.0 and from 4.0–13.6 USO, respectively.

  • Niskanen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Rantala, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown
  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown
article id 5593, category Article
Malle Mandre, Jaan Klõseiko, Vaike Reisner, Hardi Tullus. (1996). Assessment of CO2 fluxes and effects of possible climate changes on forests in Estonia. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5593. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9238
Keywords: climate change; CO2; forestry; Estonia; carbon dioxide; forest composition; Forest Gap model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study is the first attempt to carry out an inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in the forests of Estonia. The emission and uptake of CO2 as a result of forest management, forest conversion and abandonment of cultivated lands in Estonia was estimated. The removal of GHG by Estonian forests in 1990 exceeded the release about 3.3 times. Changes in the species composition and productivity of forest sites under various simulated climate change scenarios have been predicted by using the Forest Gap Model for the central and coastal areas of Estonia. The computational examples showed that the changes in forest community would be essential.

  • Mandre, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Klõseiko, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Reisner, E-mail: vr@mm.unknown
  • Tullus, E-mail: ht@mm.unknown
article id 5590, category Article
Heikki Hänninen, Seppo Kellomäki, Ilkka Leinonen, Tapani Repo. (1996). Overwintering and productivity of Scots pine in a changing climate. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5590. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9235
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; climate change; ecosystems; frost damage; phenology; forest ecology; gap-type model; model accuracy; model realism; overvintering
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The productivity of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) under changing climatic conditions in the southern part of Finland was studied by scenario analysis with a gap-type forest ecosystem model. Standard simulations with the model predicted an increased rate of growth and hence increased productivity as a result of climatic warming. The gap-type model was refined by introducing an overwintering sub-model describing the annual growth cycle, frost hardiness, and frost damage of the trees. Simulations with the refined gap-type model produced results conflicting with those of the standard simulation, i.e., drastically decreased productivity caused by mortality and growth-reducing damage due to premature dehardening in the changing climate. The overwintering sub-model was tested with frost hardiness data from Scots pine saplings growing at their natural site 1) under natural conditions and 2) under elevated temperature condition, both in open-top chambers. The model predicted the frost hardiness dynamics quite accurately for the natural conditions while underestimating the frost hardiness of the saplings for the elevated temperature conditions. These findings show that 1) the overwintering sub-model requires further development, and 2) the possible reduction of productivity caused by frost damage in a changing climate is less drastic than predicted in the scenario analysis. The results as a whole demonstrated the need to consider the overwintering of trees in scenario analysis carried out with ecosystem model for boreal conditions. More generally, the results revealed a problem that exists in scenario analysis with ecological models: the accuracy of a model in predicting the ecosystem functioning under present climatic condition does not guarantee the realism of the model, nor for this reason the accuracy for predicting the ecosystem functioning under changing climatic conditions. This finding calls for the continuous rigorous experimental testing of ecological models used for assessing the ecological implications of climatic change.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
  • Leinonen, E-mail: il@mm.unknown
  • Repo, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown
article id 5588, category Article
Vadim V. Gorshkov, Irene J. Bakkal, Natalie I. Stavrova. (1996). Postfire recovery of forest litter in Scots pine forests in two different regions of boreal zone. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5588. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9233
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; boreal forests; Scots pine; Kola peninsula; Russian Federation; fire ecology; forest litter; Western Siberia; postfire recovery
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Investigations carried out in the Kola peninsula (northern taiga) and in the South-western part of Western Siberia (southern taiga and forest-steppe) revealed identical course of the postfire restoration process of forest litter thickness in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests. Despite the differences in mean annual temperature (2°C) and other climatic characteristics the recovery time for thickness of forest litter in both regions amounts to 90–100 years after fire in pine forests of lichen site type and 120–140 years – in green moss type; the thickness of forest litter therewith corresponds 3–4 cm and 7–8 cm respectively. That mean that within the natural borders of pine forests, communities of a specific type possess uniform characteristics of restoration. On the basis of empirical data, it appears that the predicted increase of mean annual temperature of earth surface by (2°C) will not bring changes into the character of postfire recovery of forest litter thickness. It was shown that during the period of the recovery, which spans about 90 years after fire in pine forests of lichen and green moss-lichen site types and 140 years in ones of green moss site types, the rate of increasing of carbon store in the forest litter averaged 0.6 t ha-1 year-1, 0.1 t ha-1 year-1 and 0.2 t ha-1 year-1, respectively.

  • Gorshkov, E-mail: vg@mm.unknown (email)
  • Bakkal, E-mail: ib@mm.unknown
  • Stavrova, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown
article id 5587, category Article
Dina I. Nazimova, N.P. Polikarpov. (1996). Forest zones of Siberia as determined by climatic zones and their possible transformation trends under global change. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 2–3 article id 5587. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9232
Keywords: climate change; boreal forests; modelling; Siberia; climatic zones; Russian Federation; zonal forest types; climatic ordination
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A system of zonality in Siberia has been formed under the control of continentality, which provides the heat and humidity regimes of the forest provinces. Three sectors of continentality and four to six boreal sub-zone form a framework for the systematization of the different features of land cover in Siberia. Their climatic ordination provides the fundamental basis for the principal potential forest types (composition, productivity) forecasting the current climate. These are useful in predicting the future transformations and succession under global change.

  • Nazimova, E-mail: dn@mm.unknown (email)
  • Polikarpov, E-mail: np@mm.unknown
article id 5575, category Article
Gintautas Mozgeris. (1996). Dynamic stratification for estimating pointwise forest characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 1 article id 5575. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9220
Keywords: stand characteristics; forest mensuration; SMI forest management planning system; dynamic stratification; static stratification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper deals with the testing of dynamic stratification for estimating stand level forest characteristics (basal areas, mean diameter, mean height and mean age) for a 117 ha study areas in Finland. The results do not show possibilities to achieve more accurate estimates using only Landsat TM principal components as auxiliary data opposed to static stratification. It was found that in dynamic stratification non-measured observations should be assigned the mean characteristics of the measured observations that belong to the same cube (class) instead of stratification variable classes until a certain limit. If only one principal component is used the number of classes has, however, little influence. Low field values are overestimated and high values underestimated.

The only successful results were obtained using two variables of different origin – the qualitative development stage class and the quantitative 1st principal component. The lowest root mean square error in estimating basal area was 6.40 m2/ha, mean diameter 3.34 cm, mean height 2.65 m and mean age 14.06 years. This increase of stratification accuracy is mainly resulted by the use of development stage class as an auxiliary variable.

  • Mozgeris, E-mail: gm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5574, category Article
Jouni Vettenranta. (1996). Effect of species composition on economic return in a mixed stand of Norway spruce and Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 1 article id 5574. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9219
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; net present value; mixed forests; growth models; tree species composition; forest management practices; felling methods; valuation; soil expectation value; treatment programme
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of species mixture was studied in a mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) by simulating around 100 different treatment schedules during the rotation in a naturally regenerated even-aged stand located on a site of medium fertility in North Karelia, Finland. Both thinning from below and thinning from above were applied. Optimum rotations were determined by maximising the net present value calculated to infinity and different treatment schedules were compared with the net present value over one rotation as per rotation applied. In the optimum treatment programme, the proportion of pines was decreased by half of the basal area in the first thinning stage and by the end of the rotation to about one third. In thinning from above, the proportion of pines can be maintained at a slightly higher level. It is economically profitable to maintain the growing stock capital at approximately the level recommended by Forest Centre Tapio, a semi-governmental forestry authority. With non-optimum species composition, the loss in net present value over one rotation can be about 10 % in thinning from below and about 20 % in thinning from above.

  • Vettenranta, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5573, category Article
Ilkka Vanha-Majamaa, Raili Suominen, Tiina Tonteri, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila. (1996). Seedling establishment after prescribed burning of a clear-cut and a partially cut mesic boreal forest in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 1 article id 5573. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9218
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; natural regeneration; seedling establishment; prescribed burning; controlled burning; Sorbus aucuparia; seed dispersal; mesic forest; seed rain; autoregression model; GLM
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The prescribed burning of a 7.3 ha clear-cut and a 1.7 ha partially cut forest (volume 150 m3/ha) was carried out in Evo (61 °12'N, 25°07'E) on 1 June 1992. The forest was a mesic Myrtillus site type forest dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Practically all the trees and the above-ground parts of the understorey vegetation died in the fire, while the mor layer was thinned by an average of 1.5 cm.

A study was made on the change of germinated seedling population in time and their dependence on environmental factors. Seedlings of Norway spruce, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), pubescent birch (B. pubescens Ehrh.) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) were inventoried in 1993 and in 1994 on permanent plots, four times per growing season. Autoregression models were used to compare regeneration of tree species in the burned forest with regeneration in the burnt clear-cut area, and to study the effect of distance from nearest seed source to regeneration.

The average number of seedlings germinating in 1993 was higher than in 1994, probably because of differences between these consecutive years in regard to the amount of seed rain and weather conditions. The number of Norway spruce and rowan seedling was higher inside the forest area than in the clear-cut area. The distance to the bordering forest and to the closest seed tree did not explain the result. It is suggested that the more stable microclimatic conditions under the shade of dead tree promote germination and seedling establishment in the forest area. As rowan is a bird-dispersed species, it is likely that dead trees help the dispersal of rowan seed by providing birds place to sit and defecate. The shade provided by dead trees may influence the further succession of the tree stand and vegetation composition and diversity.

  • Vanha-Majamaa, E-mail: iv@mm.unknown (email)
  • Suominen, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown
  • Tonteri, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown
  • Tuittila, E-mail: et@mm.unknown
article id 5572, category Article
Markku Lehtelä, Juha-Pekka Hotanen, Pentti Sepponen. (1996). Understorey vegetation in fresh and herb-rich upland forests in southwest Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 30 no. 1 article id 5572. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9217
Keywords: Finland; forest soil; forest type; site classification; multivariate methods; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fresh and herb-rich upland forest sites in the north-western part of the central boreal vegetation zone in Finland were studied with respect to vegetation structure and vegetation-environment relationships (soil, stand characteristics). Two fresh heath vegetation data sets, one from the northern boreal zone and the other from the central boreal zone, were compared with the data of this study using multivariate methods.

The variation in heath forest vegetation within the climatically uniform area was mainly determined by the fertility of the soil (primarily Ca and Mg) and the stage of stand development. N, P and K content of the humus layer varied little between the vegetation classes. Fertile site types occurred, in general, on coarse-textured soils than infertile site types, may be due to the fact that the sample plots were located in various bedrock and glacial till areas, i.e. to sampling effects.

The place of the vegetational units of the study area in the Finnish forest site type system is discussed. The vegetation of the area has features in common with the northern boreal zone as well as the southern part of the central boreal vegetation zone. The results lend some support to the occurrence of a northern Myrtillus type or at least that intermediate form of fresh and herb-rich mineral soil sites commonly occur in the studied area. It is argued that the older name Dryopteris-Myrtillus type is more suitable than Geranium-Oxalis-Myrtillus type for herb-rich heath sites in the study area.

  • Lehtelä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hotanen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown
article id 5564, category Article
Jerry Johansson. (1995). Backhoe loaders as base machines in logging operations. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 4 article id 5564. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9215
Keywords: harvesting; logging; time studies; forest machines; attachments; backhoe loaders; base machines
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Time studies and an ergonomic assessment were carried out in logging operations for three logging machines based on backhoe loader chassis. The time studies were completed with a follow-up study of one backhoe loader-based single-grip harvester. The studies indicated a productivity at the same level as that of specialized Nordic logging machines. Ergonomics also proved to be good. Mean ground pressure exerted by the backhoe loader-based logging machines was little higher than for some of the conventional Nordic single-grip harvesters to which it was compared. The ability of the machines to operate in the terrain was also good, even in rough terrain.

These machines can also be used for other jobs, such as ditch digging, road building and road maintenance. The machines then function more as carriers for attachments rather than custom-built backhoe loaders. By more careful planning of operations, the machines can be used to a higher degree and more effectively. The relatively low investment cost compared to many custom-built Nordic logging machines also contributes to a reduction of operating costs.

  • Johansson, E-mail: jj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5555, category Article
Mauno Pesonen, Arto Kettunen, Petri Räsänen. (1995). Modelling non-industrial private forest landowners’ strategic decision making by using logistic regression and neural networks: Case of predicting the choice of forest taxation basis. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5555. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9206
Keywords: logistic regression; Finland; Neural Networks; forest owners; forest taxation; non-industrial private forest landowners,; timber management strategies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this study, logistic regression and neural networks were used to predict non-industrial private forests (NIPF) landowners’ choice of forest taxation basis. The main frame of reference of the study was the Finnish capital taxation reform of 1993. As a consequence of the reform, landowners were required to choose whether to be taxed according to site-productivity or realized-income during the coming transition period of thirteen years.

The most important factor affecting the landowners’ choice of taxation basis was the harvest rate during the transition period, i.e. the chosen timber management strategy. Furthermore, the estimated personal marginal tax rate and the intention to cut timber during next three years affected the choice. The descriptive landowner variables did not have any marked effect on the choice of forest taxation basis.

On average, logistic regression predicted 71% of the choices correctly; the corresponding figure for neural networks was 63%. In both methods, the choice of site-productivity taxation was predicted more accurately than the choice of realized-income taxation. An increase in the number of model variable did not significantly improve the results of neural networks and logistic regression.

  • Pesonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kettunen, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
  • Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
article id 5554, category Article
Simo Poso, Mark-Leo Waite. (1995). Calculation and comparison of different permanent sample plot types . Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5554. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9205
Keywords: forest inventories; forest monitoring; sampling; optimum sampling unit; permanent plot analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A calculation procedure is presented for calculating and analysing remeasured permanent sample plots. Data for eight different fixed and variable size plot types were simulated on the basis of two stands whose trees were mapped and measured in 1982 and 1986. The accuracy and efficiency of the plot types were assessed and compared.

The calculation procedure is based on tree-wise expansion factors and the division of tree sampled into state/measurement classes. Nine classes were required for variable size plots and six for fixed size plots. A relascope plot with basal-area factor 1 (m2/ha) proved to be most efficient for estimating basal-area at a given time and a fixed size circular plot with radius 10 m for estimating basal-area increment over a given time period.

The main problems were related to the estimation of non-measurable variables, e.g., the initial diameters of ingrowth trees, i.e., trees having passed the threshold size during the measurement period. Most problematic were cut trees belonging to the ingrowth or sample enlargement classes. It is nevertheless thought that the system is appropriate for monitoring forest changes and making sensitivity analyses with permanent sample plots.

  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Waite, E-mail: mw@mm.unknown
article id 5553, category Article
Annika Kangas, Kari T. Korhonen. (1995). Generalizing sample tree information with semiparametric and parametric models. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5553. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9204
Keywords: forest inventories; mixed models; volume; nonparametric models; semiparametric models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Semiparametric models, ordinary regression models and mixed models were compared for modelling stem volume in National Forest Inventory data. MSE was lowest for the mixed model. Examination of spatial distribution of residuals showed that spatial correlation of residuals is lower for semiparametric and mixed models than for parametric models with fixed regressors. Mixed models and semiparametric models can both be used for describing the effect of geographic location on stem form.

  • Kangas, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
  • Korhonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
article id 5551, category Article
Jyrki Hytönen, Pekka Rossi, Anna Saarsalmi. (1995). Biomass production and nutrient uptake of short-rotation plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5551. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9202
Keywords: Betula pendula; biomass production; Betula pubescens; Alnus incana; short-rotation forestry; Salix phylicifolia; Salix x dasyclados; Salix 'Aquatica'; nutrient uptake; Salix triandra
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The biomass production and nutrient uptake of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), downy birch (Betula pubescens Erhr.), grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), native willows Salix triandra L. and S. phylicifolia L. and exotic willows S. x dasyclados and S. ’Aquatica’ growing on a clay mineral soil field (Sukeva) and on two cut-away peatland areas (Piipsanneva, Valkeasuo) were investigated.

Biomass production of downy birch was greater than that of silver birch, and the biomass production of the native willows greater than that of the exotic ones. The performance of S. phylicifolia was the best of the studied willow species. Exotic willows were susceptible to frost damage and their winter hardiness was poor. The production of all species was lower on the clay mineral soil field than on the cut-away peatland areas. Fertilization of birches and alder – on the double dose given to the willows – increased biomass production. After 6 growing seasons the leafless biomass production of fertilized silver birch at Piipsanneca was 21 t ha-1 (at Valkeasuo 34 t ha-1) and of grey alder 24 t ha-1, and that of S. triandra after five growing seasons 31 t ha-1, S. phylicifolia 38 t ha-1 and of S. x dasyclados 16 t ha-1.

6-year-old stands of silver birch bound more nutrients per unit biomass than downy birch stands. Grey alder bound more N, Ca and Co but less Mn and Zn per unit biomass than silver and downy birch. On the field more P was bound in grey alder per unit biomass compared to downy birch. The willows had more K per unit biomass than the other tree species, and the exotic willow species more N than the native ones. Less N, K and Mg were bound per unit biomass of S. phylicifolia compared to the other tree species.

  • Hytönen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Rossi, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
  • Saarsalmi, E-mail: as@mm.unknown
article id 5550, category Article
Jyrki Hytönen. (1995). Effect of repeated fertilizer application on the nutrient status and biomass production of Salix ’Aquatica’ plantations on cut-away peatland areas. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 5550. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9201
Keywords: biomass production; fertilization; fuelwood; peatlands; short-rotation forestry; Salix 'Aquatica'
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of repeated fertilizer treatment on biomass production and nutrient status of willow (Salix ’Aquatica’) plantations established on two cut-away peatland areas in western Finland were studied over a rotation period of three years. Comparisons were made between single fertilizer applications and repeated annual fertilization.

The annually repeated fertilizer application increased the amounts of acid ammonium acetate extractable phosphorus and potassium in the soil as well as the concentrations of foliar nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compared to single application. Depending on the fertilizer treatment and application rate, annual fertilizer application resulted in over two times higher biomass production when compared to single fertilizer application over a three-year rotation period. The effect of phosphorus fertilizer application lasted longer than that of nitrogen. The optimum fertilization regime for biomass production requires that nitrogen fertilizer should be applied annually, but the effect of phosphorus can last at least over a rotation of three years. Potassium fertilizer treatment did not increase the yield in any of the experiments during the first three years. The leafless, above-ground yield of three-year-old, annually NP-fertilized willow plantations was 9.5 t ha-1 and the total biomass, including stems, leaves, roots and the stump, averaged 17 t ha-1.

  • Hytönen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5544, category Article
Jyrki Hytönen. (1995). Effect of fertilizer treatment on the biomass production and nutrient uptake of short-rotation willow on cut-away peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 29 no. 1 article id 5544. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9195
Keywords: biomass production; fertilization; fuelwood; nutrients; peatlands; short-rotation forestry; Salix; consumption
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of fertilized treatment on the soil nutrient concentrations, biomass production and nutrient consumption of Salix x dasyclados and Salix ’Aquatica’ were studied in five experiments on three cut-away peatland sites in western and eastern Finland during three years. Factorial experiments with all combinations of N (100 kg ha-1 a-1), P (30 kg ha-1 a-1) and K (80 kg ha-1 a-1) were conducted.

The application of P and K fertilizers increased the concentrations of corresponding extractable nutrients in the soil as well as in willow foliage. N-fertilization increased foliar nitrogen concentration. An increase in age usually led to decreases in bark and wood N, P and K concentrations and increases in bark Ca concentrations. N-fertilization increased the three-year biomass yield 1.5–2.7 times when compared to control plots. P-fertilization increased the yield only in those experimental fields whose substrates had the lowest phosphorus concentration. K-fertilization did not increase the yield in any of the experimental fields. The highest total biomass yield of NPK-fertilized willow after three growing seasons, 23 t ha-1, was distributed in the following way: wood 42%, bark 19%, foliage 17%, stumps 6% and roots 16%. As the yield and stand age increased, more biomass was allocated in above-ground wood. Three-year-old stands (above-ground biomass 18 t ha-1) contained as much as 196 kg N ha-1, 26 kg P ha-1, 101 kg K ha-1, 74 kg Ca ha-1 and 37 kg Mg ha -1. By far the highest proportion of nutrients accumulated in the foliage. The bark and wood contained relatively high proportions of calcium and phosphorus. With an increase in age and size, the amount of nitrogen and potassium bound in one dry-mass ton of willow biomass decreased while that of phosphorus remained unchanged.

  • Hytönen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5541, category Article
Anneli Viherä-Aarnio. (1994). Performance of micropropagated plants of silver birch (Betula pendula) in a field trial. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 4 article id 5541. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9181
Keywords: Betula pendula; forestry; growth; mortality; seedlings; clones; tissue culture; clonal propagation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Micropropagated and seed-borne plants of sliver birch (Betula pendula Roth) were compared for survival and growth in a field trial at the age of six years. Three clones for micropropagation were selected from open-pollinated progenies of selected southern Finnish plus trees at the age of 17 and 20. The three seed-borne lots were of southern Finnish stand origin. The best two lots of the experiment as regards the height and diameter growth at the age of six were the clones. The best of these differed significantly from the best-growing seed-grown lot. The weakest lot of the experiment was also a clone which was clearly slow-growing with a dense and bushy crown. Survival of the material was high (mean = 94%), and there was no damage caused by voles and elks, for example. The results clearly show that the selection of material for clonal propagation should be done carefully. The clones should also be tested for performance in the field before propagation on a large scale.

  • Viherä-Aarnio, E-mail: av@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5532, category Article
Anu Honkanen. (1994). Selection of Salix myrsinifolia clones for biomass forestry in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 3 article id 5532. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9172
Keywords: biomass; selection; diameter distribution; short rotation forestry; fuelwood; production; clones; Salix phylicifolia; Salix myrsinifolia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

For biomass forestry in the inland parts of Southern and Central Finland, the obvious choice of willow species is Salix myrsinifolia. However, selection of clones of indigenous species has not yet been completed and more research and selection is needed. In the Piipsanneva old peatland trial, indigenous species of willow, mostly clones of S. myrsinifolia and S. phylicifolia, were compared in terms of biomass production, coppicing, height growth and diameter distributions. In this trial, the mean annual biomass production was not particularly high; more important results were attained in the ranking of clones. The trial strengthens the hypothesis that, over the long-term, the biomass production of S. myrsinifolia is higher than that of S. phylicifolia. It was supposed that behind the highest yield there was a clone with uniform quality, one whose diameter distribution would be narrow and positively skewed. Comparisons of parameters of Weibull functions showed that the distributions of the best clones were wide, indicating that those clones use the whole growth space better than those with narrow distribution.

  • Honkanen, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5531, category Article
Anneli Viherä-Aarnio, Anna Saarsalmi. (1994). Growth and nutrition of willow clones. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 3 article id 5531. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9171
Keywords: biomass; short rotation forestry; fuelwood; nutrients; clones; hybridization; Salix
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Growth and nutrition of 20 clones representing different species and interspecific hybrids of willows (Salix spp.) growing on an abandoned field were studied. There were highly significant differences between the clones as regards the survival, number of sprouts per stool, sprout mean height and diameter and stem biomass production per stool. The differences between the clones in the concentration of all nutrients in both the leaves and stems were highly significant. 

  • Viherä-Aarnio, E-mail: av@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saarsalmi, E-mail: as@mm.unknown
article id 5401, category Article
Akmal S. Hyder, Lars Lönnstedt, Markku Penttinen. (1994). Outline of accounting for non-industrial private woodlots. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 2 article id 5401. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9167
Keywords: non-industrial private forestry; financial accounting; net profit of the enterprise; calculated profit of the property; cost accounting; forest management strategies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

For non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners land with its timber production is an example of a capital asset. Developments in the asset’s value and yield depend not only on forest management but also on other factors that the owner cannot control, for example timber prices and the production circumstances, such as soil and climate. One important basis for decision making related to management strategy and, in the short run, to cutting and silvicultural activities is economic analysis and accounting. The owner has to decide whether to invest more in his property (planting, cleaning, building of forest roads) or disinvest (sell timber or the holding). He has to find ways to increase revenue and cut costs.

However, generally accepted accounting practices for NIPF owners are lacking. Applying business economic accounting principles and forestry accounting traditions, we outline a proposal for a profit and loss accounting and balance sheet for NIPF holdings with a view towards increasing economic awareness among private owners. Key concepts are net profit of the enterprise and calculated profit of the property. Other profit measurements that are used are gross margin, forestry margin, operating margin and operating profit. Calculated profit is based on adjusted net profit. The main concern, however, is to consider the change in the holding’s market value caused by changes in stock volume, quality and price. The contents of the accounting framework development here are applied to three management strategies. The return on investment (ROI) of forestry is compared with other investment alternatives.

  • Hyder, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
  • Lönnstedt, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown
  • Penttinen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown
article id 5399, category Article
Raisa Mäkipää. (1994). Effects of nitrogen fertilization on the humus layer and ground vegetation under closed canopy in boreal coniferous stands. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 2 article id 5399. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9164
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest soils; dwarf shrubs; nitrogen fertilization; mosses; nitrogen saturation; nitrogen deposition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest ecosystems may accumulate large amounts of nitrogen in the biomass and in the soil organic matter. However, there is increasing concern that deposition of inorganic nitrogen compounds from the atmosphere will lead to nitrogen saturation; excess nitrogen input does not increase production. The aim of this study was to determine the long-term changes caused by nitrogen input on accumulation of nitrogen in forest soils and in ground vegetation.

The fertilization experiments used in this study were established during 1958–1962. They were situated on 36- to 63-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands of different levels of fertility. The experiments received nitrogen fertilization 5–7 times over a 30-year period, and the total input of nitrogen was 596–926 kg/ha.

Nitrogen input increased the amount of organic matter in the humus layer and the nitrogen concentration in the organic matter. Furthermore, the total amount of nutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) bound by the humus layer increased due to the increase in the amount of organic matter. However, nitrogen input decreased the biomass of ground vegetation. The nitrogen concentration of the plant material on the nitrogen-fertilized plots was higher than on the control plots, but the amount of nutrients bound by ground vegetation decreased owing to the drastic decrease in the biomass of mosses. Ground vegetation does not have the potential to accumulate nitrogen, because vegetation is dominated by slow-growing mosses and dwarf shrubs which do not benefit from nitrogen input.

  • Mäkipää, E-mail: rm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5524, category Article
Annika Kangas. (1994). Classical and model based estimators for forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 28 no. 1 article id 5524. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9158
Keywords: models; forest inventories; estimation; systematic cluster sampling; covariance structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this study, model-based and design-based inference methods are used for estimating mean volume and its standard error for systematic cluster sampling. Results obtained with models are compared to results obtained with classical methods. The data are from the Finnish National Forest Inventory. The variation of volume in ten forestry board districts in Southern Finland is studied. The variation is divided into two components: trend and correlated random errors. The effect of the trend and the covariance structure on the obtained mean volume and standard error estimates is discussed. The larger the coefficient of determination of the trend model, the smaller the model-based estimates of standard error, when compared to classical estimates. On the other hand, the wider the range and level of autocorrelation between the sample plots, the larger the model-based estimates of standard error.

  • Kangas, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5523, category Article
Reijo Solantie. (1993). Snow and soil frost in Finnish forests. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 4 article id 5523. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15684
Keywords: snow damages; Finland; ground vegetation; forest ecology; flora; snow cover; fauna
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Abundant snowfalls and thick snow cover influence forest ecology mainly in two ways. Snow loading increases the number of damaged stems, which increases the amount of decay in stems, in its turn important for many animals. Second, the ground remains unfrozen under the snow cover, which is of crucial importance for many perennial species of ground vegetation. These winter phenomena also have influenced the early Finnish culture as man in his everyday life in the wilderness was in close contact with nature. In this paper, ecological interactions between snow conditions, forest flora, fauna and early culture are discussed mainly with reference to the province of Uusimaa in Southern Finland.

  • Solantie, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5521, category Article
Taneli Kolström, Seppo Kellomäki. (1993). Tree survival in wildfires. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 4 article id 5521. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15682
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest fires; Picea abies; Betula spp.; Finland; mortality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The survival of forest tree species in wildfires was examined on two burned stands. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and birches (Betula spp.) proved to be sensitive to the effects of wildfire; almost all individuals of these tree species were killed by the fires. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was more tolerable to the effects of wildfire; i.e. one out of five Scots pines survived. Fire tolerance increased as tree size increased.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 5520, category Article
Kari T. Korhonen. (1993). Mixed estimation in calibration of volume functions of Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 4 article id 5520. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15681
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; models; forest inventories; volume; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Regression models for estimating stem volume of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were constructed using sample tree data measured in the 7th and 8th National Forest Inventory of Finland. Stem volume were regressed on diameter, basal area of growing stock, and geographic location. The results of the study show that using second order trend surface to describe the geographic variation of the residuals gives satisfactory results. Using mixed estimation for combining old and new sample tree data improves the efficiency of an inventory. The weight of the prior information must be low, because remarkable differences in stem form was found in the two inventories.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Korhonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5519, category Article
Jyrki Kangas, Jari Karsikko, Laura Laasonen, Timo Pukkala. (1993). A method for estimating the suitability function of wildlife habitat for forest planning on the basis of expertise. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 4 article id 5519. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15680
Keywords: forest management; models; wildlife management; black grouse; production functions; multiple use; Lururus tetrix
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the method presented in this study, a group of experts evaluate, in a pairwise manner, a set of forest areas with respect to the game species considered. On the basis of these comparisons, relative priorities of forest areas are estimated using the eigenvalue technique. Using regression analysis, a habitat suitability function is estimated in which the priority is predicted by measures already familiar in forest planning. As a case study, a habitat suitability function was estimated for black grouse (Tetrao tetrix, Lururus tetrix L.). The function is applicable in forestry planning carried out using modern planning techniques.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Karsikko, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Laasonen, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5517, category Article
Tuomo Kotimäki. (1993). Ristipaineet valtion metsien käytön valintatilanteissa. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5517. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15678
English title: Contradictory targets in the use of state forests of Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsien monikäyttö; aluepolitiikka; maankäyttö; kestävä metsätalous
English keywords: forest management; Finland; forest management planning; Forest Service; state forests; multiple use of forests; conflicting targets; land use; regional planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper discusses the principles of forest management in the state forests of Finland, and the contradictions in choosing between the different land uses. These principles of the forest management are sustainable use of natural resources, economic and effective management, and taking in account nature conservation, protection of environment, recreation services and employment issues in all activities of the Forest Service. Even regional policy affects the management planning in the state forests.

  • Kotimäki, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5516, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1993). Yksityismetsätalous ja arvojen muutos. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5516. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15677
English title: Private forestry and the changing values.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsätalous; metsänomistajat; arvot
English keywords: forest management; forestry; values; Finland; forest owners; private forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forests have been economically important for Finnish private forest owners at all times, but the use of forests has changed markedly since 1920s, when forests were mainly used for collecting household timber, and the cuttings were often exploitative because of the farmer’s need for money. The present situation is totally different. Need for household timber is marginally small, and private forestry produces mainly timber for sale. The sales of timber have increased, but due to better forest management the growing stock in the private forests has increased. The article discusses how the changes in values of forest owners has and will affect the stage of private forestry.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5515, category Article
Seppo Vehkamäki. (1993). Metsien käytön muutospaineet. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5515. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15676
English title: Pressures for changes in the use of forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsien monikäyttö; kestävyys; tuottavuus; tehokkuus
English keywords: forest management; productivity; sustainability; forestry; multiple use of forests; effectiveness
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper discusses how the general trend towards increasing growth and productivity in the European societies is expressed also in forestry. It is reflected, for instance, in the increasing production and productivity of forest industries. Technological progress and call for economic growth require great flexibility from all resources. These pressures for effectiveness and production also concern Finnish forestry and forest management. Industrialization, urbanization and development of forestry have increased the pressure to use forests in recreation, preserving human environment and nature conservation in addition to production of timber. Through the development the definition of sustainability has become wider.

  • Vehkamäki, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5514, category Article
Walter Sekot. (1993). Forest dynamics. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 3 article id 5514. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15675
Keywords: forestry; simulation; forest decline; operations research; risks
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the application of forest dynamics. Reference is made to two studies, which have been carried out at a national level. The simulations of forest decline as well as the production of exceedingly thick timber of spruce and fir provide various examples of the major problems of forest simulation and of some possible solutions. It is pointed out that the statistical analysis of empirical data is most important for modelling and it might bring about even more valuable results than the ultimate simulation itself.

  • Sekot, E-mail: ws@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5509, category Article
Markku Siitonen. (1993). Experiences in the use of forest management planning models. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 2 article id 5509. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15670
Keywords: forest policy; forest inventories; stand management; linear programming; forest resources
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Model-based information systems have proved valuable planning tools for analysing the production possibilities of forests as well as for understanding forest resources dynamics, stand management practices and forest economics. Computerized forest models implemented in the users’ information systems facilitate the transfer and application of research results in practical forestry.

Conclusions and visions concerning modelling are drawn from experiences in developing the MELA system and its application in solving timber production problems on both the national and forest holding level in Finland. The precondition for predicting forest resource dynamics and for planning the utilization of forests is to accept conditions, uncertainties and a restricted period of time.

The interactive process of forest resource, growth and drain monitoring, and forest management planning supported by forest research and modelling, are the means to enable an operational information base for a dynamic regulation and adaptation strategy for forest resource management under changing conditions and uncertainty.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Siitonen, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5508, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1993). Trends of European forest resources on the basis of the FAO/ECE Timber Committee resource assessments. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 2 article id 5508. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15669
Keywords: growing stock; Europe; forest resources; fellings; increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Europe’s forest area has increased 5 million ha since the late 1960s. The growing stock has increased 43% and the net annual increment 55% in exploitable forests since 1950. A part of the reported increase is caused by sampling inventories, which have been made in greater part of the countries. Sampling inventories have corrected earlier underestimates of the growing stock and the increment.

The difference between the annual net increment and fellings has increased since 1950. The net increment, 584 million m3, exceeded fellings, 408 million m3, by 176 million m3, in exploitable forests in 1990. If fellings could be increased to equal the increment, Europe would be an exporter of forest products.

A greater increase in the density, in the age and in the mean volume of forests per hectare threaten the biological stability of the growing stock. Degrading of the stock, increasing natural losses and deteriorating environmental qualities of forests can only be prevented by increased fellings and by forest regeneration.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5507, category Article
John L. Innes. (1993). Methods to estimate forest health. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 2 article id 5507. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15668
Keywords: damage; monitoring; crown condition; air pollution; bioindicators; forest healt; indicator organisms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A range of different indices are available for assessing the health of trees in forests. An even larger range can be used for the assessment of the health of forest ecosystems. Most studies made in connection with ”forest decline” and the impact of air pollution and other environmental stresses on forests have concentrated on the assessment of crown transparency and crown discoloration in individual trees. These are non-specific indicators which are now known to be sometimes of relatively little value when determining the health of a forest ecosystem. Numerous problems exist with both, and the standardisation of assessments between and even within countries has not been achieved. Consequently, studies claiming to compare ”defoliation” between different countries cannot be substantiated. The emphasis on crown transparency and crown discoloration has resulted in the neglect of a number of other indices that could be of considerable value. These include a variety of visual measures of crown condition and also several non-visual bioindicators. Some of these techniques are objective, reducing the present reliance on observed standardization. A large number of potential techniques are currently at the research stage and have yet to be adequately tested in field trials. This represent an area where a substantial amount of further research is required.

  • Innes, E-mail: ji@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5506, category Article
Risto Heikkilä, Sauli Härkönen. (1993). Moose (Alces alces L.) browsing in young Scots pine stands in relation to the characteristics of their winter habitats. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 2 article id 5506. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15667
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; deciduous trees; Scots pine; Alces alces; mixed forests; landscape ecology; moose; feeding behaviour; carrying capacity; browsing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Moose (Alces alces L.) browsing was studied in young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands mixed with deciduous trees in high-density winter ranges. The proportional use of twig biomass decreased as the availability increased. The total as well as proportional biomass consumption were higher on the moist than on the dry type of forest. The per tree consumption of pine was higher on the moist type, where the availability of pine was lower. Deciduous trees were more consumed on the moist type, where their availability was relatively high. The consumption of pine saplings increased as the availability of birch increased. Pine stem breakages were most numerous when birch occurred as overgrowth above pine and at high birch densities. The availability of other deciduous tree species did not correlate with browsing intensity of Scots pine. Moose browsing had seriously inhibited the development of Scots pines in 6% of the stands, over 60% of available biomass having been removed. Rowan and aspen were commonly over-browsed and their height growth was inhibited, which occurred rarely by birch. There was no difference in the proportion of young stands in forest areas with high and low moose density. A high proportion of peatland forests was found to indicate relatively good feeding habitats in the high-density areas.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Heikkilä, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Härkönen, E-mail: sh@mm.unknown
article id 5499, category Article
Niels Elers Koch. (1993). Outlines of environmental policy concerning forests in the European Community. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 1 article id 5499. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15660
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; European Community; EC; Forestry Action Programme; environmental policy; forestry strategy; conservation of habitats
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper, presented at the seminar ”Forestry in Europe: Implications of European Integration for National Forestry”, discusses the effects of first Forestry Action Programme in the European Community, UNCED 1992, the European Community’s new Forestry Strategy and the second Forestry Action Programme directives of conservation of habitats on forestry within the EC.

  • Koch, E-mail: nk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5498, category Article
Ernst Wermann. (1993). Outlooks of forestry in the European Community with special emphasis on recycling. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 1 article id 5498. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15659
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; Europe; recycling; subsidies; European Community; EC; Forestry Action Program
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper, presented at the seminar ”Forestry in Europe: Implications of European Integration for National Forestry”, discusses the meaning of the European Community for the forestry sector, putting a special emphasis on recycling. Subsidies and the so-called ”Forestry Action Program” are among the topics that have raised controversial discussions within the EC. In addition, wood fibre recycling and the EC draft directive on packaging waste includes ambiguous targets for recycling.

  • Wermann, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5494, category Article
Jari Nieppola. (1993). Site classification in Pinus sylvestris L. forests in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 27 no. 1 article id 5494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15655
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; forest soils; Southern Finland; forest types; site classification; TWINSPAN
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It was examined whether the present site classification method, and especially its applicability to site productivity estimation, could be improved in upland Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests in Southern Finland by developing a classification key based on Two-way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), and/or by inclusion of soil texture, stoniness and the humus layer depth more closely in the classification method. TWINSPAN clusters (TW) explained 71%, and forest site types (FST) 64% of the variation in site index (SI) (H100). When soil texture (TEXT) was added to the regression model, the explanatory power increased to 82% (SI = TW + TW * TEXT) and to 80% (SI = FST + FST * TEXT), respectively. Soil texture alone explained 69% of the variation in site index. The influence of stoniness on site index was significant (P <0.05) on sorted medium sand soils and on medium and fine sand moraine soils. The thickness of the humus layer (2–6 cm) was not significantly (P=0.1) related to site index.

It is suggested that the proposed TWINSPAN classification cannot replace the present forest site type system in Scots pine stands in Southern Finland. However, the TWINSPAN key may be used to aid the identification of forest types. The observation of dominant soil texture within each forest type is recommended.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Nieppola, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5492, category Article
Ismo Nousiainen, Timo Pukkala. (1992). Use of computer graphics for predicting the amenity of forest trails. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15653
Keywords: forest management; forest planning; simulation; landscape; recreation; amenity value of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Ten trails, one kilometre each, were evaluated by 15 persons for scenic beauty, recreational value and variety. All trails passed through commercially managed forests dominated by conifers. The trails were first evaluated by viewing computer simulations based on a series of graphical illustrations of forest landscapes, then from a slide show, and finally in the field. In the computer simulation and slide show, landscape pictures along the trail at an interval of 35–40 m were presented for 3–4 seconds. The ranks between slide show and field were slightly more similar than those between simulation and field. The mean correlation of 12 persons between the field ranking and assessment of either computer simulations or slide shows or graphics than scenic beauty or recreational value. Spearman’s rank correlations computed from median scores of a group of 12 peers were clearly better than the average of individual persons varying from 0.6 to 0.9.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish

  • Nousiainen, E-mail: in@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5491, category Article
Kari T. Korhonen. (1992). Calibration of upper diameter models in large scale forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15652
Keywords: models; forest inventories; simulation; diameter; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models for estimating the upper diameter of trees were constructed using sample tree data measured in the 7th National Forest Inventory in Finland. Calibration of the models was tested with data from the 8th National Forest Inventory. The results showed that using mixed estimation for combining the two data sets improves the reliability of the models. Models and methods used in this study can be recommended for use in forest inventories.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Korhonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5489, category Article
Markku Penttinen, Matti Kinnunen. (1992). Profitability of forestry in jointly-owned forests of Northeastern Finland and Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 4 article id 5489. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15650
Keywords: forest management; forestry; northern Finland; profitability; co-ownership; jointly owned forest holdings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The profitability of jointly owned forest holdings in the two northernmost forest board districts of Finland was studied by means of ratio analysis. A time series of profit and loss statements and balance sheets from 33 holdings covering the fiscal years ending 1981–1990 served as the database. The studied area was 348,038 ha, the allowable cut 304,300 m3 per year and the average turnover, deflated by the wholesale price index, FIM 57.6 million per year. The key result obtained was that the average annual profit was FIM 107 per hectare and FIM 110 per m3. The time series showed that the ratios had increased significantly over the calculation period.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Penttinen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kinnunen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
article id 5485, category Article
Pekka Ripatti. (1992). Yksityistilojen metsäalan muutokset Kaakkois-Suomessa 1986-1991. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 3 article id 5485. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15646
English title: Forest area changes of non-industrial private forest holdings in southeast Finland, 1986–1991.
Original keywords: yksityismetsät; yksityismetsätalous; Kaakkois-Suomi; tilakoko
English keywords: Finland; private forestry; farm size; forest holdings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to describe the total change of forest area in non-industrial private forest holdings in southeast Finland, 1986–1991. The average gross decrease of forest area was 1.7 hectares, whereas the average gross increase was 1.2 hectares. Consequently, the average size of holdings decreased from 32.5 to 32.0 hectares. The most important factors affecting the changes of forest area were the inheritance system, resulting in a decrease of 0.7 ha, and reclassification of forestry land, producing an increase of 0.4 ha per holding. The increase of small, under 10 ha holdings accounted for much of the structural change.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Ripatti, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5484, category Article
Jyrki Kangas, Timo Pukkala. (1992). A decision theoretic approach applied to goal programming of forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 3 article id 5484. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15645
Keywords: forest management; models; forest planning; decision analysis; goal programming; optimization methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An alternative approach to formulating a forestry goal programming problem is presented. First, single objective optima levels are solved. The Analytical Hierarchy Process is applied in the estimation of a priori weights of deviations from the goal target levels. The ratios of the weights can be interpreted as relative importance of the goals, respectively. The sum of the weighted deviations from all single optima levels associated with the management goals is minimized. Instead of absolute deviations, relative ones are used. A case study problem of forest management planning with several objectives, measured in different units, is analysed.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5480, category Article
Erkki Verkasalo. (1992). Forest industry as a producer and consumer of wood-based energy in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 5480. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15641
Keywords: Finland; fuelwood; fuels; forest products industries; wood residues; black liquor; calorific value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article summarises the importance of forest industry in the acquisition and consumption of wood-based energy in Finland. Opportunities to increase the efficiency of energy utilization further are discussed, as well.

The forest industry uses 25% of the total energy and 40% of the total electricity. It also generates considerable amounts of heat and electric power as by-products of wood-processing. Wood in different forms accounts for 64% of the fuels of the forest industry. Consequently, the need for outside, imported energy is minute. Black liquor of pulping is dominant as a source of wood-based energy. In addition, plenty of wood residues (bark, saw dust, planer shavings, grinder dust, screening reject of chips) and minor amounts of for wood processing unsuitable fractions obtained in conjunction with harvesting small-sized whole-trees, tree selections and logging residues are used for energy production.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Verkasalo, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5479, category Article
Douglas K. Loh, Hannu Saarenmaa. (1992). Design of integrated forest resource information systems. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 5479. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15640
Keywords: forest management; databases; information systems; X Window System
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Managing forests and other natural resources requires merging of data and knowledge from many fields. Research efforts in many countries have simultaneously aimed at computer applications to help managing the large amounts of data involved and the complexities of decision making. This has invariably led to large integrated systems. An integrated system is software that consists of modules for various tasks in natural resource management, spatial analysis, simulation and optimization, diagnostic reasoning, levels, and communicating with the user.

The paper presents an overview of the need, levels and historical development of integrated systems. Newly emerged technologies, especially object-oriented programming and the X Window System with its associated environment have given new flexibility and transparency to the designs. The client-server architecture is found out as an ideal model for integrated systems. The paper describes an implementation of these ideas, the INFORMS system that supports the information needs of district level forest management planning.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Loh, E-mail: dl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saarenmaa, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 5478, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Marja Kolström. (1992). Computations on the management of seedling stands of Scots pine under the influence of changing climate in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 5478. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15639
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; models; Betula pendula; Scots pine; silver birch; simulation; climatic change; seedling stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Model computations on the management of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at the seedling stage showed that a rising temperature due to the suggested climate change could increase the competition capacity of birch species (Betula pendula) more than Scots pine, whose growth could even decline during the course of a rise in temperature. A temperature rise could, thus, bring the time of removal of birches forward when aiming at Scots pine timber stands composed of these tree species. The increasing proportion of birches makes the removal of birches even more urgent and emphasizes the need for careful management of Scots pine stands under rising temperatures. The first thinning of Scots pine is generally brought forward; this is particularly the case when wide spacing is applied in planting. A furthrer rise in temperature magnifies the above patterns by reducing further the competitive capacity of Scots pine in relation to birches.
The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kolström, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
article id 5477, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1992). Skidding by sulky - a literature study. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 5477. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15638
Keywords: work study; production; ergonomics; forest work; labour-intensity; sulkies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Speed and load sizes presented in three study reports on sulky skidding were compared with estimates based on ergonomic models. Speed and load size estimates were closely correlated with the observed values, when a 400 W energy expenditure of the subject was used. This corresponds to less than half of his submaximal oxygen intake and matches well with the heart rate given in one of the time studies. It seems possible to develop methods for evaluating the work pace/production rate for sulky skidding in varying terrain conditions.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5471, category Article
Hannu Fritze. (1992). Effects of environmental pollution on forest soil microflora - a review. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 1 article id 5471. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15632
Keywords: soil respiration; forest soil; litter decomposition; acidification; lime; heavy metals; pollution; microflora; fungal hyphae
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a literature review focusing on the reaction of soil respiration, litter decomposition and microflora of forest soils to various pollutants like acidic deposition, heavy metals and unusual high amounts of basic cations. There is a great deal of evidence indicating that environmental pollution affects soil microbial activity and community structure. Much of the data originates from experimental designs where high levels of pollutants were applied to the soil under field or laboratory conditions. Furthermore, many were short-term experiments designed to look for large effects. These experiments have an indicative value, but it has to be kept in mind that environmental pollution is a combination of many pollutants, mostly at low concentrations, acting over long periods of time. There is therefore consequently a demand for research performed in natural forest environments polluted with anthropogenic compounds. 

  • Fritze, E-mail: hf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5468, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Heikki Hänninen, Taneli Kolström, Risto Lauhanen, Ulla Mattila, Brita Pajari, Hannu Väisänen. (1992). A simulation model for the succession of the boreal forest ecosystem. Silva Fennica vol. 26 no. 1 article id 5468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15626
Keywords: succession; gap dynamics; ecosystems; simulation models; forest ecology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A model for the succession of the forest ecosystem is described. The growth and development of trees and ground cover are controlled by temperature and light conditions and the availability of nitrogen and water. In addition, the effects of the annual cycle of trees including the risk of frost damage, wild fire, and wind damages are contained in the model as factors which control the survival and productivity of trees. The model also makes it possible to evaluated the risk of insect attack assuming that this risk is inversely related to the growth efficiency of trees.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
  • Lauhanen, E-mail: rl@mm.unknown
  • Mattila, E-mail: um@mm.unknown
  • Pajari, E-mail: bp@mm.unknown
  • Väisänen, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown
article id 5467, category Article
E. K. Morgenstern, Y. S. Park. (1991). Breeding of Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.: seed orchard and clonal approaches. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 4 article id 5467. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15625
Keywords: Picea mariana; breeding; Canada; seed orchards; clonal forestry; breeding programs; backward selection
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

During the past 30 years, genetics research has accumulated much information on black spruce (Picea mariana). The adoption of less intensive and faster plustree selection, establishment of seedling seed orchards and family selection significantly increased the rate of progress in improvement of the species. In New Brunswick this approach made it possible to obtain substantial quantities of seeds 10 years after the initiation of the program, and now all the seeds used in reforestation are derived from seed orchards.

Fourteen years after beginning the black spruce breeding program, second generation breeding is underway. The possibility of implementing alternative breeding strategies using ”breeding – cloning” procedures are explored for the advanced generation. Until somatic embryogenesis techniques become fully operational, ”backward selection” schemes and crossing in breeding halls followed by vegetative multiplication using serial rooted cuttings can be adopted. Larger genetic gains than those from conventional breeding are expected not only from the utilization of both additive and non-additive variances, but also from the elimination of inefficiencies of large conventional seed orchards.

  • Morgenstern, E-mail: em@mm.unknown (email)
  • Park, E-mail: yp@mm.unknown
article id 5465, category Article
Gösta Eriksson. (1991). Challenges for forest geneticists. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 4 article id 5465. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15623
Keywords: tree breeding; dormancy; forest research; phenotypic plasticity; mixed populations; hardiness; change of environment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Studies of phenotypic as well as mixed population plasticities are urgently needed in a world that supposedly experiences a gradual change of its environment. It is important to understand that man creates his environment and silviculture. This is one of the reasons why for breeding it cannot be expected to find optimal phenotypes in nature. Other reasons are the phylogenetic constraints and migration of pollen and seeds.

Forest genetics up to now is characterized by the study of one trait at a time. There is an urgent need for simultaneous analysis of several traits by the aid of genetic correlations or multivariate analysis. Generally there is a need for inclusion of larger numbers of genetic entries in forest genetic investigations.

For the long-rotation-time species there is a need to determine the curves for degree of dormancy and hardiness during the annual cycle. Information of plasticity in two-dimensional environments like water availability and temperature is needed. Studies on nutrient utilization and acquisition will tell us whether or not we must have different breeding populations for different soil fertilities. An understanding of the phase changes between juvenile and adult opens up possible applications such as faster generation turn-over in the breeding population via early flowering and early testing as well as better plants for frost-prone and weedy sites.

  • Eriksson, E-mail: ge@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5463, category Article
Öje Danell. (1991). Survey of past, current and future Swedish forest tree breeding. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 4 article id 5463. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15621
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; Sweden; Pinus contorta; seed orchards; forest tree breeding; breeding programmes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper gives an introduction of the tree breeding program of Sweden that started in 1936 by the establishment of an association for the tree breeding. In 1967 the Institute of Forest Improvement was founded and it replaced the earlier association. The main species in the programme have been Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), lately also birch (mainly Betula pendula Roth.) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). In addition, limited breeding has been done also with hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x P. tremuloides), oak (Quercus), larch (Larix), black spruce (Picea mariana) and a few other native and exotic species. The dominating initial effort has been to select plustrees in natural stands and use them for production of reforestation material. In addition, a considerable body of tests was built. The paper lists the status of breeding material of the different tree species and introduces the medium and short-term breeding programmes.

  • Danell, E-mail:
article id 5453, category Article
Annika Kangas. (1991). Updated measurement data as prior information in forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 3 article id 5453. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15611
Keywords: forest inventories; mixed estimator; prior information; model-based inference
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Old inventory data has widely been used as prior information in forest inventory using the method of sampling with partial replacement (SPR). In this method knowledge about forest growth has not been utilized. However, the accuracy of the inventory results can be improved if this knowledge is utilized. The usability of the inventory results can be improved if the prior information is updated by treewise growth models. In this paper a statistical basis is presented for a method in which such information can be used. The applicability of the method is also discussed. An example is given to demonstrate the method.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kangas, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5450, category Article
Bo Långström, Claes Hellqvist. (1991). Shoot damage and growth losses following three years of Tomicus-attacks in Scots pine stands close to a timber storage site. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 3 article id 5450. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15604
Keywords: Picea abies; growth; forest damage; Tomicus piniperda; Tomicus minor; timber storage; insect damages; shoots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Shoot losses due to maturation feeding by pine shoot beetles (Tomicus piniperda (L.) and T. minor (Hart.), Col., Scolytidae) and subsequent growth losses were studied in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands growing at different distances from a timber yard, where pine timber was stored during the years 1982–84. In autumn 1985, pine trees were felled at 20, 40, 80, 500 and 1,500 m distance from the timber yard, five trees in each distance class. Trees were analysed for beetle attack, needle biomass and growth. In autumn 1988, increment cores were taken from 20 trees in each distance class.

In 1985, different damage estimates showed that beetle damage was more than 10-fold in the crowns of pine trees growing close to the timber yard as compared to less damaged trees in greater distance. Crude needle biomass estimates indicated that the trees attacked most had lost more than half of the total foliage. Following three years of attack, basal area growth decreased for 2–3 years and recovered during the subsequent 3 years, the total period of loss thus being 5–6 years. The loss in volume growth during 1983–85 was ca. 70, 40, 20 and 10% at 20, 40, 80 and 500 m distance from the beetle source, respectively, compared to the stand at 1,500. Growth losses did not occur until the number of beetle-attacks, ”pegs”, exceeded ca. 200 per tree. The highest observed growth losses occurred in trees with more than 1,000 pegs per tree.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish

  • Långström, E-mail: bl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hellqvist, E-mail: ch@mm.unknown
article id 5448, category Article
Markku Penttinen. (1991). Metsäkirjanpidon ja kustannuslaskennan toteuttaminen - 20 vuotta metsätalouden kannattavuuden kenttätutkimusta Itävallassa. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 2 article id 5448. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15602
English title: Implementing forestry bookkeeping and cost accounting – 20 years of field research on the profitability of forestry in Austria.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kannattavuus; yksityismetsät; kirjanpito; metsäekonomia; kustannuslaskenta; kirjapitotilat; Itävalta
English keywords: forestry; profitability; private forests; bookkeeping; forest economics; cost accounting; private forest holdings; accounting holdings; Austria
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The profitability of forestry in the context of recent economic developments in Finland suggest a more systematic analysis of the profit and the cost structure of small-scale forestry than is normally made today. The domestic and international pressure on farming emphasizes the development of rural areas by means of other business than agriculture, in practice this may mean forestry. Financing in terms of the new law concerning agriculture requires projects to be profitable. Thus, the profitability of different lines of production, including forestry, needs to be reported more carefully than is the practice today.

A network of forestry bookkeeping farms covering the whole Austria has existed for 20 years. The organization and the operation of the forestry bookkeeping and the cost accounting system is based on the scientific cooperation and exchange of information between the organizations in charge. The practical experience and recommendations based thereon might be useful for Finland, when implementing a country-wide network of forestry bookkeeping and cost accounting.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Penttinen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5444, category Article
Kari T. Korhonen, Matti Maltamo. (1991). The evaluation of forest inventory designs using correlation functions. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 2 article id 5444. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15598
Keywords: forest inventories; correlation analysis; correlograms; sampling error; spatial correlation,
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Correlation functions of the mean volume, land use class and soil class were estimated using the data of the Finnish National Forest Inventory. Estimated functions were used for approximating the standard error of e.g. the mean volume of a cluster of plots. Standard error estimates can be used for comparing different inventory designs.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Korhonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Maltamo, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown
article id 5439, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1991). Teemapäivä metsätieteellisen julkaisutoiminnan kehittämisestä 6.2.1991. Silva Fennica vol. 25 no. 1 article id 5439. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15593
English title: A seminar on development of forest scientific publication, held in 6.2.1991.
Keywords: forest research; forest science; scientific publications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a report on development of forest scientific publication, which was discussed in a seminar arranged by the Finnish Society of Forest Science on 6th February, 1991. The article includes the presentations held in the seminar. 

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5433, category Article
Marja-Leena Valkonen, Heikki Hänninen, Paavo Pelkonen, Tapani Repo. (1990). Frost hardiness of Scots pine seedlings during dormancy. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 4 article id 5433. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15587
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; frost hardiness; cold hardiness; annual cycle; chilling requirements; bud dormancy; rest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relationships between bud dormancy and frost hardiness were examined using two-year-old Pinus sylvestris L. seedlings. The chilling temperatures used were +4 and -2°C. To examine the dormancy release of the seedlings, a forcing technique was used. Frost hardiness was determined by artificial freezing treatments and measurements of electrical impedance. At the start of the experiment, the frost hardiness of the seedlings was about -25°C. After the rest break, the seedlings kept at +4°C dehardened until after eight weeks their frost hardiness reached -5°C. At the lower chilling temperature (-2°C) the frost hardiness remained at the original level. When moved from +4 to -2°C, seedlings were able to reharden only after the time required for bud burst in the forcing conditions had reached the minimum.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish

  • Valkonen, E-mail: mv@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Pelkonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
  • Repo, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown
article id 5431, category Article
Juha Siitonen. (1990). Potential forest pest beetles conveyed to Finland on timber imported from the Soviet Union. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 3 article id 5431. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15585
Keywords: Finland; forest pests; timber trade; Scolytidae; Soviet Union; pest introduction; timber import
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Coniferous timber imported by rail from the Soviet Union in Finland was studied for the presence of potential forest and timber pest beetles. Systematic samples of fourteen lots of pine pulpwood were examined. Seven of the lots originated from the European parts of the Soviet Union and seven from Siberia. 23 species of Scolytidae and about 18 other phloeophagous species were found including three species new for Finland: Phaenops guttulata (Buprestidae), Ips subelongatus and Orthotomicus erosus (Scolytidae).

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Siitonen, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5429, category Article
Hannu Mannerkoski, Veikko Möttönen. (1990). Maan vesitalous ja ilmatila metsäaurausalueilla. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 3 article id 5429. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15583
English title: Soil water conditions and air-filled porosity on ploughed reforestation areas.
Original keywords: maanmuokkaus; turvemaat; maavesi; maaveden potentiaali; huokostilavuus; pohjavedenpinta; vesipotentiaali; metsäauraus; kivennäismaat
English keywords: site preparation; Finland; peatlands; soil moisture; ground water table; water potential; soil aeration; forest ploughing; mineral soil sites
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Five ploughed research areas from Finnish Norther Karelia were selected for comparison studies of plough ridges and untouched soil. Measurements were made at a depth of 10 cm in sample plots on both mineral and paludified mineral soil and peatland parts of these areas. In summer 1987 daily soil water matric potential was measured using tensiometers, and volumetric soil moisture content and density were determined from soil samples at two dates during the summer. Water characteristics of the core samples were also determined. On paludified mineral and peat soils the water table depth from the soil surface was measured.

The results indicated that in plough ridges matric potential was lowest. Plough ridges were also seen to dry and wet faster and to a greater degree than untouched soils. In untouched soils, soil water relations and aeration were not affected by the distance to the furrow. The effect of the plough ridge was smallest on peatland, where there was a good capillary connection from plough ridge to the ground water, if the ditches were not very effective. The soil in the ridges did not dry too much to restrict seedling growth. The untouched surface soil in poorly drained peat and paludified minear soil was, at least in a rainy growing season, often and also for long times so wet that 10% minimum air space required for good seedling root growth was not available.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Mannerkoski, E-mail: hm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Möttönen, E-mail: vm@mm.unknown
article id 5427, category Article
Matti Nuorteva. (1990). Salama puustokuolemien aiheuttajana. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5427. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15581
English title: Lightning as a cause of death of tree groups.
Original keywords: metsätuhot; salaman isku; kuolleet puut
English keywords: forest damage; lightning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The writer reports in this discussion article of four stands in Finland that have died due to a bolt of lightning. A death of a group of trees because of lightning has been relatively uncommon for the forest professionals. The trees may not have no lightning marks. The four sites are presented in detail. Characteristic for this type of death of trees is, for instance, that trees have died within a circular area (of usually 30 m of diameter), only conifers have died, trees die from the top down, sometimes marks can be found in trees in the centre of the area, and under the bark may be brown patches or stripes.

  • Nuorteva, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5426, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1990). Pohjoisen havumetsävyöhykkeen suot ja niiden metsätaloudellinen hyväksikäyttö. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5426. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15580
English title: Peatlands of the boreal zone and their utilization in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäojitus; suot; soiden ojitus; havumetsävyöhyke
English keywords: forestry; peatlands; drainage of peatlands; boreal zone
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is a review on utilization of peatlands in forestry in the countries of boreal zone: Finland, Norway, Sweden, Canada, the United States and the Soviet Union. First, the concept of peatlands, the types of peatlands throughout the zone are defined, and the use of natural peatlands is described. Finally, the drainage of peatlands for forestry purposes in the countries is reviewed. According to the statistics, a total of 13 million ha of peatlands have been drained in Fennoscandia and the Soviet Union.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5421, category Article
Tiina Tonteri. (1990). Inter-observer variation in forest vegetation cover assessments. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 2 article id 5421. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15575
Keywords: vegetation survey; forest vegetation; canopy-coverage estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Differences in vegetation cover estimation by field biologists of the 8th National Forest Inventory in Finland were tested. Eleven observers estimated the canopy coverages of six forests taxa in 25 sample plots, located in one stand. The experiment was arranged after the field work. The coverage of Vaccinium vitis-idaea and the ground layer appeared to be the most difficult to estimate. The mean of the highest estimator was about double that of the lowest one. The least abundant species and the sample plots with the smallest coverages had the largest estimation errors. The most important compositional gradient of the data was natural, even though the test was made in a homogenous area. However, the effect of the observer could be recognized. The differences between observers could be caused by the differences both in visual estimation level and in placing the sampling frame. The results suggest that tests should always be made when several observers are used in vegetation surveys. If calibration is used, it should be made separately for each species.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Tonteri, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5408, category Article
Olavi Laiho. (1990). Mykorritsat ja niiden vaikutus metsään. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5408. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15560
English title: The significance of mycorrhizae to forest.
Original keywords: hapan sade; ilmansaasteet; mykorritsat; ektomykorritsat
English keywords: nitrogen; ectomycorrhiza; mycorrhiza; air pollution; acid rain; forest decline
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

While the most common type of mycorrhizae is endomycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae dominate in the case of coniferous trees. Pine, in particular, has a strong association with mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae enable trees to take up water and nutrients much more efficiently than the roots themselves. The fungus, in return, obtain carbohydrates and is able to grow and fruit. Mycorrhizal fungi are probably numbered in their thousands but so far few are known. Knowledge about their physiology, in particular, is lacking and studies dealing with their isolation and inoculation, which may be commercially valuable, remain unpublished. A new challenge for mycorrhiza research is the effects of air pollution. Forest suffering from extensive air pollution have few mycorrhizal fungi., infection is weak and the number of root deformations is high. As good mycorrhizae are important to tree health, there is a particular need to intensify mycorrhiza research.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Laiho, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5404, category Article
Pentti Alho. (1990). Suomen metsittyminen jääkauden jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5404. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15556
English title: The history of forests in Finland after the last ice age.
Original keywords: puulajit; jääkausi; metsittyminen; luonnonhistoria
English keywords: tree species; review articles; natural afforestation; ice age; natural history; post glacial
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Based on literature this paper describes the natural afforestation of Finland that took place after the last ice age and the changes which have taken place during the last 10,000 years. The origin and development of the vegetation and trees are related to the changes in the edaphic and climatic factors. The first tree species to arrive in Finland were the primary colonizing species, birch and Scots pine. The appearance of Norway spruce dates back to about 5000 B.P. There have been great changes in the species composition of Finnish forests during the last several thousands of years but some 2,000–3,000 years ago the various species reached their present balance. The epoch of naural forests, which had lasted some 9,500 years, came to a conclusion, however, when man started to have a marked effect on the forest’s development 300–400 years ago.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5403, category Article
Matti Leikola, Aune Koponen. (1990). Metsä Akatemiana. Silva Fennica vol. 24 no. 1 article id 5403. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15555
English title: Forests as an academy - Professor Paavo Yli-Vakkuri 75 years.
Keywords: forest research; forest education; Paavo Yli-Vakkuri
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

On 23th of March 1989 professor emeritus Paavo Yli-Vakkuri celebrated his 75th birthday. In 1963–1977 he acted as professor of silviculture and Head of the Department of Silviculture at the University of Helsinki. Due to his personality and positive attitude towards students and younger colleqaues, silviculture became the most popular subject for the graduate and postgraduate forestry students, and active research flourished at the Department of Silviculture during his era. This issue of Silva Fennica is dedicated to Paavo Yli-Vakkuri in gratitude and respect for his professional accomplishments in academic studies and research in forest sciences.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail:
  • Koponen, E-mail:
article id 5396, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1989). Uuteen maatalous- ja metsäakatemiaan. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 4 article id 5396. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15554
English title: Towards new agriculture and forest academy .
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; historia; maataloustieteet; tieteelliset seurat
English keywords: forest research; history; Finnish Society of Forest Science; scientific societies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a commentary which summarises the history of the Finnish Society of Forest Science and its connection to the corresponding society in the field of agriculture, the Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland. The original idea when the Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland was founded was that the society would function as a scientific society for both forest scientists and agronomists. However, A.K. Cajander founded a separate academy for forest sciences. The article discusses the implications of this decision. 

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5394, category Article
Pekka Kilkki. (1989). Kestävä metsätalous. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 4 article id 5394. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15552
English title: Sustainable forest management.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäekonomia; kestävä metsätalous
English keywords: forestry; sustainable forest management; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a review on the development of sustainable forest management and what has been meant with the term in different times. The article summarises the birth of sustainable use of forests in the world and in Finland, and discusses sustainability in forest management, for instance from the point of view of one forest holding, large clearcuttings performed in Lapland, biological sustainability, business economics and overall planning.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5393, category Article
Erkki Annila. (1989). Metsien kunto ja bioottiset tuhonaiheuttajat. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 4 article id 5393. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15551
English title: Condition of forests and biotic damages .
Original keywords: metsätalous; hyönteistuhot; ilmastonmuutos; ilmansaasteet; sienituhot
English keywords: forestry; climatic change; insect damages; air pollution; fungal pathogens
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This review discusses whether forests are affected by biotic damages due to present or future environmental disturbances, and do environmental threats, such as air pollution and climatic change, weaken the condition of forest in a way that makes them vulnerable to damages by fungi and insect. The defence mechanisms of trees and factors affecting the development of an outbreak are described. Finally, the ways that air pollution and climatic change may affect biotic damages are discussed. 

  • Annila, E-mail: ea@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5386, category Article
Risto Päivinen, Hannu Yli-Kojola. (1989). Permanent sample plots in large-area forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 3 article id 5386. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15544
Keywords: forest inventory; sampling; permanent sample plots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Theoretical and practical aspects of permanent sample plots are discussed in this paper. A study material of 6,871 permanent sample plots was generated using increment sample plots of the 7th National Forest Inventory of Finland. The effect of measurement errors and use of increment functions as ”a priori” information was studied via simulation experiments. The change in the growing stock volume between two consecutive measurement rounds was divided into the components drain, growth and mortality. Finally, a hypothetical inventory design using permanent sample plots was evaluated.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Päivinen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Yli-Kojola, E-mail: hy@mm.unknown
article id 5381, category Article
Jouko Hämäläinen. (1989). Ajatuksia metsän arvon määrittämisestä. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5381. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15538
English title: Thoughts about forest valuation.
Original keywords: metsänarvonlaskenta; korkokanta; summa-arvomenetelmä; diskonttausmenetelmä; kauppa-arvomenetelmä; kauppa-arvotaulukot
English keywords: forest valuation; rate of interest; market value tables
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this article the methods of forest valuation, especially the sales value tables previously published in Finland are critically examined. In this connection attention is drawn to the rate of interest used in calculating the forest values.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Hämäläinen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5380, category Article
Arto Rummukainen. (1989). Moreenimurskeella pinnoitettujen metsäteiden kunnossapito maataloustraktorikalustolla. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 2 article id 5380. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15537
English title: Maintenance of crushed moraine paved forest roads with agricultural tractor implements.
Original keywords: metsätiet; kunnossapito; maataloustraktori; moreenimursketiet; hydraulinen tärytin; lana
English keywords: maintenance; forest roads; tractors; implements; grain-size distribution; vibrating blade; pulled drag
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The condition of forest road pavements was studied in spring, one week after maintenance and in autumn. The effect of vibrating blade was slightly better than that of pulled drag. Large loose stones couldn’t be pressed into pavement with either of the implements. The use of the vibrating blade was three times as expensive as the use of the pulled drag, however, the blade is suitable for other purposes as well.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Rummukainen, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5372, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo, Mari-Anna Berg, Marja Mikkola, Helena Niemensivu. (1989). A cross-sectional population survey on the consumption pattern of berries and berry products in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 1 article id 5372. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15531
Keywords: wild berries; berries; berry products; consumption behaviour; garden berries; multiple use forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on a questionnaire sent to 5,000 randomly sampled persons representing the adult population in Finland. The results give a picture of the amounts of berries preserved for home use and the consumption patterns of berries and berry products in the population and its various subgroups. Non-commercial berry consumption accounts for a considerable part of the total use of fruits and berries. However, use of berries and berry products decreases with the degree of urbanization and from older age classes to young. The results support the view that imported fruits and commercial juices are substitute products to domestic berries. It would appear that the consumer’s choice between fruits and berries is primarily regulated by the availability of berries.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Berg, E-mail: mb@mm.unknown
  • Mikkola, E-mail: mm@mm.unknown
  • Niemensivu, E-mail: hn@mm.unknown
article id 5370, category Article
Harri Rantonen, Juhani Päivänen. (1989). Kasvatusmetsien metsänhoidollinen tila ojitusalueilla puunkorjuun jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 23 no. 1 article id 5370. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15529
English title: Silvicultural condition of tree stands after thinning on drained peatlands.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; harvennusvoimakkuus
English keywords: forest management; harvesting; forest drainage; silviculture; drained peatland; thinning intensity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The area of stands studied by line plot survey was 594 ha. On the basis of the length of the inventory line the estimated proportion of harvesting strips was 14% and that of ditch openings 6% of the area. The calculated strip road spacing was 29 m. The option of the minimum diameter made it difficult to use the number of stems as criterion for thinning intensity. Thinning intensity evaluated according to the basal area had been stronger than recommended with low values of dominant height and milder with high values. The estimated removal according to stumps was 38 m3/ha on the average between the strips. The real removal has, however, been larger than that, as the strip road openings are made in connection with the first thinning.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Rantonen, E-mail: hr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown
article id 5366, category Article
Pekka Ollonqvist. (1988). Resurssien jakautumisen tehokkuuden ja päätöksentekijöiden tavoitteiden mittauksessa tapahtuneista muutoksista metsäekonomiassa. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5366. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15523
English title: The quarter century development in the paradigms of forestry economics.
Original keywords: tutkimus; metsätalous; metsäekonomia; päätöksenteko
English keywords: decision making; forestry; research; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The two introductory books written by emeritus professor William Duerr provide an opportunity to scope the research progress in the forest economic discipline during almost a quarter century. This paper gives a presentation of the books (Fundamentals of Forest economics, 1960, and Forestry Economics as Problem Solving, 1984), and the development of forest economics during the period.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ollonqvist, E-mail: po@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5365, category Article
Pasi Puttonen. (1988). Metsänuudistamistutkimuksen arvioinnin seminaari 28.4.1988. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5365. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15522
English title: Presentation report of evaluation group on forest regeneration research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänuudistaminen; Suomen Akatemia; arviointi
English keywords: evaluation; forest research; forest regeneration research; Academy of Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Academy of Finland commissioned a review of forest regeneration research. This paper summarises the evaluation. The report deals with the individual research projects and, in addition, the international evaluation group gives several recommendations to develop the forest regeneration research further. The recommendations concern education and training, publications, peer review, experimental design, routine work and extension service, and technology transfer. The paper also includes comments of the Finnish Forest Institute, the Finnish Society of Forest Science and a research scientist on the results of the evaluation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Puttonen, E-mail:
article id 5363, category Article
Veli Pohjonen, Timo Pukkala. (1988). Profitability of establishing Eucalyptus globulus plantations in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5363. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15520
Keywords: reforestation; Ethiopia; Eucalyptus globulus; simulation of growth; economic analysis; land use planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The economic analysis is based on computer simulations which covered a seedling rotation and three successive coppice rotations. Calculations were carried out for the four site productivity classes in Eucalyptus globulus plantations. The rotation length that maximized the land expectation value is 12–20 years for seedling rotation and 8–16 years for coppice rotations with discounting rates 2–8%. The mean wood production is over 40 m3/ha/a in the best site class and about 10 m3/ha/a in the poorest class with rotation lengths ranging from 10 to over 20 years. Thinnings increase the wood production and land expectation value by a few percentage points. In areas suitable to Eucalyptus globulus growth, the land expectation value is considerably higher in forestry than in agriculture, except in very poor areas or with very high rate of interest.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pohjonen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
article id 5362, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Heikki Hänninen, Taneli Kolström. (1988). Model computations on the impacts of the climatic change on the productivity and silvicultural management of the forest ecosystem. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5362. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15519
Keywords: boreal forests; adaptation; simulation; climatic change; future silviculture; changing environment; pest management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The model computations indicate that the climatic change in the form of higher temperatures and more precipitation could increase the productivity of the forest ecosystem and lead to higher rates of regeneration and growth. More frequent and intensive thinnings are needed to avoid the mortality of trees induced by accelerated maturation and attacks of fungi and insects. The climatic change could support the dominance of deciduous tree species and necessitate an intensification of the tending of seedling stands of conifers. The rise of air temperature during autumn and winter could change also the annual growth rhythm of trees and result in dehardening and subsequent frost damages and attacks of insects and fungi. The pest management could be the greatest challenge to the future silviculture, which could be modified most in Northern Finland.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown
  • Kolström, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5359, category Article
Olli Haltia, Markku Simula. (1988). Linkages of forestry and forest industry in the Finnish economy. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 4 article id 5359. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15516
Keywords: forestry; Finland; employment; national economy; forest industries; input-output analysis; sectoral growth
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose was to analyse the importance of forestry and forest industry in the Finnish economic development since the 1950’s, and to find out how the sector has contributed to the growth of the national economy through other sectors. Data were derived from the input-output tables of 1959, 1970 and 1980. Information provided by Hirschmanian linkages was expanded by taking into account e.g. induced, consumption, final demand and absorption linkages. The linkages of forestry and forest industry had multiplied during the study period. Both final demand linkages and intermediate product linkages were significant. The sector’s contribution to the development of metal and machinery and equipment industries as well as that of energy/water supply was significant. Integration with most other sectors has increased. Indirect production coefficients of forestry and forest industry were larger than on average in manufacturing. Because of labour productivity growth, production and employment coefficients were different.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Haltia, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Simula, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5357, category Article
Heikki Hänninen, Paavo Pelkonen. (1988). Effects of temperature on dormancy release in Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 3 article id 5357. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15514
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; bud burst; dormancy release; annual cycle of development; chilling requirement; rest period; simulation model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Models concerning the effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants were tested using two-year old seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Chilling experiments suggest that the rest period has a distinct end point. Before the attainment of this end point high temperatures do not promote bud development towards dormancy release, and after it further chilling does not affect the subsequent bud development. A new hypothesis of dormancy release is suggested on the basis of a comparison between present and earlier findings. No difference in the proportion of growth commencing seedlings were detected between the forcing temperatures of 17°C and 22°C. The rest break of 50% of Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings required six and eight weeks of chilling, respectively. Great variation in the chilling requirement was found, especially for Scots pine.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pelkonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
article id 5349, category Article
Raphael E. L. Ole-Meiludie, Goodseldah K. Pamba. (1988). Time study on different techniques for nursery pot filling operation. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 5349. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15506
Keywords: productivity; time study; Tanzania; nursery pot filling; forest tree nursery
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Time study on different techniques in nursery pot filling operations at SUA Training Forest in Northern Tanzania was conducted. The results showed that improved tools and work place design significantly decreased the operation time, hence increased productivity. In addition, worker’s comfort was generally increased.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Ole-Meiludie, E-mail: ro@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pamba, E-mail: gp@mm.unknown
article id 5346, category Article
Timo Pukkala. (1988). Methods to incorporate the amenity of landscape into forest management planning. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 5346. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15503
Keywords: forest management; landscape management; multipurpose forestry; multiobjective planning; computer simulation; mathematical optimization; management plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents methods that incorporate the amenity of a forest area into the management planning. The management plan is based on treatment schedules simulated for each compartment over the 20-year planning period. The best combination of treatment schedules is selected by multi-objective optimization. The amenity is divided into two parts: (1) within-stand amenity and (2) the amenity of landscape when viewed afar (distant scene). The within-stand amenity is expressed in terms of adjective sum which is estimated from stand characteristics. The adjective sum of the whole area in a selected year can be taken as an objective or constraining variable of optimization. The assessment of the distant scene is based on computer illustrations which show the predicted temporal change of landscape according to a particular management plan.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5345, category Article
Leo Koutaniemi, Raimo Koponen, Kyösti Rajanen. (1988). Podzolization as studied from terraces of various ages in two river valleys, Northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 5345. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15502
Keywords: boreal forest; Finland; Lapland; nutrient concentration; podzol; podzolization; taiga
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study was made in the Ivalojoki and Oulankajoki valleys, consisting of terraces of well sorted sandy material aged 9500–300 B.P. The vegetation is characterized by dry and moderately dry forest types with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) as the dominant tree species. The study included: forest types, particle size and sorting of mineral horizons, thickness of horizons, amount of organic material, pH, electrical conductivity, and NH4OAc (pH 4.56) extractable Fe, Al, P, K, Mg, Mn and Zn concentrations. The principal aim was to study the interrelationships between all these properties with special reference to the age of the soil.

The results allowed a distinction to be made between the following categories: (1) features typical of podsolization (e.g. increase in leaching of Fe and Al with age of soil from the A2), (2) certain factors showing higher values in the north (Ivalo) than in the south (Oulanka), principally Fe and Mg, (3) declining trends in P, Mg, Mn and Zn concentrations with age, which may partly be due to the geological history, and (4) declining trends in amount of organic material and electrical conductivity with age, these both being factors arising from the geological history rather than from podzolization.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Koutaniemi, E-mail: lk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Koponen, E-mail: rk@mm.unknown
  • Rajanen, E-mail: kr@mm.unknown
article id 5342, category Article
Ilari Lumme, Timo Törmälä. (1988). Selection of fast-growing willow (Salix spp.) clones for short-rotation forestry on mined peatlands in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5342. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15499
Keywords: biomass production; breeding; Salix spp.; short-rotation forestry; willows; Salix viminalis; Salix myrsinifolia; winter hardiness; clone selection; mined peat areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Possibilities of developing suitable willow (Salix spp.) clones for short-rotation forestry on mined peatlands in the north-western area of Finland were studied in a field experiment in which 300 willow clones were tested during 1985–87. Most of the tested clones started to grow from cuttings on limed and fertilized peat soil. Salix viminalis L. clones of southern origin had a higher leafless above ground biomass production than the well adapted control clone and the local Finnish willows, but their winter hardiness was not satisfactory. The growth habit of some southern willows was also better than that of the control clone. It was also possible to select clones with good sprouting capacity. There were few Salix myrsinifolia Calisb. clones of Finnish origin, which had better cold tolerance than all other willows tested and higher biomass production than that of the control clone. The most critical factor to be selected for this is the optimal combination of winter hardiness and biomass production. This is attempted by selecting clones on the basis of this experiment for a breeding program.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lumme, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
  • Törmälä, E-mail: tt@mm.unknown
article id 5341, category Article
Hannu Hökkä, Jukka Laine. (1988). Suopuustojen rakenteen kehitys ojituksen jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5341. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15498
English title: Post-drainage development of structural characteristics in peatland forest stands.
Original keywords: metsikön rakenne; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; eri-ikäisrakenne; runkoluku; läpimittajakauma
English keywords: stand structure; drained peatlands; diameter distribution; forest drainage; uneven-aged structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of drainage on structure of tree stands is analysed by comparing the average structural characteristics (e.g. diameter distribution) of stands in the data for different drainage age classes and selected site types. The material consists of ca. 4,400 relascope sample plots, which are part of a large drainage area inventory project. The uneven-aged structure of the virgin peatland forest is preserved for several decades after drainage. This is enhanced by the post-drainage increase of small-diameter trees, especially birch. The number of trees per hectare increased during a period of ca. 30 years and levelled off thereafter. The increase in the number of saw log stems is clearly related to the fertility of the site and its geographical location.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hökkä, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
article id 5340, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1988). Development in techniques for studying forest roads on peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 22 no. 1 article id 5340. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15497
Keywords: moisture content; peatlands; bearing capacity; settlement; forest roads; measurement methods; subsurface profiling; microwave
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A light seismic method, a short-pulse radar and a microwave probe are tested in assessing the properties of a forest road constructed on peatland. The light seismic method gave reliable values for estimating the bearing capacity of the road. It was found that bearing capacity was mostly dependent on embankment thickness, but quality of fabric might also have an influence. Embankment thickness and peat depth can be measured on the radiogram, and some additional information on road bed and peat obtained. The microwave peat probe permits recording of the continuous moisture profile in situ, which improves accuracy of planning.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5337, category Article
Pekka Hako. (1987). Musiikki, metsä ja ihminen. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5337. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15494
English title: Music, forest and man.
Original keywords: kulttuuri; metsä; identiteetti; musiikki
English keywords: Finnish identity; symbolism; forest music
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finnish music national forests and international urban culture meet in an original way. Around the last turn of century, composers believe they had discovered their spiritual roots in nature and especially in the forests. The universal musical language of Jean Sibelius, for example, is based on a deep Finnish identity, the atmosphere of Kalevala. Sibelius’ Tapiola is, thus, among our century’s most powerful musical interpretations of feelings about nature. Nature inspired music is, generally, associated with such positive qualities as beauty, peace, softness, light and joy. A great deal of forest music is based on literature, where natural images have almost always had a positive interpretation.
The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hako, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5336, category Article
Pekka Virtanen. (1987). Kansanperinteen metsäkuvia. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5336. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15493
English title: The forest in Finnish folk lore.
Original keywords: kansanperinne; metsähistoria; metsäperinne
English keywords: forest history; folklore; forest traditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Several views to forest’s role in the Finnish folklore are presented. They clearly show how many important dimensions forests have had in Finnish life. Descriptions concentrate on forest-related traditions of ancient times. They give a basis to examining the role of forests in the modern Finnish mind.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar 'The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Virtanen, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5335, category Article
Juhani Pallasmaa. (1987). Metsän arkkitehtuuri. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5335. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15492
English title: The architecture of the forest.
Original keywords: maisema; arkkitehtuuri; kansallisromantiikka; funktionalismi; kaupungit; metsäkaupunki
English keywords: forest; landscape; architecture; national romanticism; functionalism; towns; garden city
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents aspects of town and forest architecture. A feature of the Finnish building tradition is that the forest is allowed to grow next to buildings. After the Second World War a new type of town was created in Finland, ”the forest town”. The most prominent feature of the history of Finnish architecture, from national romanticism to functionalism and up to the present day, is the modification of international ideals to a certain ”forest culture” style.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Pallasmaa, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5334, category Article
Aimo Reitala. (1987). Metsä suomalaisessa kuvataiteessa. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5334. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15491
English title: Forests in Finnish art.
Original keywords: maisema; metsä; kuvataide; kansallisromantiikka
English keywords: forest; landscape; identity; art; realism; national romanticism
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish forest was elevated into an appreciated artistic motif by Werner Holmberg with his picture ”The Finnish conifer forest” in 1858. The second significant period was during national romanticism in the 1980’s, when the decorative beauty of the winter forests was discovered. At the turn of the century, the forest obtained a central national symbolic significance, and many leading artists regarded increased cuttings as a rape of the forests. Since that period, individual artists have succeeded in bringing new features in the art history of our forests.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Reitala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5333, category Article
Pekka Suhonen. (1987). Metsä ja kirjallisuus. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5333. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15490
English title: Forest and literature.
Original keywords: kirjallisuudentutkimus; metsäkirjallisuus; metsästyskirjallisuus; savottakirjallisuus; metsästysrunot; mytologia
English keywords: literary science; forest literature; logger literature; hunting literature; hunting poems; mythology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In world literature, there are many forests of significance, e.g. oak forest of Mamre and in Dante’s Divine Comedy. Finnish literature has abounded with forest topics since ancient folkore. We have a literature of floaters, loggers and paper workers of industrialized Finland, not to speak of a hunting literature. A major theme is ”from forest to town”, where the first work, Aleksis Kivi’s ”Seven brothers”, is a landmark in Finnish literature. Forests of many other authors are also presented, as well as ancient chants and poems.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Suhonen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5332, category Article
Aarne Reunala. (1987). Metsä arkkityyppinä. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5332. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15489
English title: Forest as an archetype.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsä; kansanperinne; aineettomat arvot; symboliikka
English keywords: forestry; forest; folklore; archetypes; folk tradition; symbolism; intangible values
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to universal primitive beliefs, there was a huge pole or tree in the centre of the universe to support the sky. These beliefs gave rise to innumerable customs where both trees and wood have been used to promote health and good luck. Even today, many such customs exist: the Christmas tree, maypole, Midsummer birches, birch whisks in the Finnish sauna, ritual tree plantings etc. In addition to the tree, also the forest as both a protecting and a frightening maternal symbol can be considered as an archetype. Intensive forestry diminishes the archetypal contents of forests, which may be one reason behind critical attitudes towards modern forestry.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Reunala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5331, category Article
Pirkko Siltala. (1987). Metsän turvallisuus. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5331. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15488
English title: The security of the forest.
Original keywords: metsä; turvallisuudentunne; kokemus
English keywords: forest; sense of safety; experience
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The security provided by forests is approached through various authors’ descriptions and through psychotherapeutic experience. The lap of the forest can recreate early security, protection and unity, for example the lap of mother or father. The forest is also a safe place to externalize inner feelings, desires, fears and erotic images. Intensive forest management and air pollution are nowadays threatening the protective role of forests.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Siltala, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5330, category Article
Pirkkoliisa Ahponen. (1987). Metsä elämäntavassa. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5330. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15487
English title: The forest in way of life studies.
Original keywords: metsä; elämäntapa; suomalaisuus; luontosuhde; elämäntapatutkimus
English keywords: forest; way of life; finnishness; relationship with nature; sociological studies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Sociological studies on the way of life tell rather little about the impact of forests on Finn’s everyday life. The change of life styles, urbanization and middle-class values, signify a detachment from immediate and practical relationship with nature. Those born in the countryside conserve their relationship with nature in their leisure activities, but the urban-born generation needs the mass-media, education, travel and other institutions in order to maintain and develop its relationship with nature.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ahponen, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5327, category Article
Yrjö Sepänmaa. (1987). Metsäestetiikka ja metsän estetiikka. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5327. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15484
English title: Forstästhetik and forest aesthetics.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; estetiikka; kulttuurimetsä; luonnonmetsä; symboliarvo
English keywords: natural forest; silviculture; aesthetics; cultural forest; symbol value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forstästhetik is a programme for forest management, resembling an art manifesto. Forest managers are programme executors. Forest aesthetics is forest investigation from the point of view of beauty. In the case of managed forests, it is possible to ask, what is the manager’s programme and his skill to achieve personal solutions. In forests, the functioning and sustainability of the ecosystem are basic principles affecting all other values. On this basis it is possible to evaluate the competence of taste systems and the logic of their application.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepänmaa, E-mail: ys@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5326, category Article
Matti Linkola. (1987). Metsä kulttuurimaisemana. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5326. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15483
English title: The forest as a cultural landscape.
Original keywords: kaskiviljely; asutus; metsämaisema; kulttuurimaisema; metsälaidunnus
English keywords: forest landscape; cultural landscape; slash-and-burn cultivation; land occupation; forest grazing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The main features of the Finnish landscape are a result of preglacial erosion processes and the structural lines of the bedrock. The microstructure of the landscape was created by the Ice Age and its melting processes. Upon this base, human activities have created a palimpsest of cultural landscapes. The article describes the effects of slash-and-burn cultivation, tar production, cattle ranging and some other forest uses to the forest landscape. 

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Linkola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5325, category Article
Eero Julkunen, Altti Kuusamo. (1987). Kansallis/omaisuus. Metsän mielikuvat isänmaallisissa lauluissa ja metsämainoksissa. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5325. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15482
English title: Images of forests in patriotic songs and forest advertisements.
Original keywords: semiotiikka; populaarikulttuuri; suomalainen identiteetti; isänmaalliset laulut; metsämainokset
English keywords: semiotics; popular culture; Finnish identity; patriotic songs; forest advertisements
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article compares forest images in provincial and patriotic songs and in forest advertisements by banks and insurance companies. In songs, coniferous forests represent the primaeval nature and broadleaved forests represent culture. Coniferous forest is the real patriotic forest. Forest images in advertisements are twofold: both elevated patriotic forests and profane raw-material forests are found.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Julkunen, E-mail: ej@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kuusamo, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
article id 5324, category Article
Jussi Raumolin. (1987). Metsän suojassa. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5324. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15481
English title: Under the shelter of forests: some thoughts about political anthropology and the geopolitics of forests.
Original keywords: metsät; poliittinen antropologia; geopolitiikka; sotahistoria; sissisodankäynti
English keywords: state formation; geopolitics; guerilla warfare; forest warfare; political anthropology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Only a few studies exist concerning the political anthropology and geopolitics of forests. The role of forests in European geopolitics and their role in restraining concentration of power and promoting guerrilla warfare is examined. The shelter of forest cover has been a fundamental factor for the formation of the Finnish people and it has also played an important role in the defence of independent Finland. Clearcuttings, forest roads and modern reconnaissance technology have recently diminished the protective shelter of forests.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Raumolin, E-mail: jr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5322, category Article
Juhani Pietarinen. (1987). Ihminen ja metsä. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5322. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15479
English title: Man and the forest.
Original keywords: asenteet; metsä; utilismi; mystisismi; humanismi; primitivismi
English keywords: forest; attitudes; utilitarism; humanism; primitivism; mysticism
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Four basic attitudes towards forests are distinguished: In utilitarianism the forest is seen merely as a means of increasing the standard of living. Humanism strives for the forest use in the service of educational ideals. Mysticism aims at an immediate experience of unity between man and nature. Primitivism denies all human privileges in nature. These attitudes describe that multiple relations exist between man and forest. An essential question is which attitude can best be defended.

The paper is based on a lecture given in the seminar ‘The forest as a Finnish cultural entity’, held in Helsinki in 1986. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Pietarinen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5321, category Article
Aarne Reunala, Pekka Virtanen. (1987). Metsä suomalaisten elämässä. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 5321. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15478
English title: The forest as a Finnish cultural entity.
Original keywords: maisema; seminaari; kulttuuri; metsä; identiteetti; symboli; kansanperinne
English keywords: forest; landscape; seminar; culture; identity; symbol; folklore
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This publication consists of 16 papers on importance of forests to Finns, mainly from the viewpoint of various social and humanistic sciences. The articles are based on lectures given to a seminar organized in Helsinki, December 18-19, 1986.

This paper includes preface and list of the speeches in English.

  • Reunala, E-mail:
  • Virtanen, E-mail:
article id 5320, category Article
Veikko Hintikka. (1987). Germination ecology of Galeopsis bifida (Lamiaceae) as a pioneer species in forest succesion. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5320. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15477
Keywords: prescribed burning; Galeopsis bifida; germination ecology; pioneer species; forest succession; release of seed dormancy; clear-cut area
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The occurrence of Caleopsis bifida on clear-cut and burned forest soil and its disappearance in 4–6 years after disturbance is attributed to its germination ecology. Initially the seeds are dormant 96–100% and remain dormant in nylon gaze bags in different types of forest humus layers at least 10 years. Dormancy is released in laboratory (1) by treatment of 100 ppm aqueous solution of GA3, (2) by heating the dormant seeds to 40–55°C for 1–5 h, and (3) by 1% KNO3 solution. It is concluded that conditions in clear-cut and burned areas favour germination of seeds in regard to temperature and content of nitrates in contrast to humus of closed vegetation where the seeds remain dormant.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Hintikka, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5319, category Article
Heikki Hänninen. (1987). Effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5319. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15476
Keywords: temperature; bud burst; dormancy; annual cycle of development; dormancy breaking; chilling requirement; rate of development; rest period; simulation model; stage of development
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Logical structure of three simulation models and one conceptual model concerning effects of temperature on dormancy release in woody plants was examined. The three basic types of simulation models differed in their underlying assumptions. Contrasting implications of the models were inferred by deduction. With the aid of these implications, the model types can be tested using experiments with continuous and interrupted chilling. Similarly, implications of the conceptual model of rest phases were inferred, by which the model can be tested using experiments with continuous chilling and forcing in multiple temperatures. The possibilities to synthetize the conceptual model with any of the three simulation model types, as well as the biological interpretation of the model variables, were discussed.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5318, category Article
Tapio Lindholm, Harri Vasander. (1987). Vegetation and stand development of mesic forest after prescribed burning. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 3 article id 5318. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15475
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; succession; forest types; Myrtillus type; controlled burning; prescibed burning; boreal zone
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study deals with the succession of vegetation and tree stand in 16 mesic Myrtillus site type Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations after prescribed burning in Evo, Southern Finland. The oldest tree stands studied were about 30-year-old. The growth of trees followed the height index of Myrtillus type. The vegetation was first mesic, dominated by grasses and herbs, turning more xeric after four years. This change was accelerated by treatment with herbicides. After the closure of tree stand, vegetation became more characteristic of forest vegetation, but pioneer species and composition disappeared slowly. The basic characters of vegetation succession could be clearly described by DCA ordination and TWINSPAN classification. The study confirmed that Myrtillus type has succession phases which are typical for each age phases as Cajander’s forest site type theory has proposed. However, differences in primary and secondary site factors have their own effects on the vegetation of the succession phases.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Lindholm, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Vasander, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown
article id 5315, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Matti Seppälä. (1987). Simulations on the effects of timber harvesting and forest management on the nutrient cycle and productivity of Scots pine stands. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 2 article id 5315. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15472
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; productivity; fertilization; nitrogen; simulation; rotation; timber harvest; nitrogen cycle
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Effects of varying rotation, thinning, fertilization and harvest intensity on the productivity and nitrogen cycle of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand were studied on the basis of computer simulation. The increasing intensity of management increased the loss of nitrogen in the cycle. Short rotation, associated with early thinning by means of the whole tree harvest, proved to be especially detrimental regarding the productivity of the forest ecosystem. Fertilization associated with thinnings is of great importance in maintaining the productivity of a forest ecosystem during an intensive timber harvest.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5314, category Article
M. Saarilahti, E. Bakena, G. Mboya, T. Minja, T. Ngerageze, J. Ntahompagaze. (1987). Studies on Tanzanian forest work. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 2 article id 5314. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15471
Keywords: logging; time study; heart rate; work load; forest work; production rate; Africa; performance rating; manual timber cutting; sulky skidding; energy expenditure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Four teams of two workers were time-studied in clearcutting of a cypress plantation and three teams in sulky skidding. The heart rate was recorded every 30 s. The average heartrate in timber cutting was 117.5 ± 13.4 P/min, and it was mainly dependent on worker’s working capacity. Average work load index was 41 ± 3% when working at 97% performance. The production rate was then 2.5 m3/h (crew). In sulky skidding the heart rate was lower, 106 ± 1.1 P/min, as well as the work load (WLI 30 ± 1%) and performance rating (87%). The low production rate (1.1 m3/h) (crew)) over 45 m distance is mainly due to under-dimensioned load size. The energy expenditure in timber cutting was 21.4 kJ/min and in sulky skidding 16.3 kJ/min. Daily energy expenditure was 15.0 MJ/d, and most of the timber cutters belonged to the class ”exceptionally active”.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
  • Bakena, E-mail: eb@mm.unknown
  • Mboya, E-mail: gm@mm.unknown
  • Minja, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown
  • Ngerageze, E-mail: tn@mm.unknown
  • Ntahompagaze, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown
article id 5313, category Article
Pentti Lähteenoja. (1987). Effects of forestry extension courses. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 2 article id 5313. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15470
Keywords: forestry; forest owners; private forestry; extension activities; forest advisory service
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The attitudinal, behavioural and cognitive effects of four forestry extension and training courses were evaluated. The courses produced positive effects on the participants’ forestry knowledge. Further new forestry skills were adopted, and the courses had some positive behavioural effects. The attitudinal effects of the courses were mainly inconclusive. Differences between the evaluated courses were remarkable.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Lähteenoja, E-mail: pl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5309, category Article
Veli Pohjonen. (1987). Salix "Aquatica Gigantea" and Salix x dasyclados Wimm. in biomass willow research. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 2 article id 5309. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15466
Keywords: biomass; short rotation forestry; Salix spp.; willow systematics; Salix 'Aquatica Gigantea'; Salix burjatica; Salix x dasyclados
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Salix 'Aquatica Gigantea', widely experimented and promising species for temperate zone short rotation forestry, has since 1950 recorded in Finland 23 times with different clone numbers. Salix x dasyclados Wimm., by morphological, cultivational and productivity characteristics similar willow has been recorded 16 times.

The nomenclature and origin of both willows have remained unclear in field research. Recent observations, based on morphological analyses and chromosome studies suggest that ’Aguatica gigantea’ and most S. x dasuclados clones can be collected under one Siberian species: Salix burjatica Nasarov. The true Salix x dasyclados Wimm. is a female hybrid S. x viminalis x cinerea, famous West-European basket willow that has been very little experimented in Finland.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Pohjonen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5308, category Article
Martti Saarilahti, R. E. L. Ole-Meiludie. (1987). Production rate and work strain on workers in cutting of pines in Tanzania. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 1 article id 5308. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15465
Keywords: logging; forest work; physical stress; Tanzania; payment system; production rate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A team of 2 experienced workers was time-studied and their heart rate recorded under 4 days in clearcutting of a highly self-pruned Pinus patula Schltdl. & Cham. plantation. Task work and bonus payment systems were compared, but there was no difference in production rate, only the workplace time was extended from 2.3 h/d in task work to 3.9 h/d in bonus payment. The heart rate was 115–116 P/min in felling, 105–109 P/min in debranching and 109–114 P/min in bucking. The average heart rate in timber cutting was 108–109 P/min. Work load index was 34–37%, and the workers did not show any symptoms of accumulated stress. The production rate was 3.2 m3/h, (WPT, crew), which corresponds average piecework rate, the comparable walking speed being about 6.0 km/h. There are possibilities to increase the daily task by ergonomic grounds.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ole-Meiludie, E-mail: ro@mm.unknown
article id 5307, category Article
Simo Poso, Raito Paananen, Markku Similä. (1987). Forest inventory by compartments using satellite imagery. Silva Fennica vol. 21 no. 1 article id 5307. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15464
Keywords: forest inventory; stand characteristics; remote sensing; Landsat 5 TM; forest inventory and monitoring; two phase sampling; ancillary information
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A method for using satellite data in forest inventories and updating is described and tested. The stand characteristics estimated by the method showed high correlation with the same characteristics measured in the field. The correlation coefficients for volume, age and mean height were about 0.85. It seems that the method is applicable to practical forestry. Extensive work in programming, however, is required.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Paananen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
  • Similä, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5301, category Article
Birger Solberg. (1986). Forest sector simulation models as methodological tools in forest policy analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5301. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27757
Keywords: forest policy; Norway; simulation models; forest sector models; forest policy analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The usefulness of forest sector models in forest policy analysis is discussed, mainly based on experiences from Norway. Forest sector modelling is contrasted to two alternative approaches: (i) Intuitive, verbal analysis, and (ii) econometric models. It is concluded that forest sector models, properly developed in contact with the policy makers, should be of considerable value in forest policy analysis.

  • Solberg, E-mail: bs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5300, category Article
Takuro Kishine. (1986). Optimizing simulation model on forest policy. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5300. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27756
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; welfare; environment; Japan; simulation system model; policy formation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper designs an Economy-Welfare-Environment Adjustment System model (EWEAS model or EWE model in short) which consists of the circular flow of the economic, the welfare, and the environment system of forestry. That is, this model builds the relationship between the systems for material wealth and that for mental wealth.

The EWE model is designed as a complete open system model which describes the economy-welfare-environment circular system in forestry by linking up the internal system of forestry with the surrounding external systems. The EWE model can be manipulated as a policy formation or a policy decision model, and it is available for policy evaluation in the economic, the welfare and the environmental phase of forestry. The model is a basic simulation system model which is reliable in its reproductive fitness, stability and universality. Thus, this model ought to be useful in any country in the world as well as in Japan.

  • Kishine, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5299, category Article
Shigeru Shimotori. (1986). Private and municipal forests and the forestry planning system in Japan - trends and problems after World War II. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5299. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27755
Keywords: forest management; forest owners; forest resources; private forestry; Japan; forestry policy; forestry planning system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this paper, the author explains the characteristics of the Japanese forestry planning system and points out some of the problems found therein from the viewpoint of the management of privately-owned forests relating to the economic background and governmental policy.

The forestry planning system is a centralizes type of planning, the planning begins at the top and flows downward and outward the periphery. In order to make this planning system an effective instrument, the district forestry planning founded under the system must approach the problem of how to combine the resources of the forest with the district’s inhabitants and the forest owners; and further, the extent of the effective union of the district and the local timber manufacturing must be examined.

  • Shimotori, E-mail: ss@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5298, category Article
Frederick W. Cubbage, Donald G. Hodges. (1986). Public and private technical assistance programs for non-industrial private forest landowners in the southern United States. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5298. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27754
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; private forestry; United States; forest extension; forest advisory services; forest consulting; forest management plans; supervision
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Non-industrial private landowners hold about two-thirds of the forest land in the southern United States. The types of public (state) and private (consulting and industrial) assistance offered to these owners is reviewed. In total, about 1,600 foresters in the South provide management assistance to non-industrial private forest owners. They assist at least 72,000 owners annually, including provision of management plans for about 10 million acres and supervision of over 4 million acres of leased lands.

  • Cubbage, E-mail: fc@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hodges, E-mail: dh@mm.unknown
article id 5297, category Article
P. A. Harou. (1986). The EC context for private forestry incentive evaluation. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5297. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27753
Keywords: forest policy; evaluation; European Community; forestry incentives
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A brief overview of forestry in European Community (EC) of the 9 is presented. Forestry incentives seem necessary for increasing timber production on private ownership in order to avoid possible price inflation.

In the economic analysis of the program evaluation method proposed here to assess the efficiency of such incentives, a broad EC perspective is recommended to avoid erroneous conclusion. The evaluation made from the prospect of a member country only is artificial and is influenced by EC policies anyway. The evaluation changes depending on whether these EC policies are considered given and immutable or not.

  • Harou, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5296, category Article
Russell K. Henly, Paus V. Ellefson. (1986). Cost and effectiveness of legal mandates for the practice of forestry on private land. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5296. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27752
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; forest legislation; private forestry; United States; forest laws; regulation of forest practices; protection of forest resources
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Comprehensive state laws regulating the practice of forest management on private lands are in effect in seven of the United States. Established to protect a wide range of non-timber forest resources and to ensure reforestation after harvest, these laws may impose significant administrative costs on states and significant compliance costs on landowners and timber operators. Total state administration costs for 1984 are estimated at $10.1 and total private sector compliance costs are estimated at $120.5 million, for a total regulation cost of $130.6 million.

The resource protection effectiveness of state forest practice regulation is difficult to quantify. However, agreement is strong that regulation has led to significant improvements in forest resource conditions and has helped to increase reforestation.

  • Henly, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ellefson, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown
article id 5295, category Article
J. E. de Steiguer, J. P. Royer. (1986). Increasing forestry investments by means of public policy programs. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5295. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27751
Keywords: forest policy; forest owners; timber supply; timber prices; nonindustrial private forestry; timber demand; NIPF behaviour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1979, the Federal Research in the United States instituted a so-called ”tight money” policy which led to a decrease in the demand for stumpage. The decrease in demand brought about lower stumpage prices and, consequently, a waning interest in policies to stimulate NIPF production. The authors report on five recent studies on NIPF behaviour and raise concerns that increases in demand for housing may bring new pressure upon NIPF as a source of wood.

  • Steiguer, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
  • Royer, E-mail: jr@mm.unknown
article id 5294, category Article
Gordon D. Lewis. (1986). The role of policy in forest resource development. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5294. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27750
Keywords: forest policy; sustainable forestry; forest resources; social forestry; exploitation; resource protection; natural resource development
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A nation that wishes to enhance its social and economic well-being through more intensive utilization of its forest resources must develop a rather comprehensive policy statement to ensure that the expanded exploitation does not lead to the destruction of these resources. The policy must specify the goals to be achieved, provide general direction on how these goals can be achieved, and develop a system of checks-and-balances to ensure achievement of the long-term objectives. The policy must consider resource protection, the economic needs at the various levels of government, the social impacts of utilization on ways of life in all areas of the nation, and the infrastructure needed in the short and long terms.

  • Lewis, E-mail: gl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5293, category Article
Claude Gendreau. (1986). Historical considerations and evolution of the forest policies for small woodlot owners of Quebec. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5293. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27749
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; Canada; non-industrial forest owners; private forestry; forest programs; timber marketing; small-woodlot forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In order to understand the present forest policies for the small woodlot of Quebec, it is essential to understand the history of settlement of Quebec. Following this brief description, the author introduces the various forest policies (programs) which have been initiated in Quebec by various levels of governments in order to deal with the management of these lands.

  • Gendreau, E-mail: cg@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5292, category Article
Ryoichi Handa. (1986). On the principles of Japanese forest policy since 1950. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5292. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27748
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; timber supply; timber production; history; Japan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Japan many governmental projects have been promoted during 35 years since 1950, which were most active in the history of our forestry and wood industry. They were pushed forward for and by high economic growth. This article refers to the development of our forest policy and projects in those days. But as for the future of the forest economics, it is an urgent question to develop the comparative study between every nation’s experience. In order to contribute to this problem, the forest policy is divided into three fields and experiences are discussed.

  • Handa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5291, category Article
David J. Brooks. (1986). Evaluating the regional and distributional impacts of forestry cost-share payments. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5291. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27747
Keywords: forest policy; timber supply; timber market; United States; welfare economics; market simulation; cost-share payments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Standard methods of welfare economics are used in a market simulating framework to evaluate policy measures designed to increase future timber supplies. Forest management cost-share programs are examined using this methodology. The differential regional impact of cost-share payments is considered, as is the distribution of these benefits between stumpage producers (owners of forest land) and stumpage consumers (producers of forest products). Previous estimates of the welfare gains that would result from a higher level of forest management cost-share payments in the southern United States are revised to account for the loss of public revenue resulting from lower future prices. A methodology for comparing alternative policy instruments is discussed, and a preliminary, qualitative comparison is made between the use of cost-share payments and alternative policy measures.

  • Brooks, E-mail: db@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5290, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1986). Effects of forestry extension on the use of allowable cut in non-industrial private forests. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5290. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27746
Keywords: forest policy; timber supply; non-industrial forest owners; cutting potential; forest extension; forest advisory services; forest consulting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An empirical analysis of the Finnish non-industrial private forest owners indicates that forestry extension has an effect on the supply of timber and the use of cutting potentials. This effect appears to be indirect rather than direct. The use of extension services is likely to increase the frequency of timber sales, which in turn, increases the use of the allowable cut via increased volume of actual cuttings. Forestry extension can also be considered as an intermediate variable through which certain background conditions and owner characteristics affect the use of cutting potential.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5289, category Article
Karl Gustaf Löfgren. (1986). Effects of permanent and non-permanent forest policy means on timber supply. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5289. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27745
Keywords: forest policy; forest legislation; forest owners; Sweden; subsidies; private forestry; natural resource economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To conduct an efficient forest policy, both a normative and a positive theory are necessary. In addition, however, the explicit intertemporal considerations in natural resource economics demand that it is made crystal clear which means are permanent and which are non-permanent. The permanent case is far from easy to solve.

That the theoretical problems have practical relevance is shown by Swedish experience. A practical course of action is to weight possible positive effects from a permanent subsidy against possible deleterious outcomes. It is also desirable to avoid jerkiness in forest policy, which is likely to create uncertainty about the permanence of permanent means.

Law may sometimes be more efficient in creating ”credibility” than economic incentives. Regeneration has been mandatory in Sweden since 1903, and nobody refrains from cutting because he believes that regeneration duty will be abolished in some near future.

  • Löfgren, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5288, category Article
Christopher D. Risbrudt. (1986). Policy evaluations for U.S. federal timber sale accounting system development. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5288. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27744
Keywords: forest policy; forest administration; United States; economic evaluation; timber sale accounting system; timber management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Development of timber sale accounting system for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service ordered by the U.S. Congress, has entailed numerous evaluations and research projects. Critics of the current process claims administrative costs are not recovered by the prices paid for Federal timber. However, management of multiple resources for multiple uses makes traditional accounting difficult; i.e., keeping track of cash flows. A further complication involves allocating costs to the various resources (joint cost allocation), for which no nonarbitrary method currently exists. A concurrent issue involves the building of roads for timber harvest into areas released from wilderness consideration. Environmentalists see the road building program of the Federal land management agencies as an additional reason Federal management costs are not recovered from timber-generated revenues. The heart of the issue is which lands are economically suited for timber management, and what nonmarket benefits and costs accrue from the timber management.

  • Risbrudt, E-mail: cr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5287, category Article
Seppo Vehkamäki. (1986). Economic evaluation of forest policy programs. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5287. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27743
Keywords: forest policy programs; forest policy-making; economic evaluation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this paper is to present an approach to evaluate the profitableness of a forest policy program and to discover from among the feasible programs the one that best complies with the desired performance of the economy. At first the procedures of forest policy-making in a country like Finland is considered. After that a method to evaluate forest policy programs is derived.

  • Vehkamäki, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5286, category Article
Matti Keltikangas. (1986). Quantification problems in the design of forest policy programs. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5286. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27742
Keywords: forest policy; Finland; forest policy design; quantification of means; planning process; Forest 2000
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Some of the quantification problems which face the designer of a forest policy program are discussed. Experiences drawn from the preparation of the Forest 2000 program in Finland are used as examples. Both the defining of goals and the choice of means are surveyed and their interconnection in the planning process emphasized.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5285, category Article
Aino-Marjatta Metz. (1986). Influence of forest owners as an interest group in achieving the forest policy goals in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5285. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27741
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; Finland; forest owners; neocorporatism; forestry program
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The importance of forestry and forest industries to the Finnish economy led, at a very early stage, to a close cooperation between the interest organizations concerned and the government which founded the economic advisory council. The development of the social system in Finland since the 50’s can be described with the help of the neocorporatist theory. This can also apply in part to the forest and forest industry policy. According to Olson’s group theory the representation of interests of the forest owners as a free association was forced to use various incitements to win new members or to maintain old ones. This led to tension with the forest industry which had developed its own activities to approach forest owners. Following the economic crisis, the wish was expressed for an official forestry policy programme. In response to indirect requests to the state, a project committee was formed by the economic advisory council in order to work towards a long-term plan to solve the problems and to carry out the objectives of the forestry and the forest industries. In formulating phase of the policy, the marked neocorporatist consensus between the associations and the state became evident. Certain controversial questions were, however, postponed and thereby remained unresolved. The interest organization of forest owners held an important position throughout all the phases of program design up to their realization.

  • Metz, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5284, category Article
Max Krott. (1986). The politics of forest bureaucracy as a subject of comparative studies. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5284. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27740
Keywords: forest policy; forest administration; comparative politics; comparative administration; organization theory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Comparative analysis could offer a number of advantages in the science of forest policy. Comparisons make use of the compiled material from different countries, point to new origins and solutions of issues of forestry and allow to question the common presuppositions in the national forest policy in a critical way.

The basic requirement of fruitful comparative research is a common scientific framework. In the light of empirical-analytical theory it is more promising to compare only one factor across regions than the whole system. The forest administration could be such a suitable object of comparison in particular because it is to be found all over the world, and it has a formal and partly public organization with a number of similarities. The product of forest administration is policy. The significance of the bureaucratic behaviour in agenda setting, policy formulation, legitimating, and implementation with regard to an issue of forest policy is to be analysed.

The two significant fields of analysis, namely forest administrations and the issues of forest policy characterize the strategies of research. By making use of a collection of papers dealing with forest bureaucracy we can select countries for comparison according to the following criteria: socioeconomic context, space and time. The next step is to analyse comparatively the behaviour of the forest bureaucracy in treating a special forest issue. The explanations can be tested empirically in different countries. Perhaps the dying of the forest could be a suitable issue as an object of comparative analysis which again could enlarge our knowledge about the forest administration as a political factor.

  • Krott, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5283, category Article
Vasilios P. Papanastasis. (1986). Policy analysis and integrated land use. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5283. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27739
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; environment; policy analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Land use problems are very often a serious obstacle to forestry development in several countries of both developed and developing world. To overcome these problems an integrated land use policy is needed for designing and implementing innovative programs aimed at the integrated development of forestry with other land uses and the social, cultural, political, ecological and economic environment involved. Policy analysis can assist in the success of such programs by identifying the people’s needs and concerns, by gathering information about land capacity, land tenure and the traditional production systems, by testing alternative polices and by evaluating the programs after their implementation so that the necessary readjustments are made.

  • Papanastasis, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5282, category Article
Franz Schmithüsen. (1986). The changing role of legislation related to forest conservation and forest resources development. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5282. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27719
Keywords: forest policy; forest legislation; forest laws
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest legislation is one of the important institutional elements for the development and expansion of the forest sector. It provides the structural framework within which national forest policies are set and in turn reflects or should reflect their objectives and priorities. It is also an indispensable instrument for the implementation of those policies.

Forest laws in the sector specific sense have been modified and developed considerably during the last decades. They tend to incorporate more and more provisions on environmental protection and natural resources management and become de facto part of such legislation. Forest legislation as a whole can today only be interpreted meaningfully if it is considered within the framework of an expanding legal system for environmental conservation and social development.

  • Schmithüsen, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5281, category Article
Ilpo Tikkanen. (1986). Search for innovative forest policies and programs. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5281. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27718
Keywords: forest policy; effectiveness; policy science; policy analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper considers the problems of world’s forestry and emphasizes the policy nature of the most threatening issues. A policy science approach is needed in order to be able to provide effective tools to solve the problems. Incremental forest policies followed are evaluated to be too tardy to respond to the many forestry issues of today. Managing the global forestry issues presupposes the design of new and more effective and efficient public policy programs. More profound policy analysis is therefore needed to improve the intellectual basis for planning and decision making. The advancement of the research on the effectiveness presupposes further development of the theories of timber supply and forestry investments as well as the improvement of national forestry statistics. The whole forest policy process should be a subject to intensified systematic research.

  • Tikkanen, E-mail: it@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5280, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1986). Future challenges of forest policy analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5280. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27717
Keywords: forest policy; developing countries; developed countries; goal setting; rural forestry; social forestry; development strategies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This is a discussion paper on certain trends in forestry, and society as a whole which may constitute a major challenge for forest policy analysis in the future. Developed and developing countries are treated separately. In developed countries, one of the problems requiring policy analysis is the rising opportunity cost of forestry and the consequent weakening interest in commercial forestry among nonindustrial private forest owners. In developing countries, the most acute problem is the depletion of forests. While looking at the relative merits of the remedial means actually applied or suggested, major guidelines are needed for a proper balance between commercial timber production and forestry for rural development. Evaluation of past forestry projects is also desirable.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5279, category Article
Ilpo Tikkanen. (1986). Analysis and evaluation of public forest policies. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 5279. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a27716
Keywords: forest policy; IUFRO; forest policy programs; forest sector models; World Congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue of Silva Fennica comprises 22 papers on forest policy and program analysis, and evaluation presented at the XVIII IUFRO World Congress in 1986 arranged in Ljubljana. The papers discuss the future and role of policy and program analysis, the effectiveness of policy programs on timber supply and private forestry investments as well as the application of forest sector models to policy analysis.

The PDF includes the preface and list of authors in English and an abstract in Finnish.

  • Tikkanen, E-mail:
article id 5278, category Article
Shikui Peng. (1986). A comparison of replacement strategies in continuous forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 5278. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15457
Keywords: forest inventories; sampling; Enso-Gutzeit; CFI; estimation; SPR
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Three replacement strategies in continuous forest inventory of the Enso-Gutzeit Company have been presented and discussed. The first strategy adopts data from only the last two inventory occasions; the second strategy employs data from all four occasions, in which there are two groups of permanent plots measured on the first three occasions and independently on the last two occasions; the third strategy also utilizes data from all four occasions, but includes only one group permanent plots measured on all four occasions. Results indicate that the last strategy is best for efficiency. The difference between the first two strategies is small. 

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Peng, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5273, category Article
Raymond K. Omwami. (1986). A theory of stumpage appraisal. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 5273. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15452
Keywords: silviculture; growing stock; stumpage prices; forest economy; stumpage longevity; bilateral monopoly; rational expectations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a theoretical study of what is considered to constitute the proper perception of time in forest economics and management. A stumpage appraisal model that recognizes the influence of time is developed within the framework of a national aggregate economy. To demonstrate how a socially optimal land for timber production may be determined in a given nation, a stock-supply model is derived. The stumpage appraisal rule of development determines the market stumpage price that maintains a state of balance between timber production and other land use activities.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Omwami, E-mail: ro@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5272, category Article
Alli Manninen, Pentti Heikkinen, Kaj Husman, Juhani Kangas, Tapio Klen, Ilkka Mononen. (1986). Klooratuille fenoksihapoille altistumisen vaikutus metsurin terveydentilaan vesakontorjuntatyössä. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 5272. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15451
English title: Effect of exposure to chlorinated phenoxy acid herbicides on the health of Finnish forest workers in silvicultural clearing work.
Original keywords: metsätyöntekijät; työterveys; herbisidit; torjunta-aineet; vesakontorjunta; klooratut fenoksihapot; kemiallinen altistus
English keywords: herbicides; forest work; occupational health; MCPA; 2, 4 -D; chemical control; chemical clearing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Exposure to phenoxy acids and their effect on worker’s health were studied among 35 exposed forest workers. The control group was 47 non-exposed loggers. The both groups were medically examined before and after their working period including such laboratory analyses as B-differential count, B-thrombocytes. In addition, the exposure to eight ULV sprayers and two clearing saw sprayers were measured in breathing zone.

The mean of phenoxy acid concentrations in urine among all the exposed workers after the working period was 6.5 μmol/l being significantly below the hygienic limit value (14 μmol/l). The mean concentrations of ULV sprayer workers was 7.3 μmol/l and of clearing saw sprayer workers 2.7 μmol/l. The mean of air concentrations among ULV sprayers was 0.23 mg/m3 and among clearing saw sprayers 0.06 mg/m3. No statistically significant differences were noticed in the hematologic parameters and in the enzyme activities of the liver, kidney and muscles between the exposed and control groups before or after the working period. So, it seems that these low exposure levels don’t cause sudden changes in health.

The PDF includes an abstract in English.

  • Manninen, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikkinen, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Husman, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Klen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
  • Mononen, E-mail: im@mm.unknown
article id 5271, category Article
Kimmo Kiljunen. (1986). Growth of third world forest industry: possible impact on Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 5271. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15450
Keywords: Finland; forest industry; developing countries; forest resources; international division of labour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Use of tropical forest resources is analysed as part of the world forest resources and global development of forest industry. Finland’s role in the international division of labour of forest industry is investigated. Factors of competitiveness are analysed in order to differentiate specific adjustment constraints in Finland due to competition from developing countries.

It is concluded that in the long run there are two major factors which are restricting the growth of Finnish forest industry. First, tightened resources constraints, and second, competitive shifts in external markets due to new sources of production. Finland has already reached its wood-producing limits of sustained yield. Technological advances in the use of short-fibre raw materials for pulp and paper making, as well as in making programmes for establishing fast-growing plantations, have facilitated the utilization of tropical forest areas. In the short term, however, the competitive threat from LDC wood-processing industry is primarily directed to home markets rather than to exports.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • Kiljunen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5263, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1986). Julkaisuohjeet Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran sarjoihin. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 1 article id 5263. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15442
English title: Author guidelines for the publications of the Finnish Society of Forest Science.
Original keywords: Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; tieteelliset julkaisut; julkaisuohjeet
English keywords: scientific publications; Acta Forestalia Fennica; Silva Fennica; author guidelines
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper includes the publishing guidelines for the scientific publications of the Finnish Society of Forest Science. The Society publishes the series of Silva Fennica and Acta Forestalia Fennica.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5260, category Article
The Forest 2000 Programme sub-commitee. (1986). The Forest 2000 Programme in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 20 no. 1 article id 5260. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15439
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; Finland; timber production; forest industries; annual cut; forestry development; cutting target
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Forest 2000 Programme is a long-term programme for forestry and the forest industries in Finland. It attempts to obtain a better integration of timber production and other forms of forest use. The total annual cut is to be increased by 15 million m3 by the year 2010. This is almost one third greater than the level during the first few years of the 1980’s. In order to achieve the cutting targets, the cut area will have to be increased by almost one third by the turn of the century. The area of thinnings will experience the greatest increase. Considerable changes are proposed in silvicultural and basic improvement work. According to the programme, the growth of the raw-material base and the consumption of the wood-based products will permit an annual increase of about 3% in the production of the forest industries as a whole until the end of the century. This would be the same as the target growth rate of the GNP.

The PDF includes an abstract in Finnish.

  • The Forest 2000 Programme sub-commitee, E-mail:
article id 5250, category Article
P. A. Harou. (1985). Comparison of methodologies to evaluate aid programs to nonindustrial private forests. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 4 article id 5250. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15429
Keywords: forest policy; timber supply; United States; aid programmes; privat forestry; privat forests; forest programs; Massachusetts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A methodology to evaluate forestry programs aimed at increasing timber supply from nonindustrial private forests is presented that aggregates the marginal social cost and marginal social benefit of a sample program participants and compares them in a benefit-cost efficiency ratio. The paper exposes a methodology followed to evaluate several forestry programs in Massachusetts, USA, and discusses its advantages and inconveniences compared to the other methodologies that have been used for the same purpose. The marginal analysis is based on detailed property and landowner behaviour surveys which are costly but represent a good standard to compare the performance of other approaches. 

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Harou, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5248, category Article
Markku Simula. (1985). Forestry and development - a global viewpoint. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 4 article id 5248. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15427
Keywords: sustainable forestry; forestry; deforestation; developing countries; forest resources; air pollution; developed countries; tropical forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The area of world forests is gradually declining because of various human activities, such as shifting cultivation, uncontrolled logging and industrial pollution. Continuation of the trends would have detrimental ecological, economic and social effects on global scale. The diversity of the problem is wide. The situation in the tropical developing countries differs from that in the industrialized world. With the present rates of population growth and unchanged forest policies, the fuelwood shortage in developing countries is rapidly aggravating. The need for more agricultural land tends to prejudice conscious efforts to increase wood production.

The industrialized countries are experiencing problems in introducing forest policy means to maintain sufficient timber supply. Rapidly increasing pollution problem cause a serious hazard to the existence of the whole forest ecosystem. Forestry has primarily been a national issue of relatively low priority in political decision-making, which has resulted in insufficient action to remedy the situation at national and international level.

The renewability of forest resources represents a strategic asset, the importance of which is bound to increase in the long-run potential for badly needed economic and social change in the world’s poor rural areas will be lost.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Simula, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5245, category Article
Pekka Helle, Jyrki Muona. (1985). Invertebrate numbers in edges between clearfellings and mature forests in Northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 3 article id 5245. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15424
Keywords: Coleoptera; insects; Formicidae; vertebrate; crear-fellings; forest edges; Homoptera; Diptera; Gastropoda; Hymenoptera; Arachnida; biotopes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The abundance of main invertebrate groups was studied in clear-fellings, forests and in edges between them in Northern Finland in June-August 1983. Five trapping transects were used. Each transect had 48 pitfall traps and 16 window traps on the ground and 4-6 window traps in bushes or trees.

Invertebrate groups Homoptera, Diptera, Formicidae, Coleoptera and Gastropoda were more abundant in forest than in clear-cuts according to the pitfall data. In window traps the catches of all the main groups were larger in the forest side. Six out of the eight most important groups preferred the edge in pitfall data. Formicidae, other Hymenoptera, Arachnida and Gastropoda were more numerous in the edges than in the interior habitats in both sides of the edge. In window trap material no consistent edge preference was found in clear-fellings, but in the forest side it was evident. Coleoptera and Arachnida preferred the edge on both sides of it.

The variations in the catches of the invertebrate groups were studied by regression analyses. Independent variables used were the distance to the edge, the coverage of mosses, litter, mineral soil, grasses and sedges, herbs and the density of saplings. The percentage of variance explained in multiple regression analyses were highest for the group of other Hymenoptera and Arachnida and lowest for Coleoptera and Homoptera. As regards the explanation power of the independent variables the distance to the edge and the density of saplings clearly exceeded the others.

The results support the assumption that the breeding bird densities at forest edges, which is often high, may depend on high prey density there.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Helle, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
  • Muona, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown
article id 5244, category Article
Juha Lappi, Markku Siitonen. (1985). A utility model for timber production based on different interest rates for loans and savings. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 3 article id 5244. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15423
Keywords: linear programming; timber production; forest economics; income from fellings; utility model; income flow; present discounted value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper discusses the evaluation of timber production policies with different income (timber drain) schedules. Special attention is given to the temporal smoothness of the income flow. A utility model is formulated in which the objective is to maximize a fixed consumption pattern, and money can be saved and borrowed at different interest rates. We thus have smoothness requirements only for consumption, the capital market then determines the smoothness of the optimal income flow. Present discounted value and maximization of even income flow criteria are special cases of the utility model. Consumption can be maximized by linear programming. A sample problem is presented.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lappi, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Siitonen, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 5242, category Article
Suomen tilastoseura, Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1985). Metsien inventoinnin tilastolliset menetelmät. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 3 article id 5242. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15421
English title: Statistical methods in forest inventory.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsäinventointi; tilastomenetelmät
English keywords: forest inventory; forest research; statistical methods; spatial statistics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

At a joint meeting of the Finnish Statistical Society and the Society of Forestry in Finland on 17.10.1984, papers were presented on the history and mathematical foundations of statistical methods used in forest inventory in Finland. The advantages and applicability of Bayresian methods and methods of spatial statistics were also discussed. In two papers, forest inventories were examined as part of a forest information system and the information demands of the user were discussed.

This article includes eight presentation held in the meeting. The papers have each a summary in English.

  • Suomen tilastoseura, E-mail:
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5240, category Article
Pertti Harstela, Kimmo Piirainen. (1985). Effect of whole-body vibration and driving a forest machine simulator on some physiological variables of the operator. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 5240. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15419
Keywords: heart rate; forest workers; ergonomy; occupational health; physical stress; forestry equipment; forest machine drivers; horizontal vibration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The influence of horizontal whole-body vibration of fairly low intensity alone and combined with the mental load and motor action typical for the forest machine drive on heart rate variability (HRV), respiration rate (RR) and heart rate (HR) was studied by testing five subjects. Horizontal vibration had an influence on HR, HRV and RR. ’Control activities’ had the most influence on RR and HRV, but some influence on HR, too. ’Moving the control devices’ (motor action) gave the same response in HR as ’control activities’, but not in HRV and RR. ’Control activities’ together with ’vibration’ had a more effect on HRV and RR than these two factors singly, but not on HR. The possibilities of using these variables in field studies are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
  • Piirainen, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown
article id 5234, category Article
Eino Mälkönen, Eero Paavilainen. (1985). Hydrological amelioration and forest practice on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 5234. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15413
Keywords: drainage; peatlands; peatland forestry; hydrology; forest research; bibligraphies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This bibliography consists of monographs, papers published in periodicals and journals and collections of scientific papers from research and educational institutes, and transactions from scientific congresses, seminars, symposia and meetings.

The publications have been divided into three basic sections. In each section the publications are listed in alphabetical order by the author(s) or title. The total number of the titles in this bibliography is 465.

  • Mälkönen, E-mail:
  • Paavilainen, E-mail:
article id 5233, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1985). Verhopuuston vaikutus kuusitaimikon kehitykseen. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 1 article id 5233. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15412
English title: The influence of birch nurse crop (Betula pubescens) on the growth of Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedling stands on drained peatlands.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsänhoito; kasvu; ojitetut suot; suojapuusto; pakkasvauriot; hieskoivu; verhopuusto; verhopuuston tiheys; verhopuuston poisto
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; tree growth; frost damages; nurse stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Young Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) are susceptible to early summer frost damage. Birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) naturally colonize rich or fairly rich drained peatlands after clear cutting, and can provide protection for developing seedlings. The report describes the development of spruce stands after various types of handing of the birch nurse crops.

Different proportions of birch and spruces did not have any influence on the spruce stand production. In cases where the nurse crop stand is removed when the spruce stand age was 20 years and height 4 m the spruce suffered badly but recovered with time, reaching the spruce stand growing under a nurse stand within the next 20 years. The height growth of spruce depends on the density of the nurse stand, especially on fertile sites. The development of diameter growth also depends on the density of the nurse trees. Removal of the nurse stand in spruce stands on the sites concerned should be done when the spruce stand is 20 years old and at the height of 4 m.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5230, category Article
Erkki Kaila. (1985). Havaintojen käsittely ja aineiston muodostus metsäntutkimuksen tiedonhallinnan näkökulmasta. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 1 article id 5230. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15409
English title: Observation manipulation and data matrix derivation from the viewpoint of data management.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; tietokannat; tiedonhallinta; tietokantaohjelmat
English keywords: forest research; data bases; data management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Data management is pointed out as a phase of research process. It covers research activities from observation recording to data matrix derivation. Some concepts of logical and physical database implementation are introduced.

The TUTKA -software system is introduced and observed as an instrument of research data management. Attention is paid to TUTKA’s five design criteria. Database implementation and use with TUTKA are observed precisely. Three different phases of implementing a data base are specified. Finally, some aspects to the data management of forest research are presented.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kaila, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5229, category Article
Maija-Liisa Juntunen, Jan Engsås, Lennart Gustafsson, Pekka Mäkinen, Frans Theilby, Tore Vik. (1985). Supervisors in the forestry of the Nordic countries. Silva Fennica vol. 19 no. 1 article id 5229. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15408
Keywords: forestry; Nordic countries; Finland; Norway; Sweden; Denmark; forest education; wages; supervisors; foremen; pay system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The goal of this research was to study the position of forest supervisors, their education, number, pay system, professional organizations and work situations in Nordic countries. The study belonged to a joint Nordic project of the Nordic Research Council on Forest Operations. Participating in the actual work the number of forest supervisors were Denmark (year 1978) 715, Finland (1980) 8,000, Norway (1967) 1,055, and Sweden (1975) 6,400. In Denmark, 87% of the supervisors worked in forestry, in Finland 91%, in Norway 98% and in Sweden 86%.

Forest supervisor education started at the end of the last century. In the 1950s and 1960s the forest supervisors’ education has been renewed in all four countries. Supervisors have a special 1 to 4.5 years’ training, but many have a forest technician’s education, too. In Finland and Sweden forest supervisor education was reformed at the end of the 1970s. Supervisors work in functional as well as in regional organizations. In Nordic countries, supervisors are paid monthly salaries. Salaries are a little higher in private than in public sector companies. In 1981 the start salary in Finland was 3,107 FIM and in Sweden in 1980 about 4,425 FIM. Most supervisors in the Nordic countries belong to some union.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Juntunen, E-mail: mj@mm.unknown (email)
  • Engsås, E-mail: je@mm.unknown
  • Gustafsson, E-mail: lg@mm.unknown
  • Mäkinen, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown
  • Theilby, E-mail: ft@mm.unknown
  • Vik, E-mail: tv@mm.unknown
article id 5225, category Article
Seppo Oja. (1984). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran julkaisutoiminta 1973-1984. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 4 article id 5225. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15404
English title: The publications of the Society of Forestry in Finland in 1973–1984.
Original keywords: Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; Acta Forestalia Fennica; Silva Fennica; tieteelliset julkaisut; julkaisutoiminta
English keywords: Finnish Society of Forest Science; scientific publications; Acta Forestalia Fennica; Silva Fennica
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) publishes two series in the field of forest science, Acta Forestalia Fennica (since 1913) and Silva Fennica (since 1926). In 1972 a list of the publications of the Society from 1913 to 1972 was published in Silva Fennica volume 6 (4). The volume also contained references to about 900 articles and 380 authors.

The present volume includes references to 65 volumes of Acta Forestalia Fennica and 49 volumes of Silva Fennica from 1973–84, which contain over 500 articles. There is also a list of some 410 authors.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Oja, E-mail: so@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5224, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1984). Suomen metsäntutkimuksen kehittämisohjelma. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 4 article id 5224. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15403
English title: Development programme for forestry research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; metsätalous; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; Suomi
English keywords: forestry; Finland; forest research; forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) has drawn up this development programme primarily for the authorities and decision-makers. Forestry research has been divided into three areas: A) Biological forestry research, B) Research into the management and utilization of forests, and C) Research into forest economics and forest policy. Key research tasks are presented under the above-mentioned headings. The programme also deals with the organization of research, post-graduate education, library and information services, publishing policy and international co-operation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5223, category Article
Eino Mälkönen, Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1984). Metsäntutkimus metsätalouden tietopohjana. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 4 article id 5223. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15402
English title: The role of forestry research in providing a scientific basis for practical forestry.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; metsätalous; Suomi
English keywords: forest management; forestry; Finland; forest research; forest sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) arranged on 26th April 1984 a Forestry Science Day centred on the theme ”The role of Forestry Research in Providing a Scientific Basis for Practical Forestry”. Specialists in forestry and forest policy reviewed the role, present situation and future tasks of forest research from different points of view, in their papers. This article includes the talks given in the event in Finnish and an English summary.

  • Mälkönen, E-mail:
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5222, category Article
Matti Leikola, Aune Koponen. (1984). Metsätalouden harjoittaminen ja metsien hoito. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 4 article id 5222. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15401
English title: Forestry in Finland. Studia Forestalia 1983.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; luentosarja
English keywords: forest management; forestry; Finland; forest research; course of lectures
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

1983 was the so-called ”Year o the Forest” in Finland. To mark the occasion, the Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) arranged a series of Studia Forestalia lectures which covered, in general form, a wide range of subjects. 12 of the 14 lectures given in this series are included in this edition.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail:
  • Koponen, E-mail:
article id 5221, category Article
Aleksandr P. Jevdokimov. (1984). Visakoivun kasvatus Neuvostoliiton luoteisosissa. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 3 article id 5221. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15400
English title: Experiences of curly birch growing in north-western Russia.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; Neuvostoliitto; visakoivu; Neuvosto-Karjala; Leningrad
English keywords: forest management; Soviet Union; Betula pendula var. carelica; curly birch; Soviet Karelia; Leningrad region
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Curly birch (Betula pendula var. carelica (Merklin) Hejtmanek) is widely distributed over north-western part or Russia, including the Baltic Soviet Republics and Belorussia. Experiences of growing this decorative species in Soviet Karelia and Leningrad region are presented. Commonly used classifications of the species are described, and recommendations for management of curly birch cultures and production of planting stock in greenhouses are given.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Jevdokimov, E-mail: aj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5220, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1984). Harsintametsätalous. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 3 article id 5220. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15399
English title: Selection system in timber harvesting in Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsänhoito; harsinta; eri-ikäiskasvatus; eri-ikäisrakenteinen metsä; tasaikäiskasvatus; tasa-ikäinen metsä
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; yield; Finland; selection system; even-aged stands; selection cuttings; uneven-aged stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article reviews experiments and practical experience of forest management by the selection system in Finland. In an experiment of 25-year duration the annual growth of uneven-aged Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands was only about 50% of the average annual yield of even-aged stands in normal rotation on the same site.

In Finland the selection system is applicable under exceptional conditions only, viz. In intensively managed park stands and, on the other hand, on very marginal sites, e.g. on peat bogs and mountains near the tree-line. Even normal silviculture, however, may include cuttings which somewhat resemble selection system, e.g. removal of standards or restoration of mismanaged forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5219, category Article
Simo Poso, Tuomas Häme, Raito Paananen. (1984). A method for estimating the stand characteristics of a forest compartment using satellite imagery. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 3 article id 5219. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15398
Keywords: forest inventories; remote sensing; satellite imagery; survey by stands; compartmentwise forest inventories; relascope plots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper presents a method based on two phase sampling and applicable to forest inventories. The first phase estimates are obtained from satellite imagery and, if required, from extra material such as maps. Second phase estimates are measured in the field. The method is flexible and also applicable to compartmentwise forest inventories. The experiments were based on six study areas with 439 relascope plots. The correlation coefficients between first and second stage estimates varied largely according to the study area.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Häme, E-mail: th@mm.unknown
  • Paananen, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
article id 5217, category Article
Pentti Sepponen. (1984). Pohjoissuomalaisten metsäammattimiesten käsityksiä metsien ja soiden marjantuotoskyvystä. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 3 article id 5217. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15396
English title: Observations of forest specialists in Northern Finland on the berry yield capacity of forests and swamps.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; ojitus; metsätyypit; suotyypit; puolukka; luonnonmarjat; mustikka; marjasato; hilla; karpalo
English keywords: northern Finland; Vaccinium myrtillus; Vaccinium vitis-idaea; wild berries; berry yield; forest types; peatland types; berry crop; Rubus chamaemorus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A survey was carried out among forest foremen and forest technicians to record their observations on the value of various swamp and forest types as producers of berries and on the effect of drainage of peatlands upon the berry yields. Comparative agreement existed on the best blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) forest types and on the best lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) forest types of rather dry upland sites. Fuscum pine swamps or fuscum bogs were considered best for the most part as regards the yield of cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.). The replies showed rather great dispersion.

Agreement existed as well on the relation between drainage of peatlands and the yields of our economically most important swamp berries, cloudberry and cranberry. 90% of those responding were of the opinion that drainage reduces the cloudberry yield in the long term and a full 97% indicated that cranberry crop diminishes as well.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5206, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1984). Miten koivuun tulisi suhtautua metsätaloudessa? Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 1 article id 5206. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15385
English title: The proper attitude towards birch in forestry.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; kannattavuus; koivu
English keywords: forest management; Betula; forestry; profitability
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A literature survey based on Nordic literature deals with the biology, use, harvesting and economy of birch (Betula sp.). According to the results, the easily quantified hard facts are against cultivation of birch: lower growth, poorer production of valuable assortments, lower price of pulp, higher planting costs, and higher harvesting and transport costs than for conifers. The soft facts, which may be true, are not easily measured or their importance evaluated: the possible improvement of soil, decreasing risk of insect and fungi attacks, shelter against frost etc. Due to the differences in the nature of the facts the discussion of cultivation of birch will probably continue.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5203, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1984). Viitteiden käyttö Suomen metsäntutkimuksessa. Silva Fennica vol. 18 no. 1 article id 5203. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15382
English title: The use of references in Finnish forest sciences.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; tieteelliset julkaisut; tieteellinen kirjoittaminen; viiteanalyysi
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; scientific publications; scientific writing; references
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to examine the use or citations in Finnish forestry publications using source analysis. The material consisted of three of the four main series published in the field of forestry in Finland. The study was confined to three sample years in the middle of each decade during the period of 1910–1980.

The use of references in Finnish forestry sciences was abundant: from 30 to 60 references per report and from 1.1 to 1.7 references per page. The amount of self-citations varied from 6 to 9%. The half-time of the references was, in general, very long varying from 8–12 years in forest economics to 14–17 years in silviculture and forest biology. The amount of ”classical” publications was 4–11%. The amount to Finnish references was large varying from 30 to 59%. Anglo-Saxon series made 22–24%, Scandinavian 11–13%, German 7–9%, Russian 1–3% and French series less than one per cent of all references.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5201, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1983). Distribution of vegetation on mesic forest sites in relation to some characteristics of the tree stand and soil fertility. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 4 article id 5201. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15184
Keywords: Finland; ground vegetation; indicator species; fertility; forest types; forest site classification; TWINSPAN; Oxalis-Myrtillus type; Myrtillus type; tree stand characteristics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Vegetation data collected from a random sample of mature forest stands representing mesic upland forest sites in Southern Finland were analysed and classified using two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN). The variation of some characteristics of the tree stand and soil fertility between the produced vegetation units were analysed statistically.

Both the species list and the sample list arranged by TWINSPAN reflects the overall site fertility considerably well. The results are in agreement with the main division of mesic forest sites in the Finnish forest site type classification: vegetation units which can be assigned to the Oxalis-Myrtillus site type are clearly separated from the remaining units, and the overall site fertility indicates a statistically significant difference. The within-type variation in the vegetation composition in the Oxalis-Myrtillus site type reflects the variation in site fertility, whereas the within-type variation in the Myrtillus site type is mainly caused by the tree stand factor.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5196, category Article
Simo Poso. (1983). Kuvioittaisen arvioimismenetelmän perusteita. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 4 article id 5196. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15179
English title: Basic features of forest inventory by compartments.
Original keywords: metsänarviointi; metsikkö; kuvioittainen arviointi; luotettavuus; kuvio
English keywords: accuracy; forest mensuration; survey by stands; compartment; stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The concepts of the terms compartment and compartment-wise forest inventory have been studied empirically by repeated delineation and intensive systematic plot samples. The material consisted of 16 study areas of some 8–90 hectares in size in Southern Finland and of more than 1,000 relascope plots. Stands and compartments were found to be rather heterogenous. Alternative photographs, working techniques and test persons were studied. An endeavour for better accuracy in compartment inventories is recommended.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5195, category Article
Matti Rousi. (1983). Susceptibility of pine to mammalian herbivores in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 4 article id 5195. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15178
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; Scots pine; Alces alces; moose; forest damage; seedling damages; arctic hare; Lepus timidus; root vole; Microtus oeconomus; bank vole; Microtus agrestis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An inventory of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) graft collection in Kolari (67°15’ N, 23°45’ S) showed that severe damage by arctic hare (Lepus timidus L.), root and bank vole (Microtus oeconomus Pallas and M. agrestis L.) and moose (Alces alces L.) was done to grafts in size and in rather poor condition. Furthermore, the damage by arctic hare was dependent on the dry matter content of the needles. Another inventory in a fertilization experiment in a pine pole-stage forest showed that nitrogen fertilization increased the damage by arctic hare. On the basis of the present results, an assumption was made that the formation of repellent substances against herbivorous mammals is connected with wintering process of northern pines.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Rousi, E-mail: mr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5192, category Article
Kauko Koljonen. (1983). Inter-industry linkages of forestry and forest industry sectors in the Tanzanian economy. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 3 article id 5192. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15175
Keywords: forestry; agriculture; national economy; hunting; sawmill industry; Tanzania; carpentry; fishing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Sawmilling and Carpentry, Forestry and Hunting, and Food Grains are the economic sectors compared in this study by means of the total input-output coefficient. The coefficient measures the value of direct and indirect demand in the economy caused by a demand worth one monetary unit on the sector in focus. Forestry sector has the weakest linkage to other sectors. The derived coefficients are 1.693 for Sawmilling and Carpentry, 1.183 for Food Grain and 1.167 for Forestry and Hunting.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Koljonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5191, category Article
Juha Lappi. (1983). Metsänuudistamisen vaatiman ajan merkitys uudistamispäätöksissä. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 3 article id 5191. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15174
English title: Elevation of the time factor in reforestation decisions.
Original keywords: metsänuudistaminen; metsäsuunnittelu; kustannukset; uudistamisen viivästyminen; uudistumisaika; normaalimetsälaskelma; nollakorkomenetelmä; päätehakkuuikä; nykyarvomenetelmä
English keywords: forest planning; net present value; forest regeneration; cost of time delay; regeneration costs; final cutting age; regeneration method; zero percent interest rate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Length of the regeneration period is a criterion commonly used for comparing different reforestation methods. The time factor should be evaluated using a realistic system for long-term planning. In this paper the preliminary evaluation is made by simplified calculations based on the development series. The slow regeneration method is assumed to be otherwise equal to the rapid one but it has a 5- or 10-years delay at the beginning, and the rotation is thus the final cutting age plus 5- or 10-years delay. Cost of the time delay is taken to be the difference in reforestation costs that makes the rapid and the slow methods equivalent. Calculations are made using zero costs for the slow method; but if the cost of the slow method increases, the critical cost difference decreases very slowly. The final cutting age and the regeneration method must be decided simultaneously. Therefore, the cost of the time delay is presented as a function of final cutting age. By maximizing the average annual revenue, rotation can be even increased if more rapid but more expensive regeneration method is used.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lappi, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5190, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1983). Mustikan varvuston biomassamäärän vaihtelusta erilaisissa metsiköissä. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 3 article id 5190. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15173
English title: The distribution of blueberry biomass in different forest stands.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; pintakasvillisuus; aluskasvillisuus; biomassa; peittävyys; mustikka; varjostus; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: biomass; Norway spruce; habitat; distribution; shading; ground vegetation; Vaccinium myrtillus; forest types; blueberry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study deals with the distribution of above-ground biomass of Vaccinium myrtillus L. along the vegetation continuum segregated by using phytosociological classification method composite clustering. The qualitative characteristics of forest sites corresponding to different vegetational clusters were defined on the basis of indirect gradient analysis of vegetation data and description of tree stand properties in stands in 160 sample areas in Southern Finland.

Six vegetation types differing from each other mainly in abundance of the most constant and dominant plant species were formed. Sample areas with rich grass-herb vegetation, as well as sample areas representing comparatively dry, barren site type were clearly separated from other groups of sample areas. Stand characteristics, particularly the proportional distribution of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seems to be another important factor affecting the vegetation composition.

The lowest biomass values of blueberry were connected with herb-rich vegetation and shady spruce-dominated stands. Comparatively low values were connected to also other spruce-dominated sample areas. Pine-dominant or mixed pine-spruce stands the biomass values were significantly higher. Even if the site quality is essentially equal, the abundance relationships between Vaccinium myrtillus and other components of the ground vegetation may vary in wide ranges and cause difficulties in practical site classification.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5186, category Article
Kaarlo Rieppo, Seppo Väyrynen. (1983). Kuormatraktoreiden huolto-ominaisuusvertailu haastattelemalla. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 2 article id 5186. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15102
English title: Interview survey on the servicing properties of forest tractors.
Original keywords: metsäkoneet; metsätraktorit; ergonomia; huolto; kunnossapito; huoltotyö; kuormatraktori; työolosuhteet
English keywords: maintenance; working conditions; forest machines; forest tractors; ergonomy; serviceability
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this concise interview survey was to collect information about the servicing properties of forest tractors. Ten interviewees gave grades (in a scale from 4 to 10) concerning two servicing properties of various types of forest tractor. The rating covered the general safety during servicing (structural serviceability) and work postures during the work. Four types of forest tractor widely-used in Finland were chosen. The forwarders were of different size and structure.

According to the rating, the lightest forwarder was clearly superior to the other types. This machine was also the smallest in size and the most modern. Differences between the other three forwarders were not quite so clear. The variation between the machines as regards both so-called easy and troublesome tasks was considerable. Lubrication of the articulated shafts and supporting bearings was, however, very troublesome regardless the machine type. The heaviest tractor was considered the most difficult to service.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Rieppo, E-mail: kr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Väyrynen, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown
article id 5184, category Article
Annikki Karjalainen, Lauri Hyväkkä, Sini Kärki-Folkersma. (1983). Metsätieteellisen kirjallisuuden haku atk-tiedostoista. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 2 article id 5184. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15100
English title: Experiences of some bibliographic databases in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; tiedonhaku; tietokannat
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; bibliographic databases
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The usefulness of some international bibliographic databases for Finnish forest researchers was studied. In this study, 26 gratis online searches from one or more databases was made. The searches were carried out using mainly AGRICOLA, BIOSIS and CAB databases. The most used database was CAB, which includes Forestry Abstracts. The relevance of the references retrieved was evaluated by the users. Recall, precision, novelty and overlap of the references were measured. The users evaluated the results and costs of their search. Some previous comparable studies are reviewed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Karjalainen, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hyväkkä, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
  • Kärki-Folkersma, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 5176, category Article
J. Lappi, A. Kotisaari, H. Smolander. (1983). Height relascope for regeneration surveys. Silva Fennica vol. 17 no. 1 article id 5176. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15091
Keywords: sampling; forest mensuration; seedling stands; measuring instruments; regeneratoin surveys; seedling height; relascope
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The choice of sampling method is of prime importance when seeking relevant information about the height distribution and spatial arrangement of seedlings in the regeneration surveys. It is suggested that the size of sampling plots should depend on the height of the seedlings. Tall seedlings should be sampled from a larger area than short ones since tall seedlings are more important for the future development of the stand. We suggest principles for a technical development task to construct a device which is easy to use in practical regeneration surveys and by which sampling can be made proportional to plant height or any desired function of height.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lappi, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kotisaari, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
  • Smolander, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 5170, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1982). Näkökohta sisäisen korkokannan laskemisesta. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 4 article id 5170. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15085
English title: Note on the calculation of the internal rate of return.
Original keywords: metsäekonomia; kannattavuuslaskenta; korkokanta; sisäinen korkokanta
English keywords: costs; profitability; forest economics; internal rate of return
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In forestry, a classical method of evaluating the profitability of an outlay is to calculate the internal rate of return. If there are many outlays and returns over a period, analytical determination of the internal rate is difficult and requires simulation methods. However, if there is only one outlay and one return, the computation is easy. In this paper, some formulae were developed for practical purposes. The equations also show how the return changes as the ratio between the return and the outlay changes.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5165, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1982). Roundwood market: A source of stagnation of the forest industries. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 4 article id 5165. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15080
Keywords: forest owners; forest taxation; private forests; timber sales; wood supply; behaviour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Certain trends in the sales behaviour of private non-industrial forest owners suggest that the forest industries have to rely on a raw material supply much less than the allowable cut. This paper deals with several factors responsible for the change in sales behaviour during the last 20–25 years. These changes are caused by social change, a multi-face process which is led by industrialization. It is manifested in the increasing division of labour, more pronounced strive for efficiency, change in social values for the benefit of the adoption of innovations and thus of further changes.

It has become more common than previously to borrow money instead of selling timber. An incentive for doing so is provided by the increased progression of income tax scales which makes it more profitable than earlier to substitute a loan for timber sales with a view to reduce the amount of taxes. In 1977, the real value of the farmers’ debts was 1.7 times as large as in 1970. Inflation provides a further incentive to borrow money rather than to sell timber, because it tends to reduce debts, whereas a growing stock keeps increasing without affecting the property taxation, maintaining its real unit value.

Certain forestry policy measures conductive to increasing the forest owner’s willingness to sell timber are suggested. Among the most promising seems to be an adjustment of the present area-based yield taxation so as to take into account the age class distribution of the growing stock.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5164, category Article
Juhani Kangas, Tapio Klen. (1982). Raivaussahan kantokäsittelylaitteen käyttäjän altistuminen torjunta-aineille. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 5164. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15079
English title: Exposure of forest workers to herbicides.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työturvallisuus; torjunta-aineet; raivaussahat; vesakontorjunta; glyfosaatti; torjunta-aineruiskutus; altistuminen
English keywords: herbicides; brush saw; glyphosate; forest work; occupational health; sprout control; arboricides; chemical brush control; MCPA
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to measure workers’ exposure to MCPA and glyphosate when sprayers connected to the brush saws was used. A non-pressurized sprayer with a pump and a pressurized sprayer where dosage was regulated with manual control were studied. Exposure was measured from the breathing zone and urine samples.

MCPA collected from the breathing zone gathered into alcohol was 0.05 mg/m3 for the pressurized sprayer, 0.02 mg/m3 for the non-pressurized sprayer, and 0.04 mg/m3 (average) for both types of sprayers together.

MCPA in the breathing zone, collected from splashes and fog into a glass fibre filter, was 0.18 mg/m3 for the pressurized sprayer, 0.09 mg/m3 for the non-pressurized sprayer, and 0.12 mg/m3 for both sprayers used together. Glyphosate in the breathing zone, collected into sodium hydroxide was below 0.05 mg/m3.

In five urine samples taken after the work day there was on the average 0.4 mg/l MCPA, while in 21 samples the MCPA contents were under the definition limit (0.2 mg/l).

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Klen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown
article id 5163, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1982). Ojitusalueiden taimistojen kehityksestä vuosina 1964-68 toimeenpannun suometsäkilpailun koealojen valossa. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 5163. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15078
English title: Development of seedling stands on drained peatlands in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: metsitys; ojitusalueet; kasvu; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; taimikot
English keywords: afforestation; drained peatlands; Finland; growth; seedling stands; fertilizing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the paper was to describe the development of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seedling stands on drained peatlands and to find out the principal factors influencing their growth. The material under survey consists of 180 sample plots distributed from southern coast of Finland to the Polar Circle.

The most important growth factors have been the accumulated temperature sum, site quality, drainage intensity and silvicultural condition, such as the density of the stand, the proportion of birch in the stand, and the amount of possible shelterwoods. The influence of these factors, and to some extent the influence of fertilizing, and the disturbing effects of some forest damages, such as frost, growth disturbances and elk damages were investigated. Comparisons of the development in the seedling stands on drained peatlands with the known development of seedling stands in mineral soils were made.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5160, category Article
P. M. A. Tigerstedt. (1982). Metsäpuiden populaatiogenetiikka. Helsingissä 1981 pidetyn symposion tutkimusraportit. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 2 article id 5160. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15075
English title: Population genetics of forest trees.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänjalostus; kokoukset; siemenviljelmät; metsägenetiikka; populaatiogenetiikka; populaatiorakenne; sopeutuminen ympäristöolosuhteisiin; ekologinen erilaistuminen
English keywords: adaptation; seed orchards; population structure; population genetics; forest research; forest tree breeding; forest genetics; conference; ecological variation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The publication comprises proceedings of a conference held in Helsinki in 1981. Forest tree populations are investigated for population genetic structure, mating systems, mechanisms of genetic adaptation and ecological adaptation. Methods and techniques used in population genetic research of forest trees are presented. Much concern is given to applications by means of forest tree breeding, particularly the seed orchard breeding technique. Generally, the application of population genetics in cultivated forests is discussed.

The PDF includes a preface and the presentations of the conference (25 short papers) in English, and a comprehensive summary of the themes of the conference in Finnish.

  • Tigerstedt, E-mail:
article id 5158, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1982). Miten metsää tulisi tutkia. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 1 article id 5158. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15073
English title: How forests should be studied in the future. Seminar on the research policy of the Society of Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; seminaarit
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; seminar
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the seminar, arranged by the Finnish Society of Forest Science, was to instigate discussions which would bring up new approaches and research methods for studying forestry problems from both the biotechnical and socio-economical fields. Six papers were presented and over 70 opinions aired at the seminar.

The following points were considered especially important from the point of view of the promotion of forestry research

- Improving contacts between forestry and other branches of science and increasing international exchange of ideas and results.

- Improving the effectiveness of research work through sound planning

- Promotion and gaining benefit from diverse forms of research.

- Arranging the further education of researchers in order to improve the professional standards of researchers.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 5156, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1982). Tutkaluotaukseen perustuva metsäautotien kantavuuden arvioimismenetelmä. Silva Fennica vol. 16 no. 1 article id 5156. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15071
English title: Predicting the bearing capacity of forest roads using a radar sounding.
Original keywords: metsätiet; mittausmenetelmät; kantavuus; tutka
English keywords: radar; bearing capacity; forest roads; measurement methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Good correlation between radar reflection depth when using a FM-CW radar during winter and bearing capacity measurements during spring breakup was found. Therefore, it might be possible to evaluate the bearing capacity of forest roads using the radar sounding technique.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5152, category Article
Tuulikki Pakonen. (1981). Observations on the nutrient status in air polluted urban forest stands. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 5152. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15379
Keywords: potassium; Vaccinium myrtillus; fertilizers; air pollution; environmental impact; Empetrum nigrum; ilman epäpuhtaudet; fertilizer industry; calcium; magnesium; forest environment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Fertilizer factory has been found to be harmful to the surrounding area through its fertilizing effect, mainly due to nitrogen compounds in the form of NOx and ammonium. In this study, pH, K, Ca and Mg contents in the humus layer were monthly monitored around a fertilizer industry in Oulu, Northern Finland, in 1975 and 1976. In addition, nutrient analyses were made in the leaves of Vaccinium vitis-idaea, V. myrtillus and Empetrum Nigrum.

The calcium, magnesium and potassium present in the emission of airborne fertilizer dust brought about an increase of the nutrient content of the surface top soil humus compared with the control samples. The nutrient contents of dwarf shrub leaves increased near the industrial site as compared with the controls. The potassium contents of Vaccinium myrtillus and Empetrum nigrum were exceptionally high. The results of this pilot study show that the overfertilization must have had an increasing effect on the nutrient status changes in the forest environment.

  • Pakonen, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5144, category Article
Lennart Folkeson. (1981). Impact of air-borne copper and zinc pollution on lichen and bryophyte vegetation near a brass foundry. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 5144. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15371
Keywords: bryophytes; lichen; damage; copper; coniferous forests; Hylocomnium splendens; mosses; air pollution; environmental impact; brass foundry; Hypogymnia physodes; zinc
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Air-borne Cu and Zn from a brass foundry at Gusum, SE Sweden, have considerably disturbed the lichen and bryophyte vegetation in the coniferous forest environment. The occurrence of lichens on Norway spruce twigs decreased rapidly with increasing Cu concentrations in Hypogymnia physodes above 90 ppm (background value 10–15). The epiphytic vegetation is reduced within 2–3 km from the foundry. Only stunted individuals occur in the close vicinity of the pollution source.

The cover of one of the quantitatively most important mosses, Hylocomnium splendens, is greatly reduced by the heavy-metal deposition. Cover values of 20–50% are not uncommon in distant sites (Cu concentration 15–35 ppm). There is a significant negative correlation between Cu concentration in the moss and its cover. The moss cannot survive much more than ca. 130 ppm Cu (and 360 ppm Zn). Live individuals are no more found within 1.5 km from the foundry.

  • Folkeson, E-mail: lf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5133, category Article
F. Scholz. (1981). Genecological aspects of air pollution effects on northern forests. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 5133. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15360
Keywords: stress; air pollution; ecological niche; forest trees; environmental conditions; reduced resistance; low temperatures
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Natural forest tree populations are adapted to their natural environment. Forest tree species under northern conditions are at the edge of their range where the short growing season and the low winter temperatures are the two main factors limiting their ecological niche. Effects of air pollution on the ecological niche, designated as the environmental conditions that permit a population to survive permanently, are discussed according to G.E. Hutchinson’s concept of the ecological niche. Air pollution as an additional stress factor influences the ecological niche either by the direct influence as an additional dimension of the ecological niche or by interaction with the other dimensions. These interactions are especially important for low level long-term effects of air pollution which can result in reduced resistance to low winter temperature or, due to reduced net assimilation, reduced capability to survive the long period of winter dormancy. These effects influence the boundary of the ecological niche and reduce the area of the biotope of the respective species.

Within the remaining biotope genetic changes in forest tree species take place. Due to individual differences in exposure and susceptibility of trees to air pollution, higher and therefore more exposed trees as well as more susceptible trees will be reduced in reproduction or even be eliminated. This causes genetic changes in the tree population.

  • Scholz, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5126, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1981). Koneiden uppoaminen suometsien puunkorjuussa. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5126. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15067
English title: Sinkage of forest machines during harvesting operations on peatlands.
Original keywords: suot; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; metsäkoneet; kantavuus
English keywords: logging; peatlands; timber harvesting; forest machines; carrying capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Questionnaires were sent out to determine the volume of wood harvested from peatlands during 1978 and the harvesting problems encountered. In total there were 110 responses which accounted for 8 million m3 of wood harvested, of which 1.0 million m3 (14%) was harvested from peatlands. The largest proportion of wood harvested from peatlands was during the winter. Most of the respondents reportet that they wait for the soil frost to set before harvesting is started on peatlands. Respondents indicated a total of 263 machines bogging down in to the soil or, for 1978, a total for Finland of 750 to 1,000 machines.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5122, category Article
H. Smolander, J. Kostamo, P. K. Räsänen. (1981). Maan tiiviyden vaikutus männyntaimien haihduntaan ja pituuskasvuun istutuksen jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5122. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15063
English title: Effect of soil compaction on transpiration and height increment of planted Scots pine seedlings.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; metsämaa; maan rakenne; tiivistyminen
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; planting; forest soil; compactment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of soil compaction on transpiration and height increment of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings following planting out were investigated in a small-scale pot experiment. Compacted and loosely-packed fine sand and fine-sand moraine were used as the planting substrates. The compacted soils used corresponded to the normal type of soil to be found in tilled forest soils in Finland. The effect of soil compaction on seedling transpiration during water stress was also studied in a separate experiment.

Seedlings planted in compact soil had a higher rate of transpiration than those in loosely-packed soil. The recovery in transpiration, which started halfway through the growing season, was faster, however, in the seedlings planted in loosely-packed soil. Under conditions of water stress, the seedlings planted in compact fine-sand moraine started to reduce the transpiration rate at higher soil moisture values than those planted in loosely-packed soil. No corresponding difference was observed for fine sand. Compaction was not found to affect the overall height growth, but it did at certain time during the growing season.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Smolander, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kostamo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown
  • Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
article id 5121, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1981). Metsätöiden palkkauksen ja työolosuhteiden kehitys Suomessa ennen työehtosopimuskautta. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 5121. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15062
English title: Development of the wages and work conditions in forest work in Finland prior to the age of agreements on the terms of working.
Original keywords: historia; uitto; metsätyö; palkkaus; työolot; asumisolot
English keywords: Finland; history; floating; forest work; wages; working conditions; lodging
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland the first trade union in the field of forest work and timber floating was founded in 1946 and the first formal collective agreement was achieved in 1962. Information about the development of wage payments and work conditions (lodging and food) in forest work prior to the formal agreements was dispersed in a number of different sources, and is already partially in danger of being forgotten. The aim of this study was to bring together all available information concerning the matter in question.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5120, category Article
Pentti Sepponen. (1981). Kivennäismaan raekoon tunnuksista ja niiden käyttökelpoisuudesta eräiden maan ominaisuuksien kuvaamiseen. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5120. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15061
English title: Particle size distribution characteristics of mineral soil and their applicability for describing some soil properties.
Original keywords: metsämaa; maaperä; lajitekoostumut; raekoko; kenttäkapasiteetti; kationinvaihtokapasiteetti
English keywords: forest soil; particle size distribution; field capacity; degree of sorting; cation exchange capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The particle size distribution affects several properties of the soil, thus, the ability to define the texture type of the soil as accurately as possible in field conditions is essential. The soil particle size classification devised by Atterberg (1912) is used in Finnish forestry. The study is based on a small laboratory material. The correlation between some characteristics of the soil particle size distribution, field capacity and cation exchange capacity were determined.

The particle size characteristics such as the relative proportion of different particle sizes, average particle size (Md) and parameters depicting the degree of sorting were determined. The relative proportion of soil particles below 0.06 mm correlated best with both field capacity and cation exchange capacity. Similarly, the average particle size and the degree of sorting correlated well with the field capacity and the cation exchange capacity.

The use of sorting characteristics is not well-suited to the type of soil sample material containing a high proportion of particles of varying size as was used in this material. Such characteristics are probably more easily applicable to the fine sand and sand sediments which are predominant in Finnish forest soils. The most useful particle size distribution characteristics in soils having a great variation in particle sizes were the average particle size and the relative proportion of silt and clay. Thus, the nutrient and water status of the soil can be predicted to some extent by examining the percentage of silt and clay, average particle size and the degree of sorting.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Sepponen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5119, category Article
Kari Puukko. (1981). Okakaarnakuoriaisen, Ips acuminatus Gyll. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) levinneisyyden nykyinen eteläraja Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5119. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15060
English title: The southern border of the present distribution of Ips acuminatus Gyll. In Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsätalous; levinneisyys; kaarnakuoriaiset; esiintymisalue; okakaarnakuoriainen
English keywords: bark beetles; forestry; Finland; distribution; Ips acuminatus; loggings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Ips acuminatus Gyll. (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) is a bark beetle that causes deep bluing in thin-barked Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) pulpwood. It has been shown that this decreases pulp yield. The purpose of this study was to map the southern border of the distribution of Ips acuminatus in Finland. It was found that there have been changes in the distribution of this species during the last three decades. Ips acuminatus has now disappeared from southern Finland. On the basis of the sample plots (134 cutting areas) the southern border of this pest lies on the line running through the towns Vaasa–Seinäjoki–Äänekoski–Jyväskylä–Pieksämäki–Savonlinna–Punkaharju. A certain degree of localisation was observed in the occurrence of I. acuminatus in its distribution area, for instance, differences in its occurrence frequency in cutting areas and even in log and cutting residue piles in the sample cutting area.

It is considered that the most important reasons for these changes in distribution are the increase in logging and changes in the location of cutting sites, and resulting competition for breeding material for the increased population of bark beetles. Furthermore, the long-distance transport of unpeeled logs from the north across the present southern borders may, in the future, contribute to local changes in the southern distribution of Ips acuminatus.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Puukko, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5117, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1981). Forestry and the timber economy in economic development. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5117. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15058
Keywords: forestry; forest industries; economic development; economic growth; differentiation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article deals with differences in economic growth in different countries and regions and with reasons for these differences. The central role in investments in economic growth and the mechanism of its differentiation are elucidated. The properties of forestry and the forest industries in equation or differentiating economic growth are considered. In the light of the theories of regional differentiation, the mere production of raw material in some region tends to increase differences in economic development if that raw material is processed in some other region – despite the fact that the level of income rises in both regions. It is therefore desirable that afforestation projects in the development countries are accompanied by the development of the forest industries.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5112, category Article
Timo Kyttälä. (1981). Yhteistoiminnan kehittäminen puunkorjuuorganisaatiossa työmaatapaamisen avulla. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5112. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15053
English title: Development of cooperation between workers and supervisors in logging through work-site meetings.
Original keywords: metsätyöntekijät; metsätyö; puunkorjuu; yhteistoiminta; tiedonkulku
English keywords: communication; timber harvesting; forest work; working conditions; co-operation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to find out the effect of the working place meetings on the increased cooperation between workers and supervisors, the improved work performance, the intensified use of machines and the improved job satisfaction. In the study loggers, forest machine operators and forement were interviewed. The results showed that the working place meeting is a useful means to realise the above-mentioned aims.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kyttälä, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5109, category Article
Esteri Ohenoja, Liisa Pohjola. (1981). Metsämaan lämpöolojen mittaaminen ruokosokerin inversioon perustuvalla menetelmällä. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 5109. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15050
English title: Sucrose inversion method for measuring the temperature conditions in forest soil.
Original keywords: metsämaa; maaperä; lämpötila; mittausmenetelmät; sakkaroosi-inversiomenetelmä
English keywords: forest soil; soil temperature; measurement methods; Sucrose inversion method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The use and problems of the sucrose inversion method for the study of forest humus and soil are discussed. The method is based on the temperature dependence of sucrose inversion, changes in rotation angle being determined with a circle polarimeter. Average temperatures and thermal sums for forest humus in different forests in Finland were measured, using this method, for a period of ca. 100 days. The results are not considered definitive but are regarded rather as examples. Average temperatures were somewhat higher in the humus of dry and poor heath forests than in that of moist and herb-rich forests, with exceptions that could be explicable by topographic position.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ohenoja, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pohjola, E-mail: lp@mm.unknown
article id 5107, category Article
Lars Lönnstedt. (1981). The influence of Swedish forestry policy on the annual cuts of private woodlot owners. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5107. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15048
Keywords: forest policy; forest legislation; forest owners; Sweden; private forests; small-scale forestry; forestry promotion; annual cut; logging policy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effect that the various measures by society have on bringing the level of the annual cut by private woodlot owners in line with the forestry policy goal of a long-term sustained yield of wood. The objectives and measures of forest policy in Sweden are described, as well as the central relations which explain the development in the logging policies of the private woodlot owners.

The goal of Swedish forestry policy has long been to safeguard a sustained yield of wood. This demand has successively been tightened, defined and detailed. The principle measure employed by the authorities to obtain the goal has been silvicultural legislation.

The author summarises that of all the means available of influencing the logging policy of private woodlot owners the most effective is silvicultural legislation. However, when viewed in an historical perspective, the legislation has not been able to significantly regulate the level of the annual cut. Nevertheless, at a time when there is a shortage of wood materials the legislation will undoubtedly exert a greater influence. Changes in forest taxation could prove to be an effective means in future of, for example, achieving an increase in the annual cut of private woodlot owners.

  • Lönnstedt, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5106, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1981). Effectiveness of forest taxation reform as a means of economic policy. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5106. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15047
Keywords: forest policy; forest taxation; private forests; small-scale forestry; stumpage revenues; area-based yield
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In dealing with the effectiveness of forest taxation reform as a means of economic policy, the paper starts by recalling certain objectives of taxation, as well as the effect on aggregate demand of taxation in general. The effect of forest taxation depends on such factors as (1) whether the woodland owner has a regular income from a source other than forestry; (2) the system of taxation (whether taxation of actual stumpage revenue or of area-based yield); (3) the progression of taxation; and (4) the woodland owner’s income level.

The problem is illustrated by an example taken from Finland, where forestry revenue is taxed on the basis of area-based yield. A shift to taxation of actual stumpage revenue, as is proposed, is assumed. The effectiveness of this change is studied in terms of how far the assumed change is consistent with the objectives of the national economy. It is assumed that a shift to taxation of actual stumpage revenue would cause a decline in roundwood supply. A sensitivity analysis is then applied to detect the effect on tax revenue and national income of the tax reform. It is likely that a 10% decrease in fellings would bring about a reduction of tax revenue which would not be compensated for by the more perfect exposure of forestry income to taxation brought by the reform. The effect on investment, production, employment, differences in individual and regional income, and on the international balance of payments also disfavour the suggested change.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5105, category Article
John Eid. (1981). Forest as a capital asset. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5105. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15046
Keywords: forestry; profitability; small-scale forestry; capital management; capital investments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper discusses certain aspects of the capital management of forest assets. These aspects are of importance when one wants to consider what means to use to influence the capital management on both small and big forest properties. When quantifying the effects of different uses of capital, one must necessarily have a scale. The rate of return is for this purpose the usual measure of profitability. We will first discuss the differences between nominal and real rate of return, and point out the assumptions which are often implicit in analyses of the profitability of investments in forestry. We will the discuss certain liquidity and risk aspects of capital investments in forestry, and at the end deal with certain consequences of taxation.

  • Eid, E-mail: je@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5104, category Article
H. D. Brabänder. (1981). Subsidies and efficiency in forestry co-operatives. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5104. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15045
Keywords: forest policy; subsidies; private forests; Germany; small-scale forestry; forestry cooperatives; cooperatives; Federal Republic of Germany
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Private forestry in the Federal Republic of Germany mainly consists of small holdings. Out of 534,000 proprietors 97% own 0.01–10.0 ha. This category covers 45% (1.4 million ha) of private woodlands in total. During the last decades cooperation has increased so that now about 50% of the small woodland is managed by voluntary cooperatives. The main aim of the cooperatives is the improvement of management by trying to overcome the disadvantages arising from small size, unfavourable location and splitting up, as well as from insufficient accessibility and other structural difficulties.

An economic analysis of forestry cooperatives was conducted by using a combination of model calculations and field investigations of 20 forestry cooperatives which represented different types of cooperation in all regions of the country. The theoretical calculations showed the amplitude of efficiency improvement in small holdings by means of cooperation. It was shown that there were relatively poor results in the beginning and success could be achieved only in the long-term view by improving quality of stands. According to the analysis of the 20 cooperatives, the possible annual cutting rate was 4.1 m3/ha, but the actual cutting rate reached only 3.7 m3/ha. Aims of the cooperatives manly concerned coordination of production, mechanization, material acquisition and timber sales. The subsidization of forestry cooperatives proved, in general, to be insufficient. A discussion of different ways of subsidization showed that from the microeconomic point of view direct product subsidies of timber production may be more favourable than area-based grants.

  • Brabänder, E-mail: hb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5103, category Article
Shigeru Tanaka. (1981). Forest cooperatives as a policy measure for small woodlands. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5103. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15044
Keywords: forest policy; forest owners; private forests; small-scale forestry; forestry cooperatives; Japan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Japan, there are 2,990,000 forest owners within the scope of Forest Cooperatives, 60% of which are members of forest cooperatives. These are the largest functional organizations concerning private forests in Japan. The majority of members are small woodland owners with less than 20 ha per person, and 90% of the members are of agricultural cooperatives. The variety of memberships makes it difficult for cooperatives to strengthen its solidarity. The article describes the legislation concerning cooperatives in Japan, characteristics of business, reforestation and logging made by the forest cooperatives, and reorganization of the forest workers of the cooperatives.

Steady expansion of the main activities of the Forest Cooperatives, i.e. logging, marketing and reforestation, has been seen during the past 20 years. Logging and marketing have been taken over from the timber-dealers, and reforestation has been expanded by the Forest Cooperatives on the members’ behalf.

  • Tanaka, E-mail: st@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5102, category Article
G. Madigan, A. R. C. Jones. (1981). The private forest owners of eastern Canada - a survey. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5102. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15043
Keywords: forest policy; forest owners; Canada; private forests; small-scale forestry; forestry promotion; forestry assistance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A study to determine the effectiveness of private forestry assistance programs in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada was conducted among three complementary groups of individuals concerned with the private forest resource. Rural residents, members of woodlot owner associations and extension foresters in the four provinces were surveyed using three different, bilingual questionnaires. The majority of rural residences do not use forestry assistance programs. 45% of the woodlot association members responding used one or more of the several available programs. 54% of these users had a high regard for the assistance provided. Extension foresters felt that the objectives of their respective assistance programs were being met with available resources but performance could be bettered with more staff, increased budgets and an improvement in communications. This was a first attempt to evaluate private forestry assistance programs in a Canadian context

  • Madigan, E-mail: gm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Jones, E-mail: aj@mm.unknown
article id 5101, category Article
Ilpo Tikkanen. (1981). Effects of public forest policy in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5101. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15042
Keywords: forest policy; small-scale forestry; promotion of timber production; forest promotion
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the present study is to explore the applicability of some methodological approaches to empirical policy analysis in evaluating the effectiveness of public forest policy. From the perspective of effectiveness analysis we can distinguish in forest policy, aiming at the promotion of timber production, two principal objective levels in forestry: the quantity of silvicultural investments and their allocation and the quantity (sufficiency) together with the structure of timber supply. This paper is restricted to the exploration of the effect of forest policy measures directed to silvicultural investments in private forestry. First, the effects of state subsidies in silvicultural investments are analysed. The analysis is macro analysis of quantitative forest policy means, in which aggregated time series data are used as study material. Second, an attempt is made to provide a causal interpretation of the impacts of qualitative forest policy means at the woodlot level. This micro analysis utilizes an approach characteristic to the behavioural sciences.

It is concluded that like quantitative forest policy means the qualitative means, coupled with the activities of the forest promotion organizations, play a significant role in attaining the timber production goals. Of these, the professional advice given by forestry experts, has a direct effect on silvicultural activities. Extension and training activities have an indirect effect by increasing the willingness of forest owners to employ experts on their woodlots.

  • Tikkanen, E-mail: it@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5100, category Article
Ilpo Tikkanen. (1981). Causality as a conceptual frame for forest policy analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5100. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15041
Keywords: forest policy; small-scale forestry; causality; empirical policy analysis; public forest policy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The need for the planning and analysing of public policy has increased in economic and social policy, along with the expansion of the public sector, i.e. as the number of aims of the policy has increased and the objects of it have become more versatile, the objects of allocation have likewise been multiplied. In addition, the significance of planning a public forest policy has been emphasized by many economic and social changes in forestry and the timber economy.

The purpose of the present paper is to outline a general frame of reference for empirical policy analysis, upon which the effectiveness analysis of forest policy is also based. The approach serves as a methodological frame for the empirical analysis, presented in the following paper of this issue of Silva Fennica, in which econometric methods are applied to the examination of the effect of public forest policy.

  • Tikkanen, E-mail: it@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5099, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1981). Aspects of research strategy in studying forest owners’ behaviour. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5099. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15040
Keywords: forest policy; forest owners; behaviour; small-scale forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Research concerning the forest owners’ behaviour plays an important role in the evaluation of the effectiveness of forest policy on small woodlots. This is because the effects of forest policy measures on forestry are indirect and channelled through the behaviour of a forest owner. In this paper some basic concepts and methodological problems of forest owner studies are discussed. First, the concepts ’forest owner’ and ’forestry behaviour’ are defined on the basis of general sociological term, social role. Second, the problem of explanation and the selection of the explanatory model in forest owner studies is discussed. In this connection the heuristic nature of the selection of the explanatory model is underlined. It is pointed out that the proper explanatory mode in forest owner studies is decisively dependent on the objectives of the study or on the kind of information that will be obtained by the study. In such studies that intend to serve the planning and implementation of forest policy, it seems necessary to aim at causal explanations, and to analyse the general determinants and factors that can be manipulated in forest owners’ behaviour.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5098, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1981). Effectiveness of forest policy on small woodlands, contributions of working party 4.06.01 to the XVII IUFRO-congress September 6-17, 1981, Kyoto, Japan. Silva Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 5098. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15039
Keywords: meetings; small-scale forestry; forestry policies; IUFRO
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This collection of nine articles considers theoretical and methodological aspects as well as empirical research problems associated with the elevation of the effectiveness of forest policy measures on small woodlands. The papers presented concern aspects of research strategy in studying forest owner’s behaviour (Järveläinen) and causality as a conceptual frame for forest policy analysis (Tikkanen); an econometric analysis on the effects of public forest policy in Finland (Tikkanen); a survey concerning the private forest owners and the forestry assistance program in Eastern Canada (Madigan and Jones); the forestry co-operative as a policy measure (Tanaka) and the subsidies and efficiency in forestry co-operatives (Brabänder); the forest as a capital asset (Eid) and effectiveness of forest taxation reform as a means of economic policy (Riihinen); and the influence of Swedish forestry policy on the annual cut of private woodlot owners (Lönnstedt).

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail:
article id 5094, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1980). Kuka on maanviljelijä? Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 5094. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15035
English title: Who is a farmer?
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänomistajat; terminologia; maanviljelijä; metsätilanomistaja
English keywords: terminology; forest owners; forest research; farmer; non-farmer; behavioural research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper comments on the article written by Simo Hannelius that is published in the same issue of Silva Fennica (Who is the non-farmer forest owner? Silva Fennica 14 no. 4). Hannelius suggests that researchers dealing with the behaviour of private forest owners should change their classification to agree with the concepts presented in the Farm Economy statistics, and that the recommended concept of farmer forest owner is understood as a forest owner who has taxable net incomes (state taxation) from farming. Other private forest owners would be classified as non-farmers. Veli-Pekka Järveläinen states in his opinion that when distinguishing a farmer and a non-farmer, the key criterion should be the profession, which has been proved to be an important parameter in behavioural research.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5093, category Article
Ismo Karhu, Seppo Kellomäki. (1980). Väestön mielipiteet metsänhoidon vaikutuksesta maisemakuvaan Puolangan kunnassa. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 5093. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15034
English title: Effects of silvicultural practises on the forest landscape. A study on attitudes among inhabitants of Puolanka, north-eastern Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; mielipidetutkimus; metsien virkistyskäyttö; metsämaisema; maiseman arvostus; Puolanka
English keywords: forest management; Finland; recreation; forest landscape; scenic values; attractiveness
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The landscape preferences and attitudes of inhabitants of Puolanka, north-eastern Finland, to the effects of silvicultural practice on the forest landscape were studied by a postal inquiry. The effect of silvicultural practice on the forest landscape was mainly negative. Birch (Betula sp.) stands and mixed coniferous and deciduous tree species were the most preferred by the Puolanka inhabitants. The landscape preferences were related to socio-economic background of the inhabitants. The quality of the living environment also influenced the preferences, since uncommon features in the living environment were favoured most.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Karhu, E-mail: ik@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 5090, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen, Raili Voipio. (1980). Suomalainen haapa- ja poppelilajeja (Populus) koskeva kirjallisuus 1759...1979. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 5090. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15031
English title: Finnish literature on aspen and poplar species (genus Populus), 1759–1979.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat; Suomi; poppeli; haapa
English keywords: Populus tremula; Finland; forest research; aspen; bibliography
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first Finnish paper on aspen (Populus tremula L.) was published in 1759 in Åbo (Turku). After this dissertation, numerous scientific and other articles and reports have been published. In this bibliography about 340 papers are listed. Most of the papers deal only with aspen or other species of the genus Populus. Besides these even those articles have been included which deal with other problems but contain some information on the features of poplars.

The titles are listed without any translation or classification. If an article has a summary, it is shown in the title.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Voipio, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 5087, category Article
Olavi Luukkanen. (1980). Notes on the forests of North-Eastern China and their utilization. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 5087. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15028
Keywords: forestry; China; forest industry; forest products industry; forest research; Harbin
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper consists of a report of a study tour made by Finnish forestry students, under the leadership of the author, to Harbin, Changchun, Peking, Nanking and Shanghai in December 1977. In addition, some earlier literature sources concerning forestry in China are briefly reviewed. The paper presents the general geographic characteristics of north-eastern China, as well as the vegetation zones and timber species of this region. Silvicultural methods and the main features of forest technology and forest industry are also discussed. The last chapters describe the forestry administration and current trends in forestry education and research in north-eastern China as observed during the tour.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5085, category Article
Kari Keipi. (1980). Business economics in forestry research in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 3 article id 5085. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15026
Keywords: Finland; economics; forest research; forest sciences; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper reviews the past research in the five major subfields of business economics of forestry. Although the twelve doctoral dissertations in the discipline distribute evenly among the subfields, timber production economics has gained the major weight during the past 10–20 years. The new forest products market development requires the focus be shifted from pulpwood to high quality sawn timber production. Maintaining the current market share requires effective measures to control the wood costs. The article proposes nine research projects relating to these market demands.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Keipi, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5077, category Article
Eero Paavilainen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1980). Toimenpiteet vanhoilla ojitusalueilla. Suomalais-neuvosliittolaisen symposion esitelmät. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 2 article id 5077. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15018
English title: Management of old forest drainage areas – papers presented in Finnish-Soviet symposium.
Original keywords: metsäojitus; Suomi; kokoukset; suometsätiede; soiden ojitus; Neuvostoliitto
English keywords: drained peatlands; Finland; peatlands; forest research; Soviet Union; USSR; symposium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forestry working group of the committee for scientific and technical cooperation between Finland and the Soviet Union initiated cooperation work between the two countries in the field of forestry almost ten years ago. The Finnish organizations the Department of Peatland Forestry, the Finnish Forestry Research Institute, and the Institute of Peatland Forestry of the University of Helsinki participated in the activity. From the Soviet Union the participants have been the Ministry of Forestry, the Russian Federation of USSR, and the Forestry Research Institutes of Leningrad and Estonia.

This paper includes the papers presented in the joint symposium arranged at the Forest Field Station of University of Helsinki on 17.9.1979. The 9 Russian lectures and the 8 Finnish ones, are presented either in their entirety or slightly condensed variably in Finnish, English or Russian. The summary of the seminar is presented in English and in Russian.

  • Paavilainen, E-mail:
  • Seppälä, E-mail:
article id 5075, category Article
Simo Hannelius. (1980). Kuka on metsätilanomistaja? Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 2 article id 5075. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15016
English title: Who is the non-farmer forest owner? The semantic influence of the non-farmer forest owner-concept to research results and published statistics.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänomistajat; yksityismetsänomistajat; metsätilat; terminologia; maanviljelijä; metsätilanomistaja; käyttäytymistutkimus
English keywords: terminology; forest owners; forest research; farmers; non-farmers; behaviour research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Research into the forestry behaviour of private forest owners in Finland began 10 years ago. The private forest owners have been dichotomously classified into two groups, farmers and non-farmers. The farmer forest owner was considered to derive his main income (earnings) from agriculture. This classification is compared to the concepts in statistical publication Farm Economy 1976 (Maatilatalous). On the basis of this examination, it is recommended that researchers dealing with the behaviour of private forest owners should change their classification to agree with the concepts presented in the Farm Economy statistics. The recommended concept of farmer forest owner is understood as a forest owner who has taxable net incomes (state taxation) from farming. Other private forest owners are classified as non-farmers.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hannelius, E-mail: sh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5064, category Article
E. P. Prokazin. (1980). Geographic variation in forest trees. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 1 article id 5064. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15005
Keywords: Scots pine; tree breeding; seed orchards; forest research; Symposiums; Soviet Union; USSR; provenience experiments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Planting of forest trees takes place in USSR on millions of hectares but without permanent forest seed bases having yet been established in every region of the country. Consequently, local seed does not suffice the need, and it is necessary to secure it from other geographical regions. To avoid negative consequences of seed transfer it is necessary to study geographic variation of the genetic characteristics of forest trees and construct scientifically based division into seed zones. Geographic transfer of seed can also be regarded as a breeding measure. A large research program is being carried out in the USSR on the subject. Most of the existing trials are provenience tests of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Over 2,000 hectares of new provenience experiments is to be established in near future.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Prokazin, E-mail: ep@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5059, category Article
Pertti Harstela. (1980). Jäljelle jäävä puusto ja ajouralta toimivat harvennuspuun korjuukoneet. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 1 article id 5059. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a15000
English title: Remaining trees and machines working from the strip roads in thinning.
Original keywords: harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; metsäkoneet; ajourat; jäljelle jäävä puusto; valikoiva harvennus
English keywords: skidding; thinning; timber harvesting; forest machines; strip roads; remaining trees
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the first part of the study the hindrance of the remaining trees when felling trees by machines working from the strip road in selective thinning was studied on the basis of the literature. In the second part there was geometrically studied the need of schematic thinning in some type stands when bundles are pre-skidded straight-lined to the strip road. In average only 0-1 trees per pre-skidding trail needs to be removed. It was concluded that trees removed from the pre-skidding trail do not significantly increase the need of schematic thinning. Remaining trees do not limit the length of machine booms if the pre-skidding trails are planned during the felling.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5058, category Article
Max Hagman. (1980). Suomalais-neuvostoliittolainen metsägenetiikan ja siemenhuollon symposiumi Punkaharjulla 17.–18.8.1978. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 1 article id 5058. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14999
English title: Reports of the Finnish-Soviet symposium on forest genetics and forest tree seed production, Punkaharju, Finland, August 17-18. 1978.
Original keywords: metsänjalostus; Suomi; kokoukset; siemenviljely; Neuvostoliitto; seminaarit; genetiikka
English keywords: Finland; seed orchards; forest tree breeding; Soviet Union; USSR; symposium; forest genetics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

As a part of the scientific and technical cooperation between Finland and the USSR a symposium and an excursion on forest genetics and seed production was organized in Finland in August 1978. The symposium paper presented at Punkaharju are published here in order to bring them available for a wider audience.

The 12 symposium reports deal with the following subjects: Practical application of forest genetic research (A.I. Novoselceva), geographical variability and provenance transfer (E.P. Prokazin, M. Hagman, I. Etverk), variation in wood density (P. Velling), variation of flowering and seed crops in seed orchards (Y.P. Efimov), and natural stands (V. Koski), vegetative propagation (J. Niiranen), seed size effects and early test problems (J. Mikola), quantitative analysis of genotypic and environmental effects (S.A. Petrov), hormonal induction of flowering (O. Luukkanen) and x-ray photography analysis of the ageing of seeds during storage (M. Ryynänen).

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Hagman, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5057, category Article
Rainer Rauramaa, Kaj Husman, Katriina Kukkonen, Erkki Voutilainen. (1980). Metsurien ravinto ja seerumin lipoproteiinit - esitutkimus. Silva Fennica vol. 14 no. 1 article id 5057. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14998
English title: Preliminary observations about diet, serum lipids and lipoproteins among lumberjacks.
Original keywords: metsätyöntekijät; metsätyö; ravitsemus; metsurit; kolesteroli; energiantarve
English keywords: nutrition; forest work; forest workers; logger; energy intake; cholesterol; triglycerides
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Energy intake of ten lumberjacks in Eastern Finland was estimated by using 24-hour recall. In addition, serum cholesterol and triglycerides were analysed in different lipoprotein fractions. Average energy intake was according to present recommendations in Finland, although there was great individual variation. Serum triglycerides were in the normal range. Five lumberjacks’ total cholesterol concentration was somewhat increased. Average HDL concentration was clearly greater than in men of the same age.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Rauramaa, E-mail: rr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Husman, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown
  • Kukkonen, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
  • Voutilainen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown
article id 5054, category Article
Pekka Kilkki. (1979). Outline for a data processing system in forest mensuration. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 4 article id 5054. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14911
Keywords: forest mensuration; methods; data processing; multi-equation model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper presents the principles of a unified data processing system suitable for derivation of the most variables of interest in forest mensuration. The precedence (succedence) relations between the tree and forest stand variables are analysed and a block-wise simultaneous recursive multi-equation model is suggested to describe these relations. Regression analysis is used in the estimation of the model parameters and Taylor’s series and Monte Carlo simulation are available in the derivation of the unbiased results.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5053, category Article
Matti Häkkilä. (1979). Maatilatalouden tuloveroasetuksen muuttamisen vaikutus verokuutiometrin kunnittaisiin hintoihin. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 4 article id 5053. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14910
English title: Effects of the revision of the forest taxation laws in local values for the taxable cubic metre.
Original keywords: metsäverotus; verotus; alueelliset erot; kantohinnat; verokuutiometri
English keywords: forest taxation; taxation; regional differences; taxable cubic metre
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper evaluates the effect of the change in the forest taxation laws which came into force in January 1977 on the value of the taxable cubic metre in each commune, a measure of the mean timber price. The taxable cubic metre is taken into include timber assortments corresponding to the mean planned cut for the area, which are then assessment at their mean local stumpage prices. Account is also taken of the mean costs involved in forestry, which increase from the south of Finland to the north.

The new principles of taxation, based on data from the V and VI National Forest Inventories, give higher values for the taxable cubic metre, and thus heavier taxation, in the Southern Finland, largely by allowing for a higher proportion of saw logs than previously, and lower values, an easing of taxation, in the north.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Häkkilä, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5050, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1979). Suomen metsäntutkimuksen ulkomaiset yhteydet. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 4 article id 5050. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14907
English title: International contacts of Finnish forest research.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; kansainvälinen yhteistyö; tutkimusyhteistyö
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest sciences; international cooperation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes various forms of international contacts in the Finnish forestry research and emphasizes the importance of this cooperation. The relatively small additional resources required to maintain contacts should be safeguarded. When considering the ways in which international contacts could be strengthened, coordination with the aims of the public and private sectors is needed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5046, category Article
Fernando Saravia. (1979). Small-scale sawmills in industrial and social development of backward forestry areas. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5046. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14903
Keywords: forestry; sawmill industry; economic development; Chile; social changes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper analyses the potential of utilizing a previously existing infrastructure of small sawmills in a backward area to enhance planned social development, considering at the same time both social and economic objectives. The paper presents the case of a rural forest region of 352,000 ha in Southern Chile in the period 1970–73. It is concluded that meaningful contributions can be made by this traditional industry to such development.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saravia, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5045, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1979). Assessment of forest resources for forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5045. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14902
Keywords: forest inventory; forestry; forest mensuration; methods; World Forest Congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The general requirements for forest information required in forest management include the availability of quantitative data concerning forest areas and timber volume, data describing that structure and quality of the forest by classes, data dealing with the forest dynamics such as increment and mortality, stand-wise data tied to on-the-ground locations, and the timelines of all this information.

A review of the present inventory systems reveals variations in the information used to manage forests. In many cases, there appears to be an inadequacy of information. There may be no inventory system, or sampling may concern only overall features of the forest. The general trend has been towards a more common use of delineation of stands and the estimation of stands characteristics. In European countries, survey techniques have been improved by, for instance, trying to avoid subjective features in stand-wise assessments and through the use of index sub-compartments which are remeasure. In North America, a new approach was recently introduced to generate stand tables which seems to have significant inventory capabilities. In some cases, the advanced inventory systems may simultaneously employ three kinds of inventories.

In designing an inventory and management information system experiences gained elsewhere should be utilized with studies of sampling methods, remote sensing techniques, new instrumentation and computer services. Improved decision making makes it possible to introduce cheaper methods for periodic inventories. The information system should be only as elaborate as is required to do the job. The costs of acquisition of inventory information correlates with a degree of sophistication of the system, but rarely exceeds one percent of the stumpage of the timber cut. Also, the increase in wood production more than compensates the costs of planning on the basis of inventories.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5044, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1979). Forest balance on the national level. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5044. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14901
Keywords: forestry; forest management planning; forest balance; utilization of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest balance is a comparison between the growing stock volume at the beginning and end of a balance period and the gross increment and drain during that period. The forest balance of Finland during that period 1967-1973 and the increment and drain balance during the period 1953-1977 are used as examples in the paper. Forest balance is a check of the accuracy of basic estimates. If the discrepancy between the calculated growing stock at the end of the balance period and the growing stock estimated by an inventory is great, it calls for improvements in forest inventory methods and timber utilization statistics.

Balance may reveal possibilities for improving the utilization of forest resources. If natural losses are great, increased thinnings and regeneration cuttings of mature and over-mature tree stands increase the supply of timber. If logging losses are great, the efficiency of harvesting should be improved. An overcutting situation calls forth efforts to increase timber production or to decrease the uses of timber in order to avoid overexploitation. If gross increment is greater than the drain there are possibilities to increase harvesting, forest industrial expansion etc.

Forest balance is a way to check and improve the basic estimates of forestry production, to increase the effective use of timber grown in the forest, to commerce policies and measures concerning increment and to control timber utilization on the basis of sustained yield.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5043, category Article
V. J. Palosuo, M. Heikinheimo, S. Kaurinkoski. (1979). Role of education and professionalism in the developing of forest policies. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5043. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14900
Keywords: forest policy; forestry; forest education; World Forest Congress; professionalism
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To what extend can the services of forestry fulfil the needs of a nation? The answer depends not only on the natural resources or the stage of development of a country and its forestry, but also on its base of knowledge and know-how. The question is how to maximize the knowledge of forests and its role in human life, how to analyse this knowledge and in due course forward the result to the decision makers.

As an organic part of economy and culture, forest policy must incorporate a balanced and up-to-date program of education which will cover the needs of all forest-based services to the public. This program ought to guarantee a sufficient number of qualified professionals, technicians and workers who for their part should share their knowledge and especially field experiences for the development of the nation’s forest policy.

The forest management must be turned into a profession that will have its permanent role in the general planning of the nation’s economy and welfare. Depending on the structure of the country’s administration, there are different ways to make the professional voice heard by the responsible politicians. In any case a close and continual discussion and cooperation between politicians and professionals will be essential. Discussions must take place in the early phases of the planning in order to minimize erroneous planning caused by eventual lack of factual knowledge among the politicians. Information must be given in clear and uncomplicated terms, understood also by the public which must be well informed about the aims and duties of the professionals as well.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Palosuo, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown
  • Kaurinkoski, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 5042, category Article
Lasse Hellman. (1979). Social promotion of forest workers. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5042. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14899
Keywords: forest worker; forest work; working conditions; occupational health; World Forest Congress; standard of living; social status
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The social circumstances of forest workers may be considered from the viewpoint of incomes and standard of living. The committee appointed by the U.N. did, however, define in 1961 the standard of living using the following partial factors: health, housing, working conditions, security, human rights, education, recreation, clothing and nutrition.

Research has given a rather gloomy picture of forest workers’ health conditions. The living of a forest worker is cramped and long distances to the work sites often compel him to live in working site accommodations, separated from the family. Transport to the working site and building of family quarters for forest workers in densely populated rural areas and villages can improve the worker’s living. The fall of worker’s income in contract work due to deterioration of his physical capacity of performance starts already at the age of 35. In forest work a man’s energy consumption may be higher than 20,000 kJ (4,800 kcal) per day; it is one of the most strenuous occupations. In addition, there is a high accident risk in the work. The heavy work and the working conditions should be taken into account in determining the correct nutrition. Being those who make objections and are primarily responsible for the forest workers’ conditions, forest technicians and forestry officers should – both in their capacity as forest authorities and as the employer’s representatives – see to the improvement of forest workers’ working conditions and social position.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Hellman, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5041, category Article
Mikko Kantola. (1979). The development of simple tools for forestry work in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5041. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14898
Keywords: forest education; history; forest work; hand tools; World Forest Congress; forest tools; manufacturing of tools; working tecniques
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the development of hand tools and their maintenance methods, and the improvement of working techniques in Finland in the era when forest work was mostly done by muscular power. The development was carried out in a close connection with professional training, permitting the results to be distributed widely throughout the country at short duration courses, and simultaneously collecting new information.

The phases of the entire development cycle is described from founding of the development and training organization to standardization of the tools and comparisons to similar foreign and Finnish tools. On the basis of this, along with analyses and synthesis performed, new hand-made prototypes were created and then tested on forest work sites. The knowledge was used to produce test series in a tool factory, and feedback was gathered from skilled workers. On experience gained, best tools selected could be put into manufacturing. This work gave a natural basis to investigate even working techniques. Good results were achieved through cooperation between researchers, users, manufacturing industry and trade, as well as vocational training.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kantola, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5040, category Article
Mikko Kantola. (1979). Social promotion of forest workers. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5040. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14897
Keywords: forestry; mechanization; forest work; forest workers; labour; trade unions; labour policy; World Forest Congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Alongside the extent of forest production, the demand for labour input in forestry depends on the development of the structure of production and of the productivity of the work. In this, mechanization of harvesting will have long-lasting influence. Despite the growth in forestry production, the number of forestry workers has decreased considerably in many countries, but at the same time the share of professional forest workers has increased. The permanence of work fundamentally affects the life of a forest worker. It has influence on the income level, on the social position of the worker and on the standard of living.

The appreciation of the occupation of a forest worker will be increased mainly within the increasing mechanization of the work. It requires vocational training, and it will improve wages, competition of skilled workers and social appreciation of the vocation. In order to influence their benefits forest workers have organized themselves into trade unions. They activate their members in to helping the unions to attain their aims. Trade unions try to influence the policies of forestry and forest labour. In this respect they are in contact with political parties. The questions of labour policy occupy a central position in the mutual relations of the labour market organizations. Within mutual cooperation much promotion has been achieved concerning wages, working conditions, rationalization, improvement of housing facilities and other living conditions. Especially in some East-European countries attention is being paid to the motivation of forest workers.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kantola, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5039, category Article
Pertti Elovirta. (1979). Forestry as an employer in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5039. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14896
Keywords: forestry; forest industry; rural development; employment; forest work; industrialization; World Forest Congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the significance of forestry as a source of employment in the rural areas of Finland. The historical perspective of the presentation dates from the 1860’s. This period includes all the relevant stages in the development of the theme in question, the preindustrial age up to the 1890’s, the period of the creation of the forest industries to the end of 1920’s, the period of the forest industries’ expansion to the end of 1950’s and the period of mechanization from the beginning of 1960’s. The long perspective is possible because of the existence of time series data.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Elovirta, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5038, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1979). The role of forestry in the fight against desertification. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5038. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14895
Keywords: afforestation; forestry; desertification; congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper reviews the background documents and the final report of the United Nations Conference on Desertification, held in Nairobi, Kenya, in August/September of 1977. Deforestation for grazing or agriculture has often been the initial step towards desertification. Consequently, tree planting plays a central role in the reclamation of desertified areas. Shelterbelts and other tree plantations protect agricultural land, settlements and communications.

Tree plantations in arid zones need effective protection against grazing and other improper land use. This must be explained to political leaders and local people. As a long-term investment, it requires a high level of education to understand its ultimate usefulness, and also research to choose the best species and techniques for different climatic and soil conditions is needed. In addition, afforestation will contribute to the solution of energy problems. Fast growing trees, even with artificial irrigation, can be the most efficient and economical way to cover energy needs of rural people. To accomplish the task of reclamation of decertified areas, international cooperation and technical and economic support from industrial countries to developing countries is needed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5037, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1979). Environmental content of forestry education in Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5037. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14894
Keywords: forestry; forest education; World Forest Congress; environmental conservation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Traditionally, European forest education has emphasized environmental conservation. Forest education reflects the needs of society. After the industrial revolution, rapidly growing forest industries needed an increasing amount of wood, and the emphasis of forestry education was on timber production on the basis of sustained yield, and on efforts for progressively raising yields.

The technical and economic development of the recent decades introduced two themes in the environmental content of forest education: 1) The changing role of forests in society increase importance of protection and recreational functions of forests, and 2) modern technology has caused great changes in the forestry itself. These changes have to be taken into account also in the forest education. The environmental content of forest education can be divided into two broad fields, the ecological basis and environmental influences of various forest operations, and forest management for non-production uses. In both fields university curricula include a) basic courses, obligatory for all forestry students, b) optional courses, and c) advanced courses for higher degrees.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5036, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen, Päiviö Riihinen. (1979). Forestry and rural development. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5036. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14893
Keywords: forestry; forest industry; rural development; World Forestry Congress; industrialization; economic development; social development
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The development of a society often involves deep-going changes in its economic and social structure. According to the theory of cumulative growth, the economic changes attached to industrialization and modernisation of a society are characterized by the regional differentiation of economic activities. Expansive growth centres, areas with spreading effects, and back-wash areas will develop due to the dynamic forces of cumulative development.

The impact of industrialization and modernization on society as a whole usually manifests itself in an achievement of many of the welfare objectives considered desirable. There are, however, differences between the industries or other economic activities in respect to their effect on the economic or social life of a society or a region. The special feature of forestry and forest industry is that they are more concerned with rural districts than most other economic pursuits. The differentiation effect of forestry and forest industries is not as pronounced as that of certain other industries. Especially the back-wash effects remain rather weak.

In traditional, non-industrialized society the establishment of forestry activities may have an important role in the beginning of economic and social development which is rational from the point of view of the local communities as well as of the society as a whole. However, forestry may also have influences which one can see as socially undesirable. As far as traditional rural societies are concerned, one basic problem is that the establishment of forestry activities may advance the disintegration of ancient social institutions and structures. On the other hand, in a modern, industrialized society one primary function of forestry seems to be to maintain and strengthen the rural social structures and to equalize the regional differences caused by cumulative development. However, the role of forestry in rural development is likely to decrease when the industrialization and modernization progresses, for instance, because the increasing urban population will use forests for purposes other than forestry, such as recreation and nature conservation.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
article id 5035, category Article
V. J. Palosuo. (1979). Kehitysmaiden ongelmat metsäkongressin polttopisteessä. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 3 article id 5035. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14892
English title: Forests for people - World Forestry Congress.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kehitysmaat; Maailman metsäkongressi
English keywords: forestry; developing countries; World Forestry Congress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a description of the 8th World Forestry Congress held in October 1978. It gives background information for the papers published in the Silva Fennica issue 13, which includes the Finnish papers sent in the congress from Finland. The paper underlines forest and socio-economic problems of the developing countries, especially in the tropics.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Palosuo, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5032, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Heikki Wuorenrinne. (1979). Kaupunkimetsien vaurioitumiseen vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5032. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14889
English title: Factors affecting deterioration of urban forests.
Original keywords: taajamametsät; kulutuksenkestävyys; metsien pirstoutuminen
English keywords: fragmentation; fertility; trampling tolerance; urban forests; deterioration of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The objective of the study was to investigate the factors affecting the deterioration of urban forests based on literature. Regression analysis is applied to the material obtained from unpublished material of the latter author. The size of forest stand, and its fertility proved to exercise the greater effect on the deterioration of urban forests. A model based on these factors has been developed and its area of applying is discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Wuorenrinne, E-mail: hw@mm.unknown
article id 5031, category Article
Tom Simons. (1979). Arkkitehdit ja metsänhoitajat Suomen metsäisen maiseman muotoilijoina. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5031. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14888
English title: The role of architects and foresters in shaping the forest landscape of Finland.
Original keywords: metsämaisema; maankäyttö; seminaari; maisemasuunnittelu; arkkitehtuuri; luontoarvot
English keywords: forest landscape; land uses; seminar; MAB; architecture; landscape design
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the two approaches which are evident in planning and management of nature and landscape. One is based on traditional architectural thinking, emphasizing the significance of subjective intuition and practical creative work. The other has evolved from the study of the economic utilization of natural resources, emphasizing the significance of rational thinking and scientific analysis.

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Simons, E-mail: ts@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5030, category Article
Camilla Rosengren. (1979). Luonnonkasvillisuus asuntoalueilla. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5030. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14886
English title: Natural vegetation within housing areas.
Original keywords: maankäyttö; taajamametsät; seminaari; luonnonympäristö; maisemasuunnittelu; taajamat
English keywords: landscape planning; urban forests; land uses; seminar; MAB; natural envirionment; urban areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the results of the studies made in 24 Finnish housing areas. They show that the building density is not as important as the way of building and the site planning, in the view of preserving natural vegetation in the site. Building on slopes was difficult with modern building techniques because of the extensive earthwork required. 

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme Project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki. 

The PDF includes a summary in English. 

  • Rosengren, E-mail: cr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5029, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki. (1979). Metsän tarjoamat fyysiset hyödyt yhdyskuntasuunnittelussa. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5029. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14885
English title: Benefits of forests in urban environment .
Original keywords: kuusi; kaupunkimetsät; maankäyttö; seminaari; meluntorjunta; saasteiden torjunta; metsien ympäristövaikutukset
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; noise abatement; urban forests; land uses; seminar; MAB; air impurities
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The potentials of forests in abatement of urban noise and air impurities are discussed based on literature and calculations. Excess attenuation of 6–7 dB seems to be possible in noise abatement applying Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) plantations. The potential in dust sedimentation is of 10,000–20,000 kg/ha/year and absorbtion to 7 kg/ha/yr. Forests seem also have considerable potential for control of climatic conditions in urban areas. Management of forests in urban environment is discussed. 

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme Project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki. 

The PDF includes a summary in English. 

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5028, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1979). MAB 2-projekti metsäbiologisen tutkimustyön tulosten hyödyntäjänä. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5028. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14884
English title: Benefits of MAB Project 2 by the research work on forest biology in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsäekologia; maankäyttö; seminaari
English keywords: Finland; forest ecology; forest research; land uses; seminar; MAB
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

MAB Project 2 concentrates on the influences of man’s activities on forests with no special consideration to any particular research field. At the same time as the swift development of research methods has brought the natural sciences and forest biology very near to each other, the circle of users of research results in forest biology has widened to include area and city planners etc. In Finland, the main role of MAB Project 2 is to promote mutual exchange between the users and producers of research results in forest biology and to facilitate both national and international co-operation between all research workers and organizations interested in this field.

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5026, category Article
Alpo Enivaara. (1979). Pyynikin harjumännikön uudistaminen ja elvyttäminen. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5026. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14881
English title: Regeneration and improvement of the Scots pine forest of Pyynikki esker in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: mänty; uudistaminen; seminaarit; maankäyttö; harju; Pyynikki; taajamametsät
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; regeneration; Scots pine; urban forests; seminar; MAB; natural park
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Pyynikki is a unique natural park in the centre of the city of Tampere in Southern Finland. Currently, the forest of Pyynikki is losing its vigour because of aging and environmental factors. In 1977 a policy was designed for the regrowth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest and improvement of the condition of the trees to avoid the situation that the whole pine forest (34 ha) would be regrown at one time. The period of regrowth of pine forest is 60 years. It is accomplished by cutting small openings, on which 4-year old potted pine saplings are planted. Birch will be planted only on two spots. The aim is that the forest scenery will be maintained as undamaged as possible. The condition of the growing forest will be improved by fertilization and thinning.

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Enivaara, E-mail: ae@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5025, category Article
Eero Paavilainen. (1979). MAB 2 -projekti Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5025. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14879
English title: MAB 2 project in Finland.
Original keywords: seminaarit; maankäyttö; metsäekosysteemit
English keywords: Finland; forest ecosystems; land uses; seminar; MAB
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article examines the problems of interdisciplinary research and the Finnish participation in MAB Project 2, which concentrates on the influences of man’s activities on forests. From the Finnish point of view, the main research areas are the effects of forestry activities which affect large areas, multiple use of forests, forests and environmental pollution, and the effects of energy economy.

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Paavilainen, E-mail: ep@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5024, category Article
Ossi V. Lindqvist. (1979). Pelastaako luonnon moninaiskäyttö luonnon? Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5024. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14878
English title: Will the multiple use of nature save nature?
Original keywords: metsäekologia; metsien monikäyttö; seminaarit; maankäyttö
English keywords: forest ecology; multiple use of forests; land uses; seminar; MAB
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The term ’multiple use’ was introduced in Finland in the late 1960’s as a planning principle for the use of natural resources. It was hoped that multiple use, in contrast to ’single use’, would be less destructive and more amenable to multiple interests and to more efficient planning. However, the term ’multiple use’ carries several hidden assumptions which superficially at least seem easy to handle but which may, at the very end, prove equally destructive to the planned object. This term generally lacks the dimensions of time and place. In reality, different uses follow in a definite sequence and in definite place. As a planning strategy, multiple use may lead, if carelessly applied, to quite unexpected results that run contrary to the intended purposes.

This paper was presented in the ‘Man and the Biosphere’ programme project 2 seminar held on August 24–25 1978 in Hyytiälä research station of University of Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lindqvist, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5023, category Article
Anu Pärnänen. (1979). Erilaisten maankäyttötapojen ja hoitotoimenpiteiden ekologiset vaikutukset metsiin. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 5023. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14877
English title: Ecological effects of different land uses and management practices on boreal landscapes – Man and the Biosphere Programme, seminar of Project 2.
Original keywords: ekosysteemit; metsäekologia; seminaarit; maankäyttö; MAB
English keywords: forest ecology; forest ecosystems; land uses; UNESCO; seminar
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme of UNESCO was launched in 1970. This interdisciplinary programme represents a new integrated approach to research, training and action aimed at improving man’s partnership with the environment. It consists of 14 project areas.

The Academy of Finland and the Finnish Committee for the MAB, in cooperation with the University of Helsinki and the city of Tampere organized a seminar with an aim of reviewing the execution of the Finnish participation in the MAB project No. 2. The seminar took place at Hyytiälä, a forest research station of the University of Helsinki, on August 24–25 1978.

During the seminar, an excursion was made to Pyynikki esker, a unique natural park close to the centre of the city of Tamper. Eight papers were presented and discussed in the seminar. The papers are published in this issue of Silva Fennica.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Pärnänen, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5013, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1979). Tutkimustoiminta Lapin metsien hoidon ja käytön suuntaajana. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 1A article id 5013. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14867
English title: The role of forestry in guiding forest policy and management in Finnish Lapland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; historia; Lappi
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; forestry; Finland; Lapland; history; forestry research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The part played by research work in guiding the management and utilization of Lapland’s forests is examined in this publication. The review has been written to mark the 70th anniversary of the Finnish Forestry Society (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science).

The climate in Lapland is very severe and, owing to the lack of experience abroad, forestry has been forced to follow the guidelines set by domestic research activity in Finland. Research work was very active in Lapland the 1910’s, 1920’s and 1950’s, and the main outlines for forestry utilisation were soon established. In the 1950’s, there was a strong trend prevailing to develop forestry, with the result that a change took place in favour of clear-cutting. The cool climate period in the 1960’s caused considerable damage to young plantations. In order to find means to rectifying the situation and to devise new guidelines for forest management, The Finnish Forest Research Institute established a number of research stations in Lapland.

Research activity has had a pronounced effect on the management and utilization of forests in Lapland. Present-day problems have been caused more by the international situation than by difficulties in the management of forests in Lapland.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail:
article id 5020, category Article
Olli Saastamoinen. (1979). Valaistun hiihtoreitin käytön ajallinen vaihtelu. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 1 article id 5020. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14874
English title: Time patterns in the use of an urban skiing route.
Original keywords: metsien virkistyskäyttö; ulkoilureitit; hiihto; virkistysalueet; ladut
English keywords: recreation; skiing routes; greenways; recreational use of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Temporal variations in use of an illuminated skiing route located near a town was examined. Three time-patterns (monthly, daily, hourly) were determined on the basis of empirical data. Preliminary data about the participation rates on Sundays of population living near the route was given. More than four thousand people reside within 0.5 km of the route. It can be supposed that on the best Sunday about 18% of the population participated in skiing. 

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
article id 5019, category Article
Pertti Hari, Markku Kanninen, Seppo Kellomäki, Olavi Luukkanen, Paavo Pelkonen, Raimo Salminen, Heikki Smolander. (1979). An automatic system for measurements of gas exchange and environmental factors in a forest stand, with special reference to measuring principles. Silva Fennica vol. 13 no. 1 article id 5019. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14873
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; photosynthesis; Scots pine; environmental factors; ecology; transpiration; measurement tecniques; forest stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A system for measuring the net photosynthesis, transpiration and environmental factors within the canopy and ground cover vegetation is described. The system operates continuously throughout the growing season in a young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand. A data-logging unit controls the system and carries out the measurements on the readings of the sensors of photosynthesis, transpiration, light intensity outside the canopy, light climate inside the assimilation chambers, and dry and wet temperatures from selected points. These measurements are shown digitally and automatically punched onto paper tape.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Hari, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kanninen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown
  • Pelkonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
  • Salminen, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown
  • Smolander, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 5002, category Article
Antti Haapanen, Pertti Siitonen. (1978). Kulojen esiintyminen Ulvinsalon luonnonpuistossa. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 3 article id 5002. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14856
English title: Forest fires in Ulvinsalo strict nature reserve in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; metsäpalot; ekologia; Ulvinsalon luonnonpuisto; Kuhmo; palohistoria
English keywords: forest fires; Norway spruce; Scots pine; northern Finland; ecology; national park
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is the first report of a larger project concerning fire ecology in the Finnish boreal forests. Modern forestry has never been practiced in the Ulvinsalo strict nature reserve (2,500 ha) in Northern Finland in the county of Kuhmo. Forest fires have been uncommon because of mosaic of mineral and peat soils. The forests are mostly Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) dominated with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) often as the oldest trees of a stand. Forest fires were dated by counting annual rings from cambium to the fire scar in pines. 73 stands covering 1,207 ha were surveyed, over 80% of which was on mineral soil.

50% of the area had burned at least once during the life time of the present pine trees. 48 different forest fires were found, the first being from the year 1712 and the latest from 1969. The average time elapsed between the fires was about 82±43 years, and range 18–219 years. It was assumed that the stands where no fire scars were found, had, however, regenerated after fires but no fires have occurred since after that. In latter part of the 19th century 21 forest fires were dated, in the other half centuries only 4–9. This may have been caused by the increased human activity in the late 1800’s. The fire rotation of the area is 280 years, and spruce is almost the only tree species, which can regenerate in the present situation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Haapanen, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
  • Siitonen, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown
article id 4999, category Article
Tapio Klen, Veikko Louhevaara. (1978). The additional physical strain caused by safety equipment in logging work. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 3 article id 4999. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14853
Original keywords: metsätyö; työturvallisuus; työn kuormittavuus; hakkuutyö; turvavarusteet
English keywords: work load; occupational safety; forest work; physical stress; logging work; safety equipment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The safety clothing, rubber safety boots, belt with lifting hooks and personal protectors can weight about 3 kg more than the normal work clothing including rubber boots. In order to evaluate the increase off the physical strain in logging work due to them, laboratory tests performed on tread mill were made. The physical strain increased 3–11% as estimated from heart rate and 4–8% as estimated from oxygen consumption measurements.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Klen, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Louhevaara, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown
article id 4998, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1978). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran kunnianosoitukset. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 4998. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14852
English title: Awards of the Finnish Society of Forest Science.
Original keywords: Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper describes the principals of the awards given by the Finnish Society of Forest Science, and lists the different acknowledgements conferred by the society.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4994, category Article
Martti Saarilahti. (1978). Seismisten luotausmenetelmien soveltuvuus metsäautoteiden pohjatutkimuksiin. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 4994. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14848
English title: Seismic survey methods in forest road construction.
Original keywords: tienrakennus; metsätiet; mittausmenetelmät; seismografi; pohjatutkimus
English keywords: road construction; forest roads; seismographs; sub-surface earth investigations; measurement methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to find out the technical and economical applicability of seismic survey methods of sub-surface earth investigations in forest road planning. Two seismographs, SOIL-TEST MD 1 and BISON 1570, were tested in studyin 31 cuts and 3 gravel areas. The devices proved to be usable in field conditions. Sounding one spot costs about 75 Fmk and methods’ rentability is greatly based on the ration between expected and unexpected events, which depends on the areal geology. It is profitable to purchase the device especially if digging out of unexpected bedrock causes high costs.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saarilahti, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4993, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1978). Yliopistollisten metsänhoidon harjoitustöiden siirtäminen Evolta Hyytiälään. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 4993. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14847
English title: Transfer of the field courses in silviculture of the University of Helsinki, Finland, from Evo to Hyytiälä.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; Helsingin yliopisto; korkeakouluopetus; Evon metsäopisto; Hyytiälän metsäasema
English keywords: Finland; forest education; University of Helsinki; field courses; Evo Forest Institute; Forest Training Station Hyytiälä; university education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the series of events and the decisions which in the years 1908–1911 resulted in transfer of the field courses in silviculture of the University of Helsinki from the old training region of the Evo Forest Institute in Central Finland, where higher education in forestry had been given since 1860. The establishment of the new training region of Siikakangas and the building of the new Forest Training Station Hyytiälä in 1911–1912 are also described, as well as the arguments behind these decisions and the motives of the forestry faculty of the University of Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4991, category Article
Pertti Harstela, Leo Tervo. (1978). Taimikkopuun korjuumenetelmien vertailua. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 2 article id 4991. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14845
English title: Comparison of methods for harvesting in sapling stand.
Original keywords: metsätyö; taimikko; harvennus; koneellistaminen; kustannukset; korjuukustannukset; haketus
English keywords: thinning; mechanization; seedling stand; forest work; harvesting costs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A theoretical nomogram was made for estimating the costs of fully mechanized thinning and the driving speed of the machine. Based on this nomogram and the previous studies three harvesting methods were compared; systematic fully mechanized harvesting, selective fully mechanized harvesting, and manual felling combined with whole-tree chipping.

The third method was cheaper than the fully mechanized methods in a pole-stage stand. The choice of the most advantageous chipping station depended on conditions, but the smaller tree size and possibly the reduced damage on the remaining stand favour chipping on the strip road rather than chipping on the intermediate landing or at the mill.

Mechanized systematic thinning was the cheapest method for harvesting in the sapling stand. The required driving speed were so low that ergonomic factors should not hinder its use. Factors related to the future production of the stand do, however, limit its use. Mechanized selective thinning does not seem to be an economic method for harvesting in a sapling or pole-stage stand.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
  • Tervo, E-mail: lt@mm.unknown
article id 4985, category Article
Pertti Harstela. (1978). Metsätyön kuormittavuuden määrittelyä. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 1 article id 4985. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14839
English title: Definition of the amount of strain caused by forest work.
Original keywords: metsätyö; ergonomia; työn kuormittavuus
English keywords: ergonomics; work load; forest work; physical stress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The concepts central to ergonomic research connected with the amount of strain caused by work was studied. A model was made to describe the process of strain. The model includes the following concepts: load or stress, human input, worker, strain, renewal of human resources, output and their hierarchical units. Based on the quality of human input, the forest work was roughly divided into two categories: (1) work demanding primarily muscle activity and (2) neuro-sensory work. In the first group, especially in cutting work, the main part of the human input is intensive consumption of muscle energy. In addition, work load causes accidents, wear of skeletal and muscular systems and processes by noise, vibrations, and climate. Correspondingly, when operating forest machines, the human input is mainly neuro-sensory functions of the central nervous system. Work load causes directly the effects of low frequency vibration and of other work conditions. The model was tested on data from research of forest work.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Harstela, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4984, category Article
Jyrki Raulo. (1978). Forestation chain for birch (Betula pendula Roth) in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 12 no. 1 article id 4984. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14838
Keywords: forest management; Betula pendula; regeneration; silver birch; Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

During the 1970’s an average of 4 million Betula pendula (Roth) seedlings have been planted annually in Finland. The activities connected with the planting of this tree species, the selection of forestation sites, site preparation, planting out the seedlings and follow-up work on the forestation sites are briefly reviewed in the article. The manuscript is based on the studies into the breeding, seedling production and planting techniques of B. pendula started by the Finnish Forest Research Institute already in 1960’s, as well as on practical observations made at the planting sites. A list of some of the Finnish studies concerning B. pendula which have been published in English and studies with a summary in English is included.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Raulo, E-mail: jr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4982, category Article
Olli Järvinen, Kullervo Kuusela, Risto A. Väisänen. (1977). Metsien rakenteen muutoksen vaikutus pesimälinnustoomme viimeisten 30 vuoden aikana. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 4 article id 4982. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14836
English title: Effects of modern forestry on the numbers of breeding birds in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; linnusto; lintulajit; luonnonmetsät
English keywords: forest management; natural forests; bird populations; commercial forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Pair numbers of breeding land birds were estimated from line transects data collected in Finland in 1936–76. The changes observed in the bird populations are in this paper compared with data obtained in the Finnish forest inventories, particularly made in 1951–53 and 1971–76. It is concluded that modern forestry has considerable impact on the breeding bird fauna. In general, more species have increased than decreased due to changes in the forests. Areas affected by forestry are more favourable habitats for many species than natural forests, but, on the other hand, there are certain species which are greatly harmed by the effects of modern forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Järvinen, E-mail: oj@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 4980, category Article
Eero Väisänen, Pertti Hari, Seppo Kellomäki. (1977). Annual growth level of some plant species as a function of light available for photosynthesis. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 4 article id 4980. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14834
Keywords: light; temperature; methods; annual growth; forest vegetation; net photosynthesis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A quantitative method for determining the annual growth level of plant species has been presented. In particular, attention was paid to the dependence of the growth level on the amount of light available for photosynthesis. A mathematical model for the dependence of structural matter production on photosynthetic production has been presented for some plant species.

The study is based on the assumption that the total amount of annual net photosynthesis plays a role of primary importance in determining the relationship between photosynthetic production and structural matter production. The basic environmental factors determining the photosynthetic rate are light and temperature, if the water and nutrient supply is adequate. The dependence of photosynthetic rate on light and temperature was determined by monitoring the CO2 uptake rate of natural plant populations between the photosynthetic levels of different plant populations with an infrared gas analyser.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Väisänen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hari, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 4979, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki. (1977). Polut ulkoilun kanavoinnissa. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 4 article id 4979. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14833
English title: Trails in guiding recreational activity in Helsinki, Southern Finland.
Original keywords: metsien virkistyskäyttö; ulkoilu; kaupunkimetsät; ulkoilureitit; polut
English keywords: recreation; paths; urban forests; recreational activity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the paper was to investigate the potentials offered by trails in guiding recreational activity. The study is based on interviews and questionnaires concerning recreationists using two recreation areas owned by the city of Helsinki in Southern Finland. According to the results, the recreationists visit terrain without trails every time they visit a recreation area. The main reason for this was obtaining varying recreational experiences. The recreationists used, however, the same route nearly every visit, which suggests that trails have a great potential in guiding reacreational activities. Special attention was paid to the role of trails in activities involving physical exercise. The correlation between the socio-economic background of recreationists and their preferences for trails was very low.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4978, category Article
Paavo Valonen. (1977). Ajouraväli ja tekomiehen fyysinen kuormittuminen kuitupuun teossa. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 4 article id 4978. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14832
English title: Strip road spacing and the physical strain put on forest workers during pulpwood cutting.
Original keywords: metsätyö; ajanmenekki; kasaus; ajouraväli; työn kuormittavuus
English keywords: time consumption; physical workload; forest work; stacking; strip road spacing; physical stress
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The physical strain put on forest workers and work time consumption during pulpwood cutting were compared when the bolts were stacked at the side of strip road, the strip road spacings being 15–25 m and 26–35 m, and when stacked at scattered points along the cutting strip.

When stacking at scattered points along cutting strip work time consumption was 17–21% and the heart rate 9–12% less than when stacking at the side of the strip road, strip road spacing being 15–25 m. When the strip road spacing was increased to 26–35 m, the time consumption increased by 18–30%, but the heart rate appeared unchanged. This result suggests that the forest worker compensates for increased physical strain caused by an increased stacking distance by changing his working technique and rate and by increasing the number of his breaks.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Valonen, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4977, category Article
C. J. Westman. (1977). Nutrient cycle in tree stands - Nordic symposium. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 3 article id 4977. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14830
Keywords: fertilization; forestry; Nordic countries; plant nutrition; Symposiums
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Nordic working group for forest fertilization is a group of research workers from the Nordic countries Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, which has been working on plant nutrition questions and forest amelioration problems. The group has met annually to discuss current problems, hitherto mostly concerning forest fertilization. In 1976 the question of future working forms came up, and the group decided to arrange a symposium on the subject Nutrient cycle in tree stands in 1977.

This symposium took place in Harjavalta and Ikalis in Finland from the 29th of August to 1st of September 1977. During the symposium 12 papers were presented, which are published in the following, either in full or as summaries of a given lecture. Part of the lectures are in English and part in Swedish.

The paper includes the following titles:

A bioelement budget of an old Scots pine forest in Central Sweden

Mobilization of plant nutrients in a Scots pine forest Mor in Central Sweden

Accumulation of organic matter and nitrogen on sand dunes following sand fixation and planting of dwarf mountain pine

Sambandet mellan torvmarkstyp och yttorvens näringshalt

Changes in the amounts of inorganic nutrients in the soil after clear-felling

Plant nutrient balance in decoration greenery cultivation

The effect of forest fertilization on primary production and nutrient cycling in the forest ecosystem

Förändringar i humuslagret efter skogsgödling

Balanserad näringsupptagning och behovet av gödsling i trädbestånd på näringsfattiga torvmarker

Of fertilization on nutrient contents in needles and litter fall of Scots pine on dwarf shrub pine swamp

Micro-nutrient deficiencies cause growth disturbances in trees

Tallarnas växtstörningar, markens näringsbalans och micronäringsbrist

  • Westman, E-mail:
article id 4976, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1977). Toimittajan havaintoja metsätieteellisistä julkaisusarjoista. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 3 article id 4976. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14827
English title: Editorial observations on scientific series in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; kustannukset; tieteelliset julkaisut
English keywords: costs; forest sciences; scientific publications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the use of printed area in some scientific series concerned with forestry. The material consisted of 8 scientific series, the total number of analysed pages being 2,942. According to the results, the use of printed area was more efficient in journals and other similar periodicals which included several scientific papers than in series published as separate issues. The main reason was the more efficient editorial make-up. The Finnish papers included less figures but more tables than foreign series. There were marked differences between series irrespective of the country of origin. The average figure area varied from 60 to 180 cm2 between series, for example. According to the observations there are good possibilities for making more efficient use of the printed area available.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4973, category Article
Olli Saastamoinen. (1977). Economics of forest uses in Finnish Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 3 article id 4973. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14824
Keywords: forestry; tourism; timber production; berries; recreation; forest economics; forest recreation; reindeer husbandry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The object of the study was to give a tentative indication of the realized economic significance of the principal forest (forestry land) uses in Finnish Lapland. Data concerns the years of the 1970s. Nowadays timber harvesting generates a major part of the total value of production. Recreation (tourism) is in second place. Reindeer husbandry, collection of berries and mushrooms and hunting together produce, in the best years, an output value which is about one fifth of that of timber harvesting. Non-timber uses together produce a rather significant portion on the total value of the integrated forestry output.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4972, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki. (1977). Deterioration of forest ground cover during trampling. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 3 article id 4972. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14823
Keywords: herbs; ground vegetation; trampling; forest types; grasses; ground cover; recreation areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to investigate the trampling tolerance of forest ground cover of the Calluna, Vaccinium and Myrtillus type sites. Positive correlation was found between the site fertility and trampling tolerance of plant communities. Annual trampling at level of about 16,000 visits per hectare decreased the biomass of the ground cover to almost half of the original amount, and annual trampling of about 160,000 visits per hectare completely destroyed the forest ground cover irrespective of site fertility. Comparisons made between herb and grass dominated forest ground cover showed that herb and grass cover is in the long run the best alternative for the management of ground cover in intensively used recreation areas.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4968, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1977). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran metsäntutkimuksen suuntautumista ja tiedonvälitystä koskeva seminaari. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 2 article id 4968. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14819
English title: Seminar on the targets of forestry research and communication, arranged by the Finnish Society of Forest Science on March 1977.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; seminaarit; tiedonvälitys
English keywords: Finland; communication; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Society of Forest Science arranged on 16 March 1977 a seminar where targets of forestry research and communication were discussed by scientists, as well as publicists and users of scientific information. This paper includes summaries of some of the speeches and the reports of the workshops. The theme of the seminar was Forest science and practice – Do we understand each other?

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4967, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1977). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran tiedepoliittinen periaateohjelma. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 2 article id 4967. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14818
English title: Science policy agenda of the Finnish Society of Forest Science.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; tiedepolitiikka
English keywords: forest policy; forest research; forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper introduces the science policy agenda of the Finnish Society of Forest Science that defines the role of the society and the principals that are required from research work.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4961, category Article
Helmut Schmidt-Vogt. (1977). Keski-Euroopan metsänhoidon kehityssuuntia. Silva Fennica vol. 11 no. 1 article id 4961. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14812
English title: Trends in the forest management in Central Europe.
Original keywords: metsänkäyttö; metsänhoito; virkistyskäyttö; metsien monikäyttö; Keski-Eurooppa; ympäristönsuojelu
English keywords: forest management; forestry; forest management planning; forest utilization; recreation; Germany; Central Europe; Bavaria; environmental management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the densely populated Central Europe, forestry has always had different functions than in Scandinavia or Canada. Today the increasing pressures on the environment and more numerous demands of the people have put emphasis on environmental management and the demands of recreation in forest management practiced in the area. This paper outlines the trends in the utilization of forests in Central Europe, and especially in the Federal Republic of Germany, due to these changing targets. The regulations concerning forestry in Baden-Würtenber, and the forest plan of the Bavarian state forests are used as an example to clarify the principals of forest management and planning.

  • Schmidt-Vogt, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4955, category Article
Suomen Metsäteollisuuden Keskusliitto. (1976). Puutavaraselvitys 1976. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 4 article id 4955. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14801
English title: Timber report 1976. – Finland’s roundwood, industrial residue and forest residue balances by 1980 as well as the wood raw material situation of Finnish forest industries by the year 2000.
Original keywords: metsäteollisuus; raakapuu; puuvarat; raaka-aine; metsätase; teollisuusjätepuu; metsätähde
English keywords: Finland; roundwood supply; forest industry; logging residue; timber balance; Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries; industrial residue
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study was carried out on behalf of the Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries (now Finnish Forest Industries Federation) in order to obtain information about the wood raw material situation, to serve, in turn, as a basis for the forest industries’ long-term planning. The study deals with the potential supply of roundwood, industrial residue and forest residue by the year 200 by five wood-supply areas. Examination of the situation during the period of 1972–80 is based on available balances and that concerning the period 1985–2000 in the estimated quantities available for industrial use.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Suomen Metsäteollisuuden Keskusliitto, E-mail:
article id 4951, category Article
Heikki Heiskanen. (1976). Metsätyön palkkauksen perusongelmat. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 4 article id 4951. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14797
English title: Basic problems of the wage system for forest work.
Original keywords: metsätyö; palkkaus; urakkapalkka; aikapalkka; ikääntyvät työntekijät
English keywords: forest work; wages; piece rate; time rate; aging workers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It has been in Finland discussed to replace the present straight piece rate by a time rate in forest work. The low earnings of aged forest workers, the health hazards, its tendency to cause conflicts and considerable income differences are the main drawbacks of the piece rate and the proneness to increase the labour costs is the essential fault of the time rate mentioned in the discussion. One possible solution for these problems is an efficiency bonus (prevents the labour costs from increasing and decreases the income differences) combined with a bonus for age (guarantees high incomes for aged wage earners), a maximum efficiency standard (prevents health hazards), and a group incentive (prevents conflicts).

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4949, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Antti Haapanen, Hellevi Salonen. (1976). Tree stands in urban noise abatement. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 3 article id 4949. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14795
Keywords: stand characteristics; noise abatement; urban forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to determine which characteristics of tree stands could be used in urban noise control and to develop guidelines for practical urban forestry. The attenuation of artificially produced noise was measured in various types of stands. The effect of tree stands on noise attenuation has been analysed using a model based on the physics of sound propagation.

The results show that the excess noise attenuation caused by trees can be in good situations 60% measured in energy units, compared with the attenuation caused by geometric spreading. This is 5–8 dB. The total amount of needles, leaves and branches of a stand proved to be the most important factors in noise attenuation. However, the density and height of a stand had rather high value in predicting the behaviour of noise in tree stands. Based on multiple regression between noise attenuation and tree species composition, density and height of a stand it was developed the nomograms with which the noise level at a certain point can be predicted when the tree stand characteristics, the distance and the noise level of the noise source are known and on the opposite way.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Haapanen, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown
  • Salonen, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown
article id 4945, category Article
Olli Saastamoinen, Jan Heino. (1976). Metsien moninaiskäytön tutkimusaiheita. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 3 article id 4945. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14791
English title: Research topics of multiple-use forestry.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänhoito; metsien monikäyttö; metsien talouskäyttö
English keywords: forest management; forest research; multiple use of forests; commercial use of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to gain an insight into research problems and themes in multiple use of forests from a practical viewpoint. An inquiry concerning multiple use problems was sent to 597 organizations whose work related to multiple use of forests. Replies yielded 1,857 suggested research themes which were divided between different uses of forests. About half of the suggestions concerned the relations between timber production and the other uses of forests. The many propositions are due to the fact that timber production in its intensity has strong influence on the other uses of forests. The results of the study have been used in the planning of research in the multiple use of forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heino, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
article id 4943, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1976). Näkökohtia metsikköekologisten ympäristötekijöiden mittaamisesta. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 2 article id 4943. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14789
English title: Measuring environmental factors in a forest ecosystem.
Original keywords: ekosysteemit; metsäekologia; ympäristötekijät
English keywords: ecosystems; environmental factors; forest research; forest ecosystems
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the article some aspects concerning the measurement of environmental factors are discussed. Special attention is given to the following questions: The correct way of determining the active surface in a forest ecosystem, the time factor in measurement processes, and the mutual correlative relationships between the environmental factors. Analysis of the data is also taken into consideration.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4942, category Article
Esko Jaatinen, Olli Saastamoinen. (1976). Metsien moninaiskäyttötutkimuksen perusongelmat. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 2 article id 4942. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14788
English title: Multiple use of forests: basic research tasks.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsäntutkimuslaitos; metsien monikäyttö; tutkimusohjelmat
English keywords: forest research; Finnish Forest Research Institute; multiple use of forests; research programmes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a summary of a long-term research programme which has been prepared at the Finnish Forest Research Institute. The objective of the programme was to define and subdivide the field of multiple use research to be done at the institute, and so improve both the research planning and the coordination of the work in this field between the different research departments.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Jaatinen, E-mail: ej@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown
article id 4939, category Article
Simo Hannelius. (1976). Metsänomistuksen muutokset ja metsätalous. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 2 article id 4939. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14784
English title: Forest ownership changes and forestry.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsänomistus; metsätilat; tilakaupat
English keywords: forest ownership; Finland; Forest Service; forest land sales
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper examines the changes in forest ownership and the farm properties for sale from a business economic standpoint. The changes in forest ownership are examined on the basis of statistics and literature. The empirical data both for farms for sale and farms sold are based on the purchases made by the National Board of Forestry in 1972.

There are a number of ownership groups actively buying and selling forest land, thus giving alternatives for ownership changes. The National Board of Forestry has been active in the market since 1960. For instance, in 1972 it purchased 60% of the forest estates it was offered. Of the forest area put up for sale, 75% originated from private individuals, and 20% from inheritance sales.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hannelius, E-mail: sh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4936, category Article
Erkki Wuolijoki. (1976). Metsäkoneiden heilunnan ergonomiset haitat. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 2 article id 4936. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14781
English title: Ergonomic effects of jolting of forest machines.
Original keywords: metsäkoneet; ergonomia; työkyky; terveydelliset vaikutukset; tärinä
English keywords: forest tractors; ergonomy; working capacity; occupational health; vibration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals mainly with the effects of jolting of forest tractors and processors on the health and working capacity of the driver. The literature surveyed presents especially the following points of interest: Jolting of the machine may hamper the focusing of the eyes and mastery of the controls. Long-term exposure to jolting may result in reduced sympathetic nervous activity at rest, and may impair an already existing back problem. Workers exposed to vibration, get more frequently gastric changes and changes in reproductive functions than usual. Jolting, as also the other negative physical factors of working environment, must be minimized as early as possible during the design of the machines.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Wuolijoki, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4935, category Article
Pentti Hakkila. (1976). Metsätyötieteen asema metsäntutkimuslaitoksessa ja tohtori Mikko Kantola. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 4935. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14780
English title: On the status of forest work science in the Finnish Forest Research Institute; a comment to professor Mikko Kantola.
Original keywords: tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; metsätyö; metsäteknologia
English keywords: forest technology; forest research; forest work; research institutes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper includes the answer of professor Pentti Hakkila for professor Mikko Kantola who in this issue of Silva Fennica gives some critical points on professor Hakkila’s earlier article (Silva Fennica vol. 9, no. 4 in 1975) on the status and future prospects of forest work science in the Finnish Forest Research Institute. He emphasises that the worry about the forest work reseach presented in his earlier article was not directed towards the research work but towards the financing of forest work science in Finland.

  • Hakkila, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4934, category Article
Mikko Kantola. (1976). Lisänäkökohtia metsätyötieteen asemasta ja tulevaisuuden näkymistä. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 4934. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14779
English title: Viewpoint on the status and future prospects of forest work science.
Original keywords: tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; metsätyö; metsäteknologia
English keywords: forest technology; forest research; forest work; research institutes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a comment on a previous article in Silva Fennica (vol. 9, no.4) published in 1975, written by professor Pentti Hakkila, titled ‘The status and future prospects of forest work science at the Finnish Forest Research Institute’. It aims at giving some further aspects on the choice of research fields and subjects, and the concepts of result, opinion and research work.

  • Kantola, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4933, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1976). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran tutkijaseminaari "Tavoitteellisuus ja metsäntutkimus" 15.1. 1976. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 4933. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14777
English title: Research seminar on goal orientation and forest sciences arranged by the Finnish Society of Forest Science on January 1976.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; seminaarit
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; seminars
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Society of Forest Science arranged on 15 January 1976 a research seminar concentrating on forest research policy under a theme of goal orientation and forest sciences. About 70 interested persons participated the day-long seminar. This paper includes the speeches and their summaries, and couple of examples of the results of the workshops.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4930, category Article
Tapio Lehtiniemi. (1976). Ionisoivan säteilyn vaikutus varastokuivien ja liotettujen metsäpuiden siementen idäntään ja taimien alkukehitykseen. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 4930. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14772
English title: Effect of ionizing radiation on the germination of storage-dry and soaked forest tree seeds and on the initial development of seedlings.
Original keywords: metsänjalostus; itäminen; siemenet; säteilytys; mutaatiot
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; germination; Betula pubescens; Alnus glutinosa; Alnus incana; seeds; forest tree breeding; radiation; mutations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study was carried out in order to find out the changes taking place in germination of seeds in certain tree species as a function of gamma irradiation, the height growth of the seedlings produced and the types of phenotypic mutants possibly found in the generation that had received radiation. The tree species studied were Pinus sylvestris L., Picea abies (L.) H. Karst., Betula verrucosa (Betula pendula Roth), B. Pubescens Ehrh., Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. and Alnus incana (L.) Moench.

Soaked seeds that had received a rather small dose of radiation germinated usually better than storage-dry seeds, B. pubescens being an exception. The damages observed in germination, height growth and the relative number of mutants were greater the higher the irradiation doses. The LD50 dose (germination, 28 days) was as follows in the case of the different tree species (storage dry/soaked): P. Sylvestris 1,500-2,000/2500-3,000, P. abies 1,000-1,500/4,000-4,500, B. pendula 9,500-10,000/7,000-7,500, B. pubescens >10,000/7,500-8,000 and A. Glutinosa 10,000/8,500-9,000 rad. Mass production of different mutants of deciduous trees for ornamental purposes, for example, appears to be easy using gamma-irradiation. On the other hand, the possibility of increasing tree growth remains open for further study.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lehtiniemi, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4929, category Article
Olavi Luukkanen. (1976). Havaintoja Neuvostoliiton metsäntutkimuksesta. Silva Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 4929. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14771
English title: Observations on forest research in the USSR.
Original keywords: tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; Neuvostoliitto
English keywords: forest research; research institutes; Soviet Union
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The main forest research institutes in USSR as well as schools for higher education in forestry are presented in this article, on the basis of observations made during study tours and the relevant literature. Research in forest genetics, tree physiology and related fields i stressed. The State Forestry Committee leads the regional units of forestry administration and also governs a number of research institutes. Among these, the All-Union Forest Research Institute near Moscow has a central position. Regional institutes as well as those specializing in a particular field within forest research may belong to this category, too. Basic research, on the other hand, is conducted under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Agricultural Sciences or academies of sciences of the Soviet republics. This type of institute also includes those devoted purely to forestry. Forest education at the university level takes place in schools usually called institutes of forest technology.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4928, category Article
Pentti Hakkila. (1975). Metsätyötieteen asema ja tulevaisuuden näkymät metsäntutkimuslaitoksessa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 4 article id 4928. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14770
English title: The status and future prospects of forest work science at the Finnish Forest Research Institute.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsätyö; puunkorjuu; metsäntutkimuslaitos; metsäteknologia
English keywords: forest technology; timber harvesting; forest research; forest work; Finnish Forest Research Institute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article reviews the position of the Department of Forest Technology in Finnish Forest Research Institute, among Finnish establishments in research on forest work. In addition, it describes the current research programmes of the departments both in wood harvesting studies and studies on silvicultural work. The equitable aims of the former are to increase productivity, lower the cost level, ease the work and improve job satisfaction, as well as to improve the utilization of wood raw material. The latter aims at e.g. improvement of the biological results.

Future prospects are surveyed from the point of view of the goals imposed by the State on the research and, on other hand, the appropriations earmarked for forest work science. A regrettable conflict has arisen between them.

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  • Hakkila, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4927, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1975). Kantojen käytön kehittyminen Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 4 article id 4927. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14769
English title: Development of stump utilization in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; historia; polttopuu; tervanpoltto; polttoaineet; selluteollisuus; kannot; hyötykäyttö
English keywords: stumps; forestry; fuelwood; history; pulp industry; tar; utilization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The utilization of stump and root wood is analysed in this paper on the basis of literature from middle of 19th century to the present date. According to the information available, the utilization of pine stumps in tar production was small compared to that of peeled Scots pine stemwood in the 19th century. During the 1st and 2nd World War the utilization of stumps for tar production reached its highest levels. Other industrial utilization of stumps has been small up to the present time but now stumps are beginning to be used in the pulp industry.

The greatest amounts of stumps have been utilized by the rural population. Stumps were used as fuel. In the thirties, the yearly amount used was over 200,000 m3 (solid measure), and even in the sixties over 100,00 m3. No industrial utilization method has yet reached these levels.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4926, category Article
Aarne Reunala. (1975). Metsänomistuksen muutokset ja aluepolitiikka. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 4 article id 4926. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14768
English title: Forest ownership changes and regional development in Finland.
Original keywords: yksityismetsät; maatalousväestö; metsänomistus; aluekehitys; aluepolitiikka
English keywords: forest ownership; private forests; rural population; regional differentiation; regional policy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study sought to establish, whether a connection between forest ownership changes and regional differentiation process exists. Data were collected by interviewing fifty persons representing regional planning and forestry. In 1969–72 forest land area owned by the farmers decreased by some 600,000–700,000 hectares. The new owners were non-farmers (400,000–500,000 ha) and the State and forest industry companies (200,000 ha). These figures indicate a possibility for a reduction in the livelihood of rural developing regions in three ways: money incomes with their multiplier effects decrease, possibilities of the rationalization of farming decrease and the population confidence in the future diminishes.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Reunala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4923, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1975). Puiden lyhytkiertoviljelyn varhaishistoriaa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 3 article id 4923. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14765
English title: Early history of short-rotation forestry.
Original keywords: historia; lyhytkiertoviljely; vesametsätalous
English keywords: coppice; short-rotation forestry; history
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the first place the term short-rotation forestry is being used in the sense of intensive tree growing during a short rotation time using reproduction by coppice shoots from broad-leaved tree material which has been specially bred for this purpose, or of producing fast-growing varieties from planted stock during the course of somewhat longer rotation time (maximum 20 years). However, short-rotation forestry as such has already a long history.

In the Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt grew no tree species suitable for short-rotation production, but reeds and bulrushes were used for the same purpose as willow-twigs, e.g. wickerwork or binding. At least in the Fertile Crescent reed harvesting using a rotation of one year was practiced already very long ago. The earliest information about coppice-shoot cultivation is found in Greek literature, but it was the Romans who developed short-rotation forestry based on the trees’ capacity of reproducing through coppice shoots into an extensive economic activity. Willows were by far the most important species used. Twigs intended for wickerwork were harvested once a year and thicker material, to be used for support and in basket framework, every fourth year. Chestnut and oak were used for the production of slightly thicker poles employing a longer rotation. Cypress poles were produced from seedlings using a rotation time of 12–13 years. Roman scholars give us plenty of information concerning the tending of plantations in short-rotation forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4921, category Article
Simo Hannelius. (1975). Ojitusalueiden kulkukelpoisuudesta puunkorjuussa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 3 article id 4921. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14763
English title: On the trafficability of drained peatlands in harvesting.
Original keywords: puunkuljetus; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; turvemaat; ojitetut suot; metsäkoneet; puustovauriot; kantavuus; routa; koneistuminen
English keywords: soil frost; drained peatlands; thinnings; mechanization; forest haulage; timber harvesting; forwarders; bearing capacity; logging conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

During the next decade there will be a marked increase in the allowable cut in drained peatlands. At the same time, the mechanization in logging proceeds, and in short-distance haulage the use of forwarders will increase. This study, based on literature and some observations, deals with logging conditions in drained peatlands with special reference to the suitability of heavy logging machines for use in such terrain. In addition, soil frost and the bearing capacity of the frozen peat soil were studied.

Freezing of the soil in a drained peatland area depends prevailingly on the weather conditions during early winter. The factors influencing soil freezing of a drained peatland are completely different from those regulating the freezing of natural peat soils. The frost penetrates in general deeper in the drained than virgin peatland. The topmost peat layer does not, however, freeze uniformly. Generally speaking, the bearing capacity of a drained peat soil is lower than that of undrained peat due to lower water content.

It is concluded that heavy logging machines are probably not fitted for use in drained areas on peatland even if the average soil frost values recorded would suggest it. Moreover, because of their extremely superficial root systems, peatland forests are exposed to damages by heavy machines in thinning operations.

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  • Hannelius, E-mail: sh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4920, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1975). Turvetuotannosta vapautuvan maan metsittäminen. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4920. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14776
English title: Afforestation of bogs after industrial exploitation of peat.
Original keywords: mänty; metsitys; lannoitus; suojapuusto; turvetuotanto; jälkikäyttö; tuhka; tervaleppä; suonpohja
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; afforestation; Scots pine; Alnus glutinosa; alder; peat production; after-use; ash
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Peat industry is rapidly expanding in Finland. Consequently, during next decades peat will be removed from thousands of hectares. Because timber production probably is the most rational use of this area after the peat production has ended, some experiments of afforestation of such areas have already been conducted. This article reports results of two experiments which were started in Kihniö, Western Finland, in 1953 and 1964.

In the first experiment fertilization with wood ash proved very effective whereas seeding and planting without fertilization resulted in almost complete failure. In the second experiment, interplanting with grey alder (Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertn.) greatly promoted the growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The effect of slight fertilization lasted a few years only. The reasons for the remarkable effect of alder need further research. Although alder is known as a nitrogen-fixing plant, its beneficial effect was most clearly seen in the K and P contents of pine needles. Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi was beneficial but not necessary. Experiments hitherto show that afforestation of bogs after peat removal is possible although some additional measures like fertilization or interplanting with alder may be needed.

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  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4919, category Article
Olavi Luukkanen. (1975). Thaimaalaisten metsänhoitajien yliopistokoulutus Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4919. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14775
Original keywords: metsätieteet; yliopistot; Suomi; kehitysyhteistyö; Thaimaa; koulutusyhteistyö
English keywords: Finland; forest sciences; university; development cooperation; cooperation in education; Thaimaa
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Since the year 1966, fourteen specialists, most of them forestry graduates from Kasetsari University in Bangkok, have studied or will start studying in Finland. The visiting graduate students have completed their program successfully, and are interested, as well as the Thai authorities, in continuing the educational cooperation. However, the Finnish Government now seems to have changed the list of countries which are included in this kind of program. The Thai authorities will possibly grant a limited number of scholarships for studies carried out in Finland. The possible need to develop the study program further is discussed if the educational cooperation with Thailand will continue.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4918, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Raimo Pökälä, Markku Siitonen. (1975). Metsätalousyksikön puuntuotannon suunnittelu lineaarista ohjelmointia käyttäen. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4918. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14762
English title: Linear programming in the planning of timber production in a forestry unit.
Original keywords: metsäsuunnittelu; puuntuotanto; lineaariset mallit
English keywords: forest planning; linear programming; timber production; methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The planning of timber production in a forestry unit is divisible into two phases. In the first phase, planning provides the decision-maker with a number of possible timber production policies; these policies define the production possibility boundary. After the decision-maker has chosen one of these policies, planning moves to the second phase, in which a detailed programme is prepared with a view to meeting the requirements of the timber production policy accepted. The paper indicates one possibility of solving these two tasks simultaneously. In the first phase, the solution of the primal linear programming problem is employed and in the second phase the respective dual or shadow price solution.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pökälä, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
  • Siitonen, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown
article id 4917, category Article
Tuomas Heiramo. (1975). Metsätieteellisten tutkimusjulkaisujen lukijatutkimus. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4917. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14761
English title: Readership study concerning scientific forestry publications.
Original keywords: metsätiede; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; metsäntutkimuslaitos; tieteelliset julkaisut; lukijatutkimus
English keywords: forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; Forest Research Institute; scientific publications; reader survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to assess the use and importance of forestry publications issued by the Finnish Society of Forestry (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) and the Finnish Forest Research Institute in disseminating research information. Another goal is to obtain information required for planning publication policy. The material was collected by means of two postal inquiries. For the first of these, a sample of 200 subscribers was taken from the mailing lists of the publication series in question. Similarly, for the second inquiry a sample of 100 professional foresters was drawn from the membership registers of the Union of Finnish Foresters and of the Union of Forest Technicians, respectively. The reply percentage of the subscribers was 72 and that of the professional foresters 64. The publication series most actively read proved to be Folia Forestalia, which was also estimated to be of the best quality. Differences between the various publication series in relation to properties studied were not very great.

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  • Heiramo, E-mail: th@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4916, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1975). Metsien "moninaiskäytöstä" vanhalla ajalla. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 4916. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14760
English title: The multiple use of forests in ancient times.
Original keywords: historia; metsästys; virkistyskäyttö; metsien monikäyttö; suojametsät; metsälaitumet; sivutuotteet
English keywords: history; hunting; recreation; multiple use of forests; protection forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It is possible to show that many of the after-effects resulting from the disappearance of forest cover were well known already in ancient times. The invigorating effect of moving around freely in the forest and its artistic creative ability were also recognized as well as the healing effect of coniferous forest on people suffering from consumption. Hunting and the use of forests for cattle grazing is also an extremely old practice. The so-called by-products of the forest such as tree bark and leaves, as well as berries and fruits, have played an important role in the history of mankind from the very earliest beginnings.

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  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4915, category Article
Yrjö Roitto. (1975). Raakapuukuljetusten optimointi. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 4915. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14759
English title: Optimization of roundwood transport.
Original keywords: kaukokuljetus; metsäteollisuus; puunkuljetus; optimointi; kuljetuskustannukset
English keywords: roundwood; timber transport; forest industries; transportation costs; opimization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the optimization of roundwood transport in cases where many destinations for it exist and where several means of transport are available. It is also understood that the capacities of the factories to which wood is transported can be used at varying degree. A model was developed for a case such as Finland which sells most of its products abroad.

In the above case, the optimization of roundwood transport does not necessarily mean minimization of transport costs. What is aimed at is to obtain, by using different combinations (mill destinations and the media of transport) the maximum difference between the allowable cut (calculated) and real (actual) transport costs.

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  • Roitto, E-mail: yr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4914, category Article
Antero Piha. (1975). Metsänhoitoyhdistyslain syntyvaiheet. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 4914. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14758
English title: The creation of the Act on Forest Owners’ Associations passed in 1950.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; historia; lainsäädäntö; metsänhoitoyhdistykset; yksityismetsänomistajat
English keywords: forest management; legislation; forest organizations; forest owners' associations; private forest owners
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper, which was written already at the turn of the year 1950–51, gives a quite detailed description of the early history of the Act on Forest Owners’ Associations, which was passed on 17 November 1950 and is still in force, of the long-lasting and multifarious preparations involved with it, and of its consideration in the parliament. In most parties there were both supporters and opponents; only the social democrats voted harmoniously for the act and the people’s democrats against it.

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  • Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4913, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1975). Metsäammattimiesten ja luottamushenkilöiden mielipiteet julkisesta metsähallinnosta ja sen kehittämisestä. Silva Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 4913. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14757
English title: Forestry expert’s and appointed representatives’ opinions about official forest administration and its development in Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; yksityismetsät; metsähallinto; metsäammattialiset; luottamushenkilöt; metsäorganisaatiot
English keywords: Finland; state forests; private forests; forestry administration; forest organizations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The task of the study was to describe the opinions of the forestry experts engaged in the State forestry organization and the organization for promotion of private forestry, and of the appointed representatives in the organization for the promotion of private forestry concerning the official forestry administration and its development. The study material was based on two samples, one of 240 forestry experts and the other of 290 appointed representatives. The data was compiled by mail inquiry.

Forestry experts were found to rate the success of the official forestry administration in its tasks lower than did the appointed representatives. Both the forestry experts and appointed representatives were of the opinion that the official forestry administration has been most successful in accomplishing timber production and least successful in the tasks concerning multiple use of forests. The results also indicate that 44% of the forestry experts were of the opinion that the most suitable organization model would be a uniform state organization for both the State, and private owned forests. About a third of the forestry experts considered that the best model would be two different state organizations, one for the State forests and the other for the private forests. 62% of the appointed representatives were of the opinion that the best solution would be to retain the official forestry administration such as it is now.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4909, category Article
Jari Hurskainen, Aarne Reunala. (1974). Metsätalousaluetoiminnan kehitys ja kehittymisen edellytykset Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 4 article id 4909. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14753
English title: Development of regional cooperation of private forest owners in Finland.
Original keywords: järjestöt; metsäteollisuus; yksityismetsät; metsänomistajat; metsätalousalueet; yhteistoiminta; Pohjois-Karjala
English keywords: forest owners; forest industry; private forests; forestry coopearation areas; regional cooperation; interest organizations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Since the end of 1960s some 350 voluntary forestry cooperation areas covering about 10% of Finland’s total private forest area have been established in the country in order to avoid drawbacks of small individual units. The aim of the study was to find out why most of these cooperative areas have been established in the area of northern Karelia forestry board district in Eastern Finland, whereas elsewhere establishing has advanced very slowly. »Soft» research techniques based on free interviews was used to gather the data. Attitudes of the interest organizations of forest owners and forest industry companies, question of organizer of cooperation, and resources for regional forestry planning were found as most important factors to explain the differences in development of cooperation in different areas.

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  • Hurskainen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Reunala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown
article id 4907, category Article
Heikki Wuorenrinne. (1974). Suomen kekomuurahaisten (Formica rufa coll.) ekologiasta ja levinneisyydestä. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 3 article id 4907. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14751
English title: About the distribution and ecology of Formica rufa -group in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; levinneisyys; biologinen torjunta; kekomuurahaiset; muurahaiset; ekologia
English keywords: distribution; forest types; Formica rufa; ants; wood ants; Formica polyctena; Formica aquilonia; Formica lugubris; Formica nigricans
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the systematics, distribution, abundance and nest sites of Formica rufa -group in different Finnish forest types. In addition, it has been estimated the availability of Finnish ants in the biological competition.

F. polyctena, F. aquilonia and F. lugubris are distributed over whole Finland. F. rufa and F. nigricans to Southern Finland only. The relative abundace of ant nests diminish to Northern Finland. F. rufa -group prefer most forest on moist land (Myrtillus and Oxalis-Myrtillus types), mixed forests of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karsts), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.), and the silvicultural density 0.6–0.7 (good or satisfactory density), but they avoid broadleaved and pure one-tree species forests. For the biological competition the most competitive ant species seem to be F. polyctena and F. aquilonia.

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  • Wuorenrinne, E-mail: hw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4906, category Article
Lasse Lovén. (1974). Maisemanhoitomallien käyttö metsätalouden maan aluevaraussuunnittelussa. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 3 article id 4906. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14750
English title: Regional landscape planning of forest areas.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsänhoitajat; maisemanhoito; asennetutkimus; metsien monikäyttö; puuntuotanto; metsämaisema
English keywords: forest management; Finland; landscape planning; timber production; landscape management; multiple use of forests; forest landscape; attitude studies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study deals with economic significance of forest landscape planning models used in regional planning in Finland. The »judge»-method is used among professional foresters working on private forestry boards in Southern Finland to define their view of what would be moderate level of costs of landscape management for private forest owners. A sample of 154 forest professionals working in district forestry boards in Southern Finland was sent a sociological questionnaire.

It was possible to form three hierarchical moderation classes by statistical grouping of judgement distributions. Prolongations in rotation ages and restrictions concerning ditching of forested bogs, forest read building and clear-cutting were considered the most immoderate models. Rather or wholly insignificant were evaluated such management models, which mean restrictions in »old fashioned» methods or which are already used in practice.

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  • Lovén, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4905, category Article
Reijo Solantie. (1974). Kesän vesitaseen vaikutus metsä- ja suokasvillisuuteen ja linnustoon sekä lämpöolojen välityksellä maatalouden toimintaedellytyksiin Suomessa. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 3 article id 4905. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14749
English title: The influence of water balance in summer on forest and peatland vegetation and bird fauna and through the temperature on agricultural conditions in Finland.
Original keywords: suokasvillisuus; lämpötila; metsäkasvillisuus; sademäärä; ilmasto; haihdunta; vesitase
English keywords: Finland; climate; precipitation; temperature; forest vegetation; water budget; evaporation; peatland vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The significance of water budget in June and July for forest and peatland vegetation, and consequent effects on fauna, climate and agriculture has been studied.

In June, the difference between evaporation and precipitation is greater than it is later in the summer. North of the line zero difference of evaporation and precipitation, coinciding with a line of sharp change in forest vegetation, the uppermost part of podsol remains wet throughout the summer. During July, the line of zero difference moves from north to south over the greater part of Finland, run-off being minute and podsol at the driest in this month. This line, indicating the length of the period with evaporation greater than precipitation and causing a sharp change in forest vegetation, in frequency of peatlands, amount of growing stock productive capacity of forests etc. This line is significant also for cultivation: because of the lower evaporation north of this line, night temperature below the freezing point often appear in summer.

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  • Solantie, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4898, category Article
L. E. Mikhailov. (1974). Neuvostoliiton metsäntutkimuksen organisaatio ja kehityssuunnat. Silva Fennica vol. 8 no. 1 article id 4898. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14742
English title: Organizations and development trends of forest research in the Soviet Union.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; Neuvostoliitto
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; research institutes; Soviet Union; USSR
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest research in the U.S.S.R. aims for increased productivity, improvements in timber quality and forest protection, and for better understanding of the environmental impacts of forests. Research institutes are organized under the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, the State Committee of Forestry, the Forestry Committees of the Soviet Republics, or under some other institutions. Direct government subsidies as well as economic support from production enterprises are available as funding for these institutes. International cooperation in forest research, especially among the S.E.V. countries is strongly emphasized. As regards other countries, the well-established program for mutual exchange for forestry information and forest researchers with Finland should be mentioned.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Mikhailov, E-mail: lm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4890, category Article
Rihko Haarlaa. (1973). Maaston vaikutuksesta metsäteiden rakennukseen. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 4 article id 4890. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14728
English title: Effect of terrain on forest road construction.
Original keywords: tienrakennus; metsätiet; maastoluokitus; ajanmenekki; maastotekijät; kantoisuus; maan kosteus
English keywords: time consumption; road construction; forest roads; terrain classification; terrain factors
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

As a subproblem in the joint Nordic Terrain-Machine Project the requirements set by forest road construction on the terrain classifications were studied during the summer 1973 in ten operations, in which either a bulldozer or an excavator method was used.

The most important terrain factors of the ground factors affecting the construction time of the road base were the so-called depth index and the moisture content of the soil, and in addition to these the amount of stumps as a ground roughness factor. These variables explained, however, only a rather minor part of the wide variation in the construction output of the practical operations.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Haarlaa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4887, category Article
Kauko Hahtola. (1973). Metsänomistajien käyttäytymistutkimuksissa sovelletut tutkimusotteet. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 3 article id 4887. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14725
English title: Research approaches applied in the Finnish studies of forest owners’ behaviour.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänomistajat; metodologia
English keywords: forest owners; forest research; metodology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The methodological choices of researchers are in general based on some research strategic preferences which originate from the prevailing tradition of the special research field. »Econometric» and »positivistic» approaches commit to the ideals of natural sciences whereas the hermeneutic approach represents the tradition of humanities. The explicit formulation and consideration of the philosophical and methodological commitments of the different research strategies may facilitate the discussion on the applicability of different methods of analysis.

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  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4885, category Article
Ilpo Tikkanen. (1973). Metsäpoliittisten toimenpiteiden vaikuttavuus. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 3 article id 4885. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14722
English title: Effectiveness of policy measures as applied to small woodlands.
Original keywords: metsäpolitiikka; metsänomistajat; vaikuttavuus; päätöksenteko
English keywords: forest policy; forest owners; effectiveness; decision-making
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the methodological problems concerning policy planning and evaluation in small woodlands. A methodological approach to effectiveness of forest policy measures calls, according to the author, for using a frame of reference formed by general economic theory and models of forest owners’ behaviour. Thus, it is important for the selection of forest policy means, and for evaluating the likely effects of a policy, to know the behaviour of the decision makers being influenced. The use of models of forest owners’ behaviour in planning forest policy is motivated by the fact that measures must often affect the woodlot through the owners’ decision making.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Tikkanen, E-mail: it@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4884, category Article
Kauko Hahtola, Veli-Pekka Järveläinen, Aarne Reunala. (1973). Metsänomistajien puunmyyntikäyttäytyminen. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 3 article id 4884. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14721
English title: The timber-sales behaviour of private forest owners.
Original keywords: yksityismetsät; puukauppa; metsänomistajat; hakkuusuunnite; puun tarjonta
English keywords: Finland; forest owners; allowable cut; private forests; timber sales; wood supply
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The task of this study was to gather all available information concerning timber-sales behaviour of private forest owners and to try to find the probable trends in this behaviour. The initiative for the study came from the Central Association of Finnish Forest Industries.

In Finland there are areas of timber savings and those of overcutting. These are mainly explained by regional variation in prosperity of forest owners. There are also several individual factors affecting timber sales behaviour. Without major changes in forest policy the annual variation in quantity cut in Finland is increasing and the degree of cutting seem to remain below the allowable cut.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown
  • Reunala, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown
article id 4883, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1973). Näkökohta kuitupuupölkkyjen siirtelymatkasta. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 3 article id 4883. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14720
English title: A note on the moving distance of pulpwood bolts.
Original keywords: hakkuut; kuitupuu; metsätyö; puunkorjuu; metsäkuljetus; ajourat; kaato; kasaus
English keywords: forest haulage; pulpwood; timber harvesting; fellings; forest work; off-road haulage; strip road; bunching
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the paper was to analyse, using a computer simulation technique, the moving distance of pulpwood bolts when direct felling of trees is used and the bolts are gathered alongside the strip road. According to the results, the average moving distance of bolts depends in a complicated way on the usable part of the stem and the spacing of strip road. As a rule, the differences between moving distances of two-meter bolts weighted and unweighted by bolt volume of various trees is 0–16% when the strip road spacing is 30 m the reason being the fact that the heaviest butt bolts are often more far away from the strip road than the top bolts.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4878, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1973). Vuonna 1972 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 1 article id 4878. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14711
English title: Forestry papers issued in Finland in 1972.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the forest publications of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1975 in five scientific series: Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4875, category Article
Lasse Lovén. (1973). Metsäammattimiesten maisemanhoidolliset arvostukset. Silva Fennica vol. 7 no. 1 article id 4875. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14705
English title: Landscape preferences of professional foresters.
Original keywords: metsänhoitajat; metsien monikäyttö; metsämaisema; maiseman arvostus; metsäteknikot
English keywords: foresters; forest officers; multiple use of forests; value of landscape; forest landscape
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper deals with the problem of optimal multiple use of forests. The concept of attractive visual environment is analysed following the framework of conditional reflexes and conditionalization of needs. Uniformity of landscape preferences among a group of persons, forest professionals working in district forestry boards in Southern Finland, who have similar education and working environment is studied in empirical part of this paper. The sample of 154 persons were sent a sociological questionnaire.

The preference distribution of forest officers and forest technicians were found very similar. Only poor condition for wood production as a landscape feature was considered clearly negative. The answers show the demand for rational and active working environment as a factor directing the landscape preferences.

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  • Lovén, E-mail: ll@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4873, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1972). Sisällysluettelo sarjoihin. Silva Fennica vol. 6 no. 4 article id 4873. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14680
English title: Indices to series Acta Forestalia Fennica 1913–1972 and Silva Fennica 1926–1972.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat; tieteelliset julkaisut; julkaisutoiminta
English keywords: forest research; forest science; Finnish Society of Forest Science; bibliographies; scientific publications; Acta Forestalia Fennica; Silva Fennica
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now The Finnish Society of Forest Science) publishes two series: Acta Forestalia Fennica and Silva Fennica. Outside these publications there are even other publications: the bibliography of Finnish forestry literature until 1933, Bibliographia Universalis Silviculturae, Paris I–II, 1967–70, and Research in Forestry and Wood Science in Finland. This paper is a bibliography of the publications, the issues of Acta Forestalia Fennica in 1913–1972 and Silva Fennica 1926–1972.

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  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4869, category Article
Ole Oskarsson, P. M. A. Tigerstedt. (1972). Metsänjalostuksen mahdollisuudet II. Silva Fennica vol. 6 no. 3 article id 4869. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14672
English title: The possibilities in forest tree breeding II. Selection differences and genetic gains in selected seed stands of Scots pine.
Original keywords: mänty; metsänjalostus; tilavuuskasvu; valintahyöty; siemenkeräysmetsät; fenotyyppi; kuutiokasvu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; volume growth; genetic gain; forest tree breeding; seed stands; phenotype
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to estimate the genetic gain of volume growth in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) selected seed stands. To obtain highest possible accuracy, the estimations are based on a large statistical material comprising 197 separate seed stands. It is concluded that the genetic gain of volume growth ranges between 7.4–15.0%. Unwanted pollen contaminations may, however, in the worst case halve this genetic gain.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Oskarsson, E-mail: oo@mm.unknown (email)
  • Tigerstedt, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown
article id 4867, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1972). Näkökohta keskimääräisestä tuotoksesta metsätyötieteessä. Silva Fennica vol. 6 no. 2 article id 4867. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14670
English title: A point of view on the average output in forest work science.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsätyö; työntutkimus; tuotos; ajanmenekki
English keywords: time consumption; time studies; forest research; forest work; work studies; output
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the concepts of time consumption and output in forest work science. When output is defined as the inverse of time consumption and vice versa, it is possible to show the important consequences in probability functions. For instance, it is not the same if the dependent variable in a regression analysis is output or time consumption. Also, the average differ depending on if they are based on the time consumption figures or on the average output.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4862, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1972). Vuonna 1971 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 6 no. 1 article id 4862. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14665
English title: Forestry papers issued in Finland in 1971.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest sciences; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the forest publications of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1971 in five scientific series: Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4857, category Article
Antti Lappalainen. (1971). Metsät ja verot. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 4 article id 4857. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14659
English title: Forests and taxation in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäverotus; verotus; Suomi; pinta-alavero; tuloverotus
English keywords: forestry; Finland; forest taxation; area taxation; tax on income; gross income from timber sales
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There is no clear picture in Finland of how big the revenues are that the State and the local authorities receive from taxation for the part of primary forestry. Conception of taxation varies from 100% to 50%. The paper presents a comparison between the gross income from timber sales as determined according to the method used at the Central Statistics Bureau and the net revenues as calculated on the basis of forest fee.

At 1920s area taxation was introduced in forest taxation. The system is based on forest types and their timber production capacity. According to the principles of area taxation, no tax is paid for overcuts, whereas timber capital savings should be paid for.

According to the calculations of this study, in 1958–62 the gross income from timber sales was about 506 million Fmk annually in Southern Finland, the costs involved in timber production about 437 million Fmk, and the annual taxable income 231 million Fmk. In the period more valuable timber assortments were harvested than those for which taxes were paid according to the old regulations.

Half a century ago, area taxation was a system suited to its purpose. Now, however, forestry is in the hands of another generation, and accounting has been introduced in practical agriculture and forestry. Therefore, a taxation system based on the real income from timber growing should be introduced. The transition period could even be relatively short. It seems probable that a forest owner does not sell timber at a time when this would be required by silvicultural aspects in order to avoid income taxation, he should have to be present an acceptable working plan.

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  • Lappalainen, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4855, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1971). Puuntuotannon ja metsien virkistyskäytön koordinointi Saksan liittotasavallassa. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 4 article id 4855. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14657
English title: Integration on timber production and forest recreation in the German Federal Republic.
Original keywords: Saksa; metsien virkistyskäyttö; metsien monikäyttö; Saksan liittotasavalta; puuntuotanto
English keywords: forestry; timber production; recreation; Germany; Bayerischer Wald; German Federal Republic; Schönbuch; Bavarian Forest National Park
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a report of a study tour of five Finnish foresters in Germany on September 27 – October 2. 1971. As in most industrial countries, the recreation use of forests is rapidly expanding and, therefore, its needs are considered in the management of forests. Two examples of intensively used recreation forests are described, Schönbuch near Stuttgart and the Bavarian Forest National Park at the Czechoslovakian border. These forests are effectively used for both timber production and recreation at the same time. Some other effects of urbanization on forests also are discussed in the article.

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  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4852, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1971). Vähäsen faktorianalyysistä. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 3 article id 4852. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14654
English title: Some aspects concerning the use of factor analysis.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänomistajat; tilastomenetelmät; faktorianalyysi
English keywords: forest owners; factor analysis; forest research; statistical methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Among the users of factor analysis there seems to be a tendency to extend the use of this method to tasks where it suits poorly. It is therefore important to emphasise at least the following aspects: 1) More critical attention should be paid to problems of interpretation especially at situations where method is aimed at analysing the causal relationships among the variables; 2) The study problem should be stated so clearly as to make it plausible to evaluate the suitability of factor model to the problem.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4851, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1971). Pieni panos keskusteluun faktorianalyysista. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 3 article id 4851. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14653
English title: A contribution to discussion on the application of factor analysis.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänomistajat; tilastomenetelmät; asennetutkimus; faktorianalyysi
English keywords: forest owners; factor analysis; attitude research; statistical methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A hypothetic problem is outlined as an example of the type of problem to which factor analysis should not be applied. Apart from this, attention is paid to industrialisation, a concept characterised by several variables, none of which can be held constant while analysing its influence on attitudes by multi-variable cross-tabulation techniques.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4850, category Article
Kauko Hahtola. (1971). Faktorianalyysi metsänomistajien käyttäytymistutkimuksissa. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 3 article id 4850. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14652
English title: Use of factor analysis in the studies of forest owners’ behaviour.
Original keywords: metsänomistajat; tilastomenetelmät; asenteet; asennetutkimus; faktorianalyysi
English keywords: forest owners; factor analysis; attitude research; statistical methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Some alternative ways of using factor analysis in the field of forest owners’ behaviour are explored in the article, in the light of two new Finnish publications. The philosophical and mathematical propertied of factor analysis are often considered too restrictive, and thus its applicability to different fields too limited. A good knowledge of the method and the subject matter theories seems to be an important prerequisite for a successful application of factor analysis. Otherwise the researcher is too dependent on the general recommendations concerning the use of factor analysis and cannot fit its use in his special situation and the whole methodological setting of the study.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4846, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1971). Metsäteollisuutemme laajennukset ja puuraaka-aineen riittävyys. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 3 article id 4846. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14648
English title: Expansion capacity of Finnish forest industries and the sufficiency of wood raw material.
Original keywords: puunkäyttö; metsäteollisuus; Suomi; metsätase; puuntarjonta
English keywords: wood utilization; forest industries; timber balance; wood supply
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish forest industries have doubled their use of wood raw material during the past two decades. The average annual overcut of 4.0 million m3 in 1960–64 has been turned into an average annual surplus of 2.7 million m3 in 1965–69. By 1974 industry’s requirements for domestic roundwood would increase by about 6.3 million m3, if all new capacity can be taken into full production. The MERA allowable cut, if realized, would leave a 1.5 million m3 annual surplus in the forest balance in 1974. Less intensive forestry programs would mean a 1.5 to 4.4 million m3 overcut in 1974.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4845, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1971). Metsätieteellisten julkaisusarjojen lyhenteitä. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4845. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14647
English title: Abbreviations used of forest scientific publications.
Keywords: forest sciences; scientific publications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the abbreviations used of forest scientific publication around the world.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4844, category Article
Kaarina Rutanen. (1971). Sinivuoren luonnonpuiston kasvisto ja kasvillisuus. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4844. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14646
English title: Flora and vegetation of the Sinivuori Nature Park in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; luonnonpuistot; luonnonsuojelualueet; Häme; lehdot; kasvillisuuskartoitus; kasvisto; Suomi
English keywords: Finland; vascular plants; nature reserves; vegetation analysis; national parks; flora; herb-rich forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Sinivuori Nature Park, located in the northeast part of the county of Häme in Southern Finland represents the rare fertile forest lands in the country, and belong partly to the so-called centre of herb‐rich forests of Häme. Sinivuori is one of the smallest nature reserves in Finland (64 ha). The detailed vegetation analysis was performed in 1969, supplemented by earlier and later observations. The area was divided into 69 one-hectare squares for the study of the flora and vegetation.

The most common rock in the park is mica schist. The pH of the soil is relatively high, in average 6.6. Thermal-time sum is 1,100–1,200. The vegetation differs to a large extent from the surrounding areas. 169 vascular plants were found in the area, some of which very rare in the area. The paper lists the plants and their abundance in the area, and the vegetation is described by the forest types. Distribution maps are presented for the species.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Rutanen, E-mail: kr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4843, category Article
Unto Silvennoinen, Rihko Haarlaa. (1971). Metsätraktoreiden liikkuvuus lumessa. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4843. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14645
English title: The mobility of logging tractors on snow.
Original keywords: puunkorjuu; metsäkuljetus; maastoluokitus; maasto; lumipeite; metsätraktorit; talvikorjuu
English keywords: snow; forest haulage; forwarder; timber harvesting; terrain; forest tractor; skidder; terrain classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The mobility of logging tractors was tested in the winter 1969 on difficult snow conditions to gather information for planning of logging operations and for logging machinery design. The tractors tested were Clark Ranger 666, Timberjack C, Valmet Terra, Ford Brunett 5000, Fiskars 510, BM-Volvo SM 660, BM Volvo SM 661, Ford Country 6, MF-Robur I and BM-Boxer T-350.

According to the results, there is a preference of tracked vehicles in difficult snow conditions compared to wheeled tractors. Ford Country with long and bearing full-tracks proved to have the best mobility. On downhill grades it was found significant differences between three-quarter-track-tractors and skidders, although the performance on level ground and uphill grades was relatively similar. The tracked vehicles can easier move on the packed snow layer and reach a higher speed.

The driving speed does not increase significantly until the density of snow has entirely changed through getting wet. Wet top layer of snow affects positively on driving, because it increases packing of the snow. Increasing density of the snow improves especially the mobility of broad-tired wheeled tractors. To be able to predict the driving speed of a tractor in winter working conditions one must know the depth of the snow layer and the density of the snow and the grade of the slope. In addition, the passages on the same route and the packing of the snow must be regarded.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Silvennoinen, E-mail: us@mm.unknown (email)
  • Haarlaa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown
article id 4838, category Article
Kustaa Seppälä. (1971). Metsityslannoituksessa käytetyn lannoitemäärän ja levitystavan merkitys istutustaimiston alkukehitykselle ojitetuilla avosoilla. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 2 article id 4838. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14640
English title: The quantity of fertilizer and application methods used in afforestation of open bogs.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; metsitys; taimet; turvemaat; lannoitus; ojitetut suot; avosuot; kuolleisuus; pituuskasvu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; afforestation; drained peatlands; Scots pine; height growth; mortality; seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the results obtained from an experiment of fertilization of drained treeless peatlands in connection of planting in three sites in Central Finland. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings 2+0 was used. The fertilizer (Y-fertilizer for peat soils, 14% N, 18% P2O5, 10% K2O) was applied in rates of 0, 20, 40 and 80 g/transplant. The fertilizer was strewn either around the plant within a circular patch of 20 cm in diameter, in a ring with a radius of 10 cm and in a ring with a radius of 20 cm. The seedlings were measured two and five years after planting.

The greater the quantity of fertilizer applied and the closer it was applied to the plant the higher was the mortality of transplants. Fertilization increased the mortality during the first two growing seasons after application. Later, however, the mortality decreased to a similar level irrespective the way the fertilizer was applied. In the beginning of the second growing season the fertilized plants showed considerably better height growth than the control plants. The smallest quantity of fertilizer applied produced almost full increase in growth. The pattern of application of the fertilizer had little effect on the growth.

It was concluded that a use of small amounts of fertilizer can be recommended in connection with planting and that it should not be applied very near the seedlings.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4837, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1971). Vuonna 1970 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 1 article id 4837. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14626
English title: Forestry papers issued in Finland in 1970.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat; tieteelliset julkaisut
English keywords: Finland; forest sciences; bibliographies; scientific publications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the forest publications of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1970 in five scientific series: Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4833, category Article
Eero Malmivaara, Jouni Mikola, Christel Palmberg. (1971). Pajujen mahdollisuudet metsäpuiden jalostuksessa. Silva Fennica vol. 5 no. 1 article id 4833. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14622
English title: Potential of willows in forest tree breeding.
Original keywords: metsänjalostus; Suomi; pajut
English keywords: Finland; forest tree breeding; willows; Salix
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A review is made into the experiences and possibilities of willow breeding, with a particular consideration of their application under Finnish conditions.

In comparison with other tree genera, Salix has many advantages in breeding. The great number of species, large genetic variation between and within species and frequent crossability offer good possibilities for improvement by hybridization. The dioecious flowering, plentiful seed production and short generation cycle are valuable properties for breeding by controlled pollination. Individuals with desirable characteristics can be easily propagated vegetatively from cuttings. The propertied stated above are also characteristic of poplars, the breeding of which has resulted in great success. Corresponding results can be therefore expected from willow breeding, which has recently been initiated in several countries.

Today willows have no practical significance for forestry in Finland. There are, however, some suitable Salix species, both indigenous and exotic, for starting material for breeding, and plenty of favourable sites for willows. Therefore, the beginning of breeding research with willows should be well justified also in Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Malmivaara, E-mail: em@mm.unknown (email)
  • Mikola, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown
  • Palmberg, E-mail: cp@mm.unknown
article id 4830, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1970). Optimaalisesta vinssausmatkasta. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 4 article id 4830. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14619
English title: The optimum winching distance.
Original keywords: puunkuljetus; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; ajourat; vintturit; vinssausmatka; korjuukustannukset
English keywords: forest haulage; forwarders; terrain transportation; strip roads; winching distance; harvesting costs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The goal of this study was to develop a mathematical model for determination of the optimal winching distance in different conditions as based on harvesting costs. In the thinned forest the strip roads are parallel and the winching routes perpendicularly to them. A directed felling of trees is used so that it is easy to make loads to be winched. The stems can also be prepared to timber assortments on the stump area and gathered to loads for skidding alongside the winching routes.

After winching the timber is transported using a forwarder mowing on the strip roads. If the stems have not been bucked in the forests, they are to be prepared to timber assortments before the following transportation, because the problem of turning whole stems in a thinned forest has not yet been solved.

In the mathematical model the formation of the costs was described using 18 variables of which 15 had an effect on the optimum winching distance. Some empirical values were estimated concerning these variables, and the corresponding optimum winching distance were computed. The optimum was mainly determined by the quantity of timber harvested per unit area, the size of the winching load, the regression coefficient of the times which were depended on the winching distance.

According to the model, the deviation from optimum winching distance does not cause a very great change in the analysed total costs. When the winching distance is longer, the increase of the costs is smaller than if it is shorter than optimum. In general, the increase of the costs was so small that in practice one obviously can be satisfied with rather approximate methods in determining the suitable winching distance.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4829, category Article
Juhani Numminen. (1970). Metsäojituksen kannattavuuden alueittainen vaihtelu. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 4 article id 4829. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14618
English title: Regional variation of the profitability of forest drainage in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; kannattavuus; metsäojitus; soiden ojitus; valtion tuet; avustukset; alueelliset erot
English keywords: forest drainage; subsidies; profitability; draining of peatlands; forest improvement; regional differences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study attempts to establish to what extent the present regional allocation of the forest improvement subsidies equalize the profitability of forest drainage in Finland. The benefit/cost ratio has been used to describe the regional variation of the profitability

The study revealed that the forest improvement subsidies granted in 1968, even the highest possible subsidies, did not equalize the profitability of forest drainage. According to the results, the northern regions are at a disadvantage compared to the southern parts of the country. To fully equalize the profitability of forest drainage the average subsidies granted in 1968 should have been raised in the second financing zone from 22 to 32%, in the third zone from 32 to 60%, and in the fourth, northernmost zone from 43 to 86%. The study also suggests that the boundary lines of the financing zones should run, at least in Central and Northern Finland, from southeast to northwest instead from east to west, as it is now.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Numminen, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4828, category Article
Juhani Numminen. (1970). Pellonvaraussopimusten alaisten peltojen metsitys. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 4 article id 4828. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14617
English title: Afforestation of agricultural land under soil bank contracts.
Original keywords: asennetutkimus; pellonraivauspalkkio; maanviljelijät; peltojen metsitys; pakettipellot
English keywords: afforestation; agricultural land; soil bank act; soil bank; farmers; fields; restriction of production; attitude research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Under the soil bank act, which took effect in 1969, 85,000 hectares of agricultural land were withdrawn from agricultural production in order to cut down the heavy surpluses of grain and butter in Finland. The farmers have a possibility to afforest their soil bank land partly on public funds, and if they choose to do so they receive a compensation of 250 Fmk for 15 years, instead of the nine years which is the maximum duration of a soil bank contract.

The study involved interviewing of 136 farmers sampled from the total of 13,368. The farmers were planning to afforest a total of 18,600 ha by the end of 1972. The main species were birch (Betula sp.) 40%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) both 30%. The main reasons (mentioned by 65% of the farmers) for afforestating the soil bank land were the unfavourable conditions for agriculture. On the other hand, 43% of those who had decided not to afforest felt that their land is too good to be planted with trees. One fifth of those not afforesting said that they themselves would not benefit from the afforestation and therefore were not interested in investing in forestry. The attitudes of the farmers seem to have also influenced their decision on afforestation. Those who had taken a positive decision on afforestation appeared to take more positive attitude in regard to forestry than other farmers.

The soil bank act does not seem to solve permanently Finland’s problem of the surpluses of agricultural products since the soil bank farmers planned to revert two thirds of the soil bank land under cultivation on the expiration of the soil bank act.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Numminen, E-mail: jn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4824, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1970). Metsä- ja puutalouden tehtävät luonnonsuojelussa. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 3 article id 4824. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14613
English title: The role of forestry and forest industries in conservation.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäteollisuus; luonnonsuojelu; maisema; ympäristöarvot; vesiensuojelu; metsien virkistyskäyttö; metsien monikäyttö
English keywords: forestry; nature conservation; forest industry; recreation; environmental values; water pollution; multiple use of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of forestry has hitherto been seen mainly as economic conservation, i.e. the use and management of timber resources on a sustainable yield basis. Along with the rising standard of living, however, amenity values of the environment will become more appreciated, which means that forestry and forest industries will be concerned with conservation of immaterial resources of nature as well. Since inland lakes cover some 10% of the surface area of Finland, and forests occupy more than 70% of the land area, forests and lakes are essential constituents of the Finnish environment during both work and leisure.

The main task of the pulp and paper industry in conservation is the control of water pollution. Today some 10% of Finnish lakes are polluted. Pulp and paper industries contribute 75% of the total waste water load of the Finnish lakes. Increasing water pollution can be prevented by improved processing technology, waste water treatment, and economic use of industrial wastes. Thus, the waste water load of the lakes has not increased in the last 10 years, despite doubling of pulp and paper production. According to the prognoses, by the year 2000 the waste water load from pulp and paper industries will be reduced to one half or one fourth of the present level although the capacity will still be increasing.

In forest management more emphasis should be paid on the aesthetic and recreational values of forests. Along with increasing leisure the need for recreational areas is growing. Scenic and recreational aspects must be considered in the management of industrial forests, too. With wise management, high timber yield is compatible with the maintenance of an enjoyable environment. Good silviculture takes account of timber production, wildlife management and landscape architecture simultaneously. National forestry development programs must be based on the principle of the multiple use of forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4822, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1970). Metsäkasvien kloonikasvustot maanteiden iän arvioimisen apuneuvoina. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 3 article id 4822. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14611
English title: Clone stands of forest plants as aids for estimating the age of roads.
Original keywords: iänmääritys; kasvullinen lisääntyminen; kloonit; metsäkasvillisuus; maantiet; kielo; sananjalka; hietakastikka
English keywords: clones; Pteridium aquilinum; roads; country roads; chronological dating; forest vegetation; bracken fern; wood small reed; Calamagrostis epigeios; lily-of-the-valley; Convallaria majalis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Clone stands of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) wood small reed (Calamagrostis epigeios L.) and lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis L.) are often partly split into two by the road, but often encountered also unilaterally on the roadside in the shape of a semicircle. The unilateral stands can be at times 20–30 m wide and they are sometimes solitary stands of the species. A method to define the age of the solitary stands of six plant species including bracken, wood small reed and lily-of-the-valley was developed in a series of earlier studies.

These stands can be used to define the time the road was built. Clones that are bound by the road unilaterally are younger than the road. If there are several unilateral clones and they are of different sizes, the road is older than the largest clone. When the road is skirted bilaterally only by clones divided by the road, it is younger than the smallest clone. When there are by the road side both unilaterally delimited clones and clones split by the road, the age of the road comes in the range of time determined by the age difference between the largest unilateral and smallest bilateral clone.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4820, category Article
Rihko Haarlaa. (1970). Ideaalinäkemys metsätyöorganisaatioiden kehittämisestä. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 4820. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14609
English title: The concept of ideal systems in design of forestry work organizations.
Original keywords: metsätyö; puunkorjuu; työn organisointi; suunnittelu; ihanneorganisaatio
English keywords: timber harvesting; forest work; organization of work; planning; ideal organization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The most effective work organization will be used as a goal in minimizing of logging costs. Some type of problem approach is usually utilized. The concept of the ideal system offers a possibility to get guidance in this difficult task. The idea of an ideal system is based on the fact that an ideal system, even imagined, can be utilized for any purpose. There are checklists in handbooks to accomplish the four existing steps: define of function, design ideal, develop optimum and deliver results.

In this paper two special cases are taken up to illustrate the concept itself, and it’s use in design of forestry work organizations. There were found no such reasons which could limit or even prevent the use of this method for forest technological purposes. That is why the author believes the method to give better results than any other customary approach.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Haarlaa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4819, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1970). Hakkuutähteiden merkityksestä puuston vaurioitumisen ja raiteenmuodostuksen kannalta harvennusmetsissä. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 4819. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14608
English title: Significance of logging waste in thinnings as to scars and tracks in the terrain.
Original keywords: maaperä; harvennushakkuu; puunkorjuu; metsäkuljetus; hakkuutähteet; metsäkoneet; maastovauriot; puustovauriot; ajourat; kantavuus
English keywords: thinnings; forest haulage; soil; timber harvesting; terrain transportation; strip roads; logging waste; tree injuries; stem injuries; tracks; carrying capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to explain whether it is possible to affect, in practical working site conditions, by means of logging waste on the strip road, the depth of the track which is formed in terrain transportation and the injuries of the growing stand. Five 20 m long investigation areas with logging waste and five similar areas without logging waste were arranged on one strip road at Teisko logging site in Southern Finland. The logging waste layer was mainly Norway spruce and 10–15 cm thick. A KL–836 B forwarder was used. The type of soil was loam.

The logging waste affected the depth of the track only by decreasing the wear of humus layer. Even decreasing effect of logging waste on the injuries in the growing stand was minor. At Kitee working site in Eastern Finland strip roads were studied. The type of soil was thick, rather mouldered peat. The thickness of logging waste was 3–4 times greater than in Teisko, mainly spruce. A Volvo Nalle SM 460 forwarder was used. The effect of the logging waste on the depth of the tracks was clearly to be noticed. On basis of the appearance of the tracks one could assume that the difference was due to different wear of the humus, and not so much due to the quantity of logging waste that improves the carrying capacity of terrain.

In some extent logging waste was also found to affect the amount and quality of tree injuries. In practical working conditions, the importance might be small, since in the experiments an unrealistically great amount of logging waste was used.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4818, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1970). Moottorisahojen valinnasta teknisten ominaisuuksien ja hinnan perusteella. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 4818. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14607
English title: The choice of power saws on the basis of the price and technical properties.
Original keywords: moottorisahat; ostokäyttäytyminen; valintakriteerit; metsätyövälineet
English keywords: forest equipment; power saws; selection criteria; consumer buying behavior
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This investigation studies the effect of the retail price and the technical properties of preference ordering of buyers of power saw. According to the model derived, the preference ordering of power saws is due to technical properties xj. If no such restrictions in the function are supposed that could have bearing on the preferences of the buyers, there may be N ! possible combinations, when there are N power saws. If one can presume that each price corresponds with a technical level it is possible that each buyer has an optimum price of his own. The bigger the difference between the optimum and actual price, the less preferred the actual power saw is. In this case one may notice the amount of possible orderings is much less than that based on the model. Thus, the mode may be used.

In this paper some models are presented for cases when only n pieces of the population of N power saws are studied. 16 power saws of differing ages and technical levels were investigated. It was noted that many criteria of technical goodness were positively intercorrelated. The price correlated positively with every criterium used. According to the profile analysis, it was concluded that there were many development lines. For example, the idea of a light and the idea of an effective power saw.

According to the principal component analysis, it seemed obvious that there was little room for one- or two-dimensional preference ordering by the technical properties and price.

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  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4815, category Article
Heikki Lindroos, Martti Nenonen, Pekka Pesonen. (1970). Tutkimus metsänomistajien koulutustarpeesta. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 1 article id 4815. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14604
English title: Observations on the need for education of forest owners.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; maatilametsätalous; metsänomistajat; metsäalan koulutus; koulutustarve
English keywords: forest owners; forest education; farm forestry; forest councelling; training needs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish advisory organizations of private forestry provide education for forest owners on the problems concerning farm forestry. It is important that the methods in use would be able to prepare for the future development so that the teaching could lead to the most efficient learning. The present study was a survey research directed to all private forest rangers working in the District Forestry Boards in Finnish-speaking areas of the country. The inquiry was answered by 756 rangers, the returning rate being about 80%.

The results indicate that farm-forest owners have to be further educated. The education should be directed in the first place to method of artificial regeneration, cleaning-thinning, cutting operations and to the methods of physical work achievements. Particularly, it would be important to take care of teaching concerning cost calculation and economic planning. On the other hand, the enquiry indicated that, according to the opinions of the forest rangers, such skills belong most for the forest professionals and not for the farmers. According to the results, there is a need for development in the education given to farm-forest owners, as well as education of professional foresters.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lindroos, E-mail: hl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Nenonen, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown
  • Pesonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
article id 4814, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1970). Vuonna 1969 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 1 article id 4814. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14603
English title: Publications on forest science research published in Finland in 1969.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the forest publications of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1969 in four scientific series: Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4811, category Article
Raimo Lehto. (1970). Opetustoiminnan taustaa ja työnopetus Hirvaan metsäkonekoulussa. Silva Fennica vol. 4 no. 1 article id 4811. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14600
English title: Background of education and occupational instruction at the Hirvas Forest Machine School.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; Lappi; koulutus; Suomi; Hirvaan metsäkonekoulu; koneenkuljettaja; metsäkoneet; oppiminen; työnopetus; ammattikoulutus
English keywords: Finland; Lapland; forest education; Hirvas Forest Machine School; technical school; forest machines; teaching; learning; vocational education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The share of occupational instruction at the Forest Machine School varies between 70 and 80%. The paper describes organization of the education, curriculum, teaching methods, practical training, machinery, and learning experience of the students. It discusses the influence of teaching programme, and school environment on attitudes and motivation of the students.

The school employs an adaptation of the TW I method in its actual methods of occupational instruction. The method of demonstration is also employed. The size of a training group has been restricted to 10 pupils, and the school has attempted to acquire plenty of instruction components, material for repair, and practice worksites. In this way the repetition of essentials can be guaranteed. The minimum factor in driver training is the competence to use a grab loader. In the training of mechanics the core competence is the diagnostics of defects and the making of adjustments.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lehto, E-mail: rl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4809, category Article
N. A. Osara. (1969). Polttoaineiden ja puutalouden säännöstely Suomessa toisen maailmansodan aikana ja sen jälkeen. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 4 article id 4809. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14597
English title: Government control of fuels and forestry in Finland during World War II.
Original keywords: metsätalous; toinen maailmansota; polttoaineet; Suomi; energianlähteet; tuontipolttoaineet; puu; puutuotteet; säännöstely; poikkeusolot
English keywords: wood products; forestry; Finland; wood; fuelwood; Second World War; fuels; imported fuels; regulation; reserve stocks
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

As Finland has neither coal nor oil resources, it has had to resort to large-scale imports dependant on foreign relations and especially maritime connections. When the outbreak of World War II broke these connections, the state had to institute comprehensive controls and measures to ensure the supply of fuels. The present article deals with the measures taken by the authorities at that time.

Although the danger to Finland of interruption in fuel imports had been pointed out, the Finns had made hardly any preparations to manage on their own. In autumn 1939 there was no reserve stocks and particularly vulnerable was the question of motor fuels and lubricants.

When the Winter War ended in spring 1940, it was realised that special measures were needed. A law was enacted that concerned both the revival of production and regulation of consumption. For instance, every forest owner was notified of his share of the fuelwood logging. The wood processing industry had been accustomed to maintain stocks of wood covering two years’ requirements, but these inventories, too, were depleted by 1944. The law for safeguarding the supply of timber, enacted in early 1945, invested far-reaching powers in the authorities, and the logging plans were exceptionally large in 1945-47. Controls governing forestry and the forest industry were discontinued in 1947.

In Finland it is necessary to maintain a state of preparedness. This applies above all to fossil fuels and particularly oils.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Osara, E-mail: no@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4801, category Article
Rihko Haarlaa. (1969). Puunkorjuun suunnittelu ja metsätaloussuunnitelmat. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 3 article id 4801. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14589
English title: The role of logging in forest management plans.
Original keywords: hakkuu; puunkuljetus; metsäsuunnittelu; puunkorjuu; metsäsuunnitelmat; metsätaloussuunnitelmat
English keywords: logging; timber harvesting; felling; transportation; forest management plan; forest working plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to answer questions concerning the basic information in planning of timber harvesting, how this information has to be handled, and how the planning of logging has to be combined with other forest management planning.

A deductive research method was used. By analysing a logging plan, prepared for a certain forest area, general conclusions were reached. To prepare the logging plan in connection with the forest management plan, the following information was found to be necessary: boundaries of the area, extent and ownership of the planned area, maps including information of the location of the timber and the conditions for transportation, road network and a reliable picture of the difficulty of the forest terrain.

Based on the material of the present timber harvesting methods it will be possible to predict the logging methods which will be applicable in the near future. The object to be planned has to be divided to operation areas. The amount of manpower and equipment needed can be estimated for each phase of the timber harvesting chain on the basis of the information calculated in this manner. Investments to machines and basic improvement works have to be planned before the effect of planning can be calculated in the logging costs, which are to be minimized. Due to the rapid development of the field, the handling of the material in connection with a forest management plan has to be left partly unfinished since the development of future logging methods cannot be reliably predicted.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Haarlaa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4800, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen. (1969). Metsänhoidolliset mielipiteet ja metsänhoidollinen toiminta maatilametsätaloudessa. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 3 article id 4800. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14588
English title: Opinions about silviculture in farm forestry in Finland, and practical steps taken.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; maatilametsätalous; Suomi; metsänomistajat; asenteet; asennetutkimus; Jämsä; Karstula; metsäneuvonta; mielipidetutkimus
English keywords: forest management; silviculture; Finland; forest owners; farm forestry; attitudes; opinion poll; opinions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to find out about the forest owner’s views on silviculture and any forest management work he had carried out. The data is based on interviews of 289 forest owners in municipalities of Jämsä and Karstula in Central Finland in 1966. The forest owners were a random sample of all males in the municipalities, who alone or together with their wives were in the possession of at least 2 ha of cultivated land and 10 ha of forests.

The forest owners’ attitudes towards silviculture were generally favourable. A common opinion was that money spent on silviculture is a paying proposition (88%), that forest management is better today than it used to be (87%), that cultivation of forests is an economic proposition (81%), and that few owners manage their forests properly unless forced by the law (79%). The need for planning silvicultural measures was also generally accepted (78%).

However, few agreed that the legally imposed silvicultural fee is necessary, that the new silvicultural methods were practicable, or that money he invested in silviculture is profitable to the forest owner. Only 45% agreed that forestry experts have sufficient understanding of the owner’s needs. One third of the forest owners had carried out the following silvicultural tasks: forest cultivation, forest drainage or forest fertilization, on a minimum area of five hectares. Forest cultivation had been carried out by 63%, forest drainage by 44% and forest fertilization by 16% of the respondents. Vast majority (90%) had employed forest experts and a many nearly every year, mainly for marking the trees to be felled.

In the more rural municipality of Karstula, the forest owners’ views towards forestry was more favourable than in the semi-industrialized Jämsä.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4799, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1969). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran 60-vuotisjuhlallisuudet 29.4.1969. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 3 article id 4799. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14586
English title: The 60th anniversary of the Society of Forestry in Finland April 29, 1968.
Original keywords: järjestöt; juhlat; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: organizations; The Finnish Society of Forest Science; 60th anniversary
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article describes the 60th anniversary of the Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science). The reception addresses, donations and paying of homages to its members are listed. Also, some of the speeches are published.
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  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4798, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1969). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran jäsenet 31.12.1968. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4798. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14584
English title: Members of the Society of Forestry in Finland in December 31, 1968.
Keywords: The Finnish Society of Forest Science; members
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper includes a list of all members of the Finnish Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) in December 31, 1968.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4796, category Article
Eino Saari. (1969). Kansainvälinen yhteistoiminta metsäntutkimuksen alalla. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4796. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14582
English title: International co-operation in forest research work.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; IUFRO; FAO; kansainvälinen yhteistyö; International Union of Forest Research Organizations; World Forestry Congress
English keywords: forest research; international cooperation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper gives an overview on international organizations involved with forestry and forest research. International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFFRO) was named in a congress in Stockholm in 1929, but the organization has its roots in a German association of forest experiment stations founded in 1872. IUFRO is a non-governmental organization with research institutes as members. As it has no permanent centre, and no own research institutes, its opportunities for carrying out actual research work are limited. A reorganization is being planned.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), established in 1945, has a division for forestry and forest industries. FAO is a governmental organization for international policy in agriculture, fisheries, nutrition, and forestry, and not meant for research work. It has nevertheless been compelled to carry out a great deal of research work, particularly in projects that have proved impossible for other organs. The Timber Trend Studies are the best known in the field of forestry.

World Forestry Congresses are occasions where all kinds of forestry problems can be discussed, and they have also stimulated research work. The first International Forestry Congress was held in 1926 in Rome, but several other international forestry congresses have been arranged since 1873.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4794, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1969). Valtion laitosten ulkopuolella tapahtuvan metsäntutkimuksen kehittämisestä. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4794. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14580
English title: Development of forest research outside the state-owned institutes.
Original keywords: tutkimus; tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; tutkimustoiminta; yhteistyö; säätiöt
English keywords: Finland; forest research; funding; research funding; research institutes; cooperation; foundations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In addition to the research carried out by the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry of the University of Helsinki, the Forest Research Institute, and the State Committee for Agriculture and Forestry, applied forest research is performed in Finland by the Forest department of the Work Efficiency Association, Metsäteho, the Forest Work Study Section of the Central Association of Finnish Woodworking Industries, the Logging Technical Office of the State Board of Forestry (today the Development Section of the Organization Bureau), and Uittoteho, research body for floating questions in Northern Finland.

These establishments are concerned chiefly with the development of and experimentation with working methods, tools and machines in wood harvesting and with the analysis of wage and payment bases for timber preparation and haulage jobs.

An endeavour has been made to coordinate the forest technological research in these institutes and the University of Helsinki and the Forest Research Institute. Each institute is presented in a cooperation organ formed by the Society of Forestry in Finland. This organ also functions as the Finnish section of Nordiska Skogsarbetsstudiernas Råd (NSR). These bodies agree about the division of the research tasks and discuss the research programmes jointly.

In addition, some foundations give notable support to forest research, in particular the Foundation for Forest Tree Breeding, Foundation for Research of Natural Resources in Finland, and SITRA, the Fund for the Jubilee Year 1967 of Finland’s Independence.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4793, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1969). Valtion maatalous-metsätieteellinen toimikunta ja metsäntutkimus. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4793. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14579
English title: Forest research and the State Commission of Agriculture and Forestry.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; rahoitus; tieteelliset toimikunnat; Valtion maatalous-metsätieteellinen toimikunta
English keywords: forest research; funding; State Commission of Agriculture and Forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The special act passed in 1961 provides for the tasks of the State Commission of Agriculture and Forestry. The Commission finances and supervises the activities of the research workers employed by the Commission. In addition, it gives special grants for specific purposes and endeavours to promote progress in research in accordance with the above-mentioned act.

Despite the formal requirement for progress, the real value of the grants given to forest research does not exhibit a rising trend. There seems to be a need for increasing funds both for research and publishing purposes.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4792, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1969). Yliopiston ja metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tutkijain yhteistoiminta. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4792. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14578
English title: Co-operation between research workers at the university and Forest Research Institute.
Original keywords: tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; Helsingin yliopisto; metsäntutkimuslaitos; metsätieteellinen tiedekunta; yhteistyö
English keywords: forest research; University of Helsinki; research institutes; Finnish Forest Research Institute; cooperation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper discusses the cooperation between the research workers of the Forestry Departments, University of Helsinki, and of the Finnish Forest Research Institute. Although the fusion of these institutes might even seem to be justified in order to guarantee a coordination of the research work, no drawbacks exist in the present organization which could not be removed with cooperation.

In fact, cooperation has hitherto taken place in many forms both in teaching and research: working groups in the various branches of research have recently prepared a program for the development of research (Silva Fennica 1:4; 1967), leading scientists of the Institute act as lecturers at the University and some university teachers as associate researchers at the Institute.

On the other hand, in some cases lack of cooperation may have led to uncertainty and inconvenience of practical forestry. Therefore, a better system of information between scientists should be created and the continuity of cooperation strengthened. In conferences between the university and institute people, development work within the various fields of research should be cleared up with a long-range aim. The conference day of the scientists in the beginning of each year is mentioned as one possibility to start the cooperation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4791, category Article
Viljo Holopainen. (1969). Metsäntutkimuslaitos tehostuvan metsätalouden aikana. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4791. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14577
English title: The Finnish Forest Research Institute in the present period of increasing intensity of forestry.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; Suomi; metsäntutkimuslaitos
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest science; Finnish Forest Research Institute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Foundation of the Finnish Forest Research Institute in 1917 was one step in the plans of A.K. Cajander to organize Finnish forestry research. Already earlier the highest forestry education had been incorporated into the University of Helsinki (1908) and the Finnish Society of Forestry founded (1909). In conformity with statute of 1962, the task of the Forest Research Institute is “to perform studies and experiments in order to develop Finnish forestry in a manner adapted to the purpose”. Consequently, the task of the institute is to carry out studies explicitly serving practical forestry.

The article describes the actual and required development of the Forest Research Institute. Concerning the most recent steps of development, for instance, four new professorships has been created: Forest Zoology, Tree Breeding, Forest Yield Science and Mathematics. In addition, a few regional research and experimental stations were established.

Strengthening the Forest Research Institute, i.e. increasing its staff of research workers and its funds, must still be continued to make it possible for the Institute to satisfy the great demand for research work of present-day practical forestry. The article also gives attention to the internal scientific development of the institute. Particularly, there is reason to stimulate the extended studies of young research workers as well as international exchange.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4790, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1969). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran kuudes vuosikymmen. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4790. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14576
English title: The sixth decade of the Society of Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest sciences; 1959-1968; the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences) was founded in 1909. A comprehensive history of the society has been published earlier (Acta Forestalia Fennica 40) which covers the first 50 years of is activity. The tasks of the Society are to work for the development of forestry research in Finland and to be a link between research workers in the field of forestry.

This article summarises the activity with regards of the meetings during the 60th year of the Society, and the two scientific series, Acta Forestalia Fennica and Silva Fennica, it publishes. The characteristics of the development of the publishing activity has been its’ becoming livelier and a shortening of the studies published. In 1960s funds have been granted for the execution of even larger projects. The Society has also treated many questions within the field of policy of science.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4789, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1969). Metsäntutkimus Suomessa ennen ja nyt. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 2 article id 4789. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14575
English title: Earlier and present forestry research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; tutkimuslaitokset; metsäntutkimus; historia
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; history; research institutes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article gives an account of the organization of research work, which was started in the 18th century at the Academy of Turku. It was later developed in the times of the Forest Institute at Evo, founded in 1862, but it was not until the highest forestry education was transferred to the University of Helsinki in 1908 that it got a more compact form. In 1909 the Finnish Society of Forestry was founded and in 1918, the Finnish Forest Research Institute. In addition, a number of special institutes and organizations have been established.

At first the number of different branches was small, but the number of fields has multiplied until the present day. The article describes development that has taken place within the fields of forest biology, silviculture, forest protection, soil science, peatland forestry, forest mensuration, forest management, forest technology, forest economics, and multiple-use forestry.

Development was promoted by the organization of research work and its division into branches. Improvement of vehicles used in collection of study material as well as of the equipment used for this purpose and for handling the material have been important for the development. Funds for research have increased. Contacts with other fields of science and participation in international research work, especially through IUFRO, team work and schooling new scientists, have been influential. In 1960 a State committee appointed for further development of forestry research presented a plan to this end.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4787, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1969). Vuonna 1968 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 3 no. 1 article id 4787. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14573
English title: Publications on forest science research published in Finland in 1968.
Original keywords: metsätiede; bibliografiat; metsäntutkmus
English keywords: forest research; forest science; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the articles of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1968 in the following scientific series: Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports, included are also recensions on forest literature.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4779, category Article
Eino Saari. (1968). Sisäisen korkokannan käsite metsätaloudessa. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 4 article id 4779. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14564
English title: Internal rate of return in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; käsitteet; kannattavuuslaskenta; korkokanta; sisäinen korkokanta
English keywords: terminology; internal rate; rate of interests; concepts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The concept of the internal rate can be defined as the rate of interest, which if applied to expenditures incurred at different times, gives a compounded sum equal to revenues compounded at the same rate for the same time. This concept has long been used in forestry, particularly concerning the development of a stand, because in this case there is a time difference between many items of expenditure and revenue. Several terms have been used or the notions derived on this basis. The term internal rate of return has begun to appear only recently. This article explains different variations of the concept and its different names, together with some related concepts and terms.

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  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4778, category Article
Kari Löyttyniemi. (1968). Teeri (Lyrurus tetrix L.) männyn taimien tuholaisena taimitarhassa. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 4 article id 4778. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14563
English title: Feeding of terminal shoots of Scots pine seedlings by the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) in nursery.
Original keywords: mänty; taimitarha; taimituhot; versot; teeri
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; nursery; Scots pine; forest nursery; seedling damages; feeding behaviour; black grouse; Lyrurus tetrix; terminal buds
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In early spring 1968 it was noticed that the black grouses (Lyrurus tetris L.) was eating terminal shoots of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings in a tree nursery in Luumäki, Southern Finland. The terminal shoots were picked 1–4 cm from the top of the seedlings. In total some thousands of two-year-old seedlings were damaged. The depth of the snow was 10–15 cm deep and only the tops of the seedlings could be seen above the surface of the snow.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Löyttyniemi, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4776, category Article
K. Stern. (1968). Some considerations on optimal plot size in field experiments with forest trees. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 4 article id 4776. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14561
Original keywords: metsänarviointi; menetelmät; koealat; inventointi; koealakoko; metsänmittaus
English keywords: forest inventory; sampling; forest mensuration; methods; sample plots; sample plot size
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

18 permanent sample subplots of the Swedish and the Hassian Forestry Institute, each measured in equal intervals for several decades, were divided into subplots of different size. An analysis of variance was calculated for every set of subplot size. The development of intraclass-correlations over years and over different sizes of subplots could be explained if three different correlations were assumed: soil-correlation, correlations from irregular distribution of the trees, and correlation resulting from competition. Intraclass-correlations were positive or negative depending on dominance of one or two of these correlations.

An explanatory simultation study of competitional variance showed the effect of the degree of competitional correlations on the variance of means of subplots of different sizes. If this coefficient was small, all variances of subplots means within the range investigated became larger than expected in experiments without competition, with larger coefficients the variances of means of the smaller subplots became smaller, those of larger subplots larger than expected.

Plots of medium or large size are probably optimal for long term experiments with forest trees, if all sources of costs in such experiments are taken into account.

The PDF includes a summary in English and Finnish.

  • Stern, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4774, category Article
Pekka Kilkki. (1968). Some economic aspects of growing forest stands. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 4 article id 4774. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14559
Keywords: forest management; fellings; growing shedule; rotation; current gross soil rent; value growth; rent of the growing stock
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this paper was that of studying the optimum growing schedules of forest stands, with the classic Faustmann formula as starting point. The study is mainly theoretical in nature. The study shows that the net present-value of the future revenues from a forest stand can be calculated, not only by means of the harvesting revenues, but also by a more theoretical concept, here termed the current gross soil rent. The current gross soil rent represents the difference between the current value growth and the rent of the growing stock.

By use of the concepts described here, it is theoretically possible to find the growing schedule for the stand which maximizes the net present-value of the stand. To make the formulae simpler, a one-year period has been adopted for discussion of the concepts involved in determination of the optimum structure and density of the growing stock, and the financial maturity. However, these concepts can be extended to cover periods of any length.

The method for determination of the optimum growing schedule for a forest stand can be summarized as follows: Thin the stand as the internal rate of return on the marginal increase in ’timber capital’ falls below the guiding rate of interest. Clear-cut and regenerate the stand as the internal rate of return on the sum of the ’timber and soil capital’ falls below the guiding rate of interest.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4773, category Article
Veli-Pekka Järveläinen, Totte Vadén. (1968). Ammattitietous ja sen leviäminen maatilametsätaloudessa. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 4 article id 4773. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14558
English title: Professional insight and its diffusion within farm forestry.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; maatilametsätalous; metsänomistajat; ammatillinen tieto; metsäosaaminen; tiedonlähteet; metsäkoulutus
English keywords: forest professionals; forest owners; forest education; forestry skills; forestry knowledge; farm forestry; information source
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to describe the diffusion of the professional insight in forestry taking place among forest owners and as factors attached thereto. The material is based on interviews of 289 forest owners in municipalities of Jämsä and Karstula in Central Finland in 1966. The forest owners were a random sample of all males in the municipalities, who were in the possession of at least 2 ha of cultivated land and 10 ha of forest.

Mass media (papers, radio and television) was an important source of information for the forest owners. Forest educational events are specially planned to spread information on forestry to forest owners, but 40% told that they had never participated any such event. Only 8% had got professional forest education. Knowledge concerning forests and forest management may also be inherited from the forest owner’s parents, or in discussions with professional forest officers or neighbours. About 73% of the forest owners had been in touch with professional foresters at least once during the last three years.

A third of the forest owners regarded professional insight their most important source of information on forestry, a little smaller group considered instruction in forestry questions the most important source. The third largest group had achieved their knowledge on forestry on own experience and inherited knowledge. Forest owners favouring mass media, own experience and inherited knowledge were often owners of a small forest holding.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Järveläinen, E-mail: vj@mm.unknown (email)
  • Vadén, E-mail: tv@mm.unknown
article id 4764, category Article
Juhani Päivänen. (1968). Istutusajankohdan vaikutus männyn istutuksen onnistumiseen ojitetuilla avosoilla. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 2 article id 4764. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14549
English title: The effect of the date of planting on the survival of Scots pine on drained open peatlands in Finland.
Original keywords: mänty; istutus; metsitys; ojitusalueet; turvekankaat; istutusaika; avosuot; syysistutus
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; afforestation; drained peatlands; Scots pine; planting; time of planting; autumn planting; open peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Due to mechanization of draining of peatlands, also open peatlands have been included in the draining projects due to technical reasons. Some research has been published on afforestation of open drained peatlands, but there is yet no experiments that reaches the entire development of the stands. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the possibility of extending the planting season of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) over the entire growing season in drained peatlands, where the water condition of the site is probably not the factor limiting forest development. An open low-sedge swamps in Southern Finland were planted in early summer and two weeks in midsummer in 1967.

In the light of the results, planting Scots pine would seem possible in drained peatlands throughout the growing season. However, plants may suffer considerably from lifting for the plantation in August. The success of planting at the turn of September and October is also uncertain. The nursery must be situated close to the areas to be planted, since the transportation and handling of plants during the growing season must be carried out with extreme care. The seasonality of planting work could be decreased by extending the planting season. In the future, several transplant storing methods should be tried out in connection with similar planting-time experiments.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Päivänen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4763, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1968). Vuonna 1967 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 1 article id 4763. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14547
English title: Forest scientific research published in Finland in 1967.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsätiede; bibliografiat
English keywords: forest research; forest science; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the papers of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1967 by the scientific series Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4762, category Article
Ilmo Rinkinen. (1968). Kehitysvaihtoehtoja Suomen metsätalouden organisaatioketjuissa. Silva Fennica vol. 2 no. 1 article id 4762. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14546
English title: Development alternatives in the organization chains of Finnish forestry.
Original keywords: metsäteollisuus; kilpailu; puumarkkinat; metsänomistajat; organisaatiot; edunvalvonta
English keywords: forestry; Finland; competition; forest owners; forest industry; organizations; timber sales; timber market; lobbying
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this paper was to shape and analyse certain alternatives in the development processes in the organization chains of Finnish forestry. The material was collected by analysing market structures and characteristics of competition with regard to raw wood and forest industry products.

The paper presents two alternative ways to rationalize the organization chains between the forest owner’s organizations and forest industry. In the price mechanism of raw wood originating from Finnish private forests there there has been increasing influence of the central organizations of the private forest owners and forest industry. In their relationship, the model of bilateral monopolistic competition can be chosen as a conceptual framework.

Under bilateral monopoly price is fixed as a result of negotiations between competitive parties, and the position and tactics within the negotiations are of great importance for the negotiating parties. Because of the competition, Finnish forest industry cannot compensate the increase in the production costs by raising independently the export prices of its products. This and the fact that the annual earnings of forest workers are fixed by law to the earnings of the workers in wood-processing industry, will cause pressure on stumpage prices.

In the paper two schemes are outlined. In the Scheme 1 a development alternative is described in which the organization chain of private forest owners is supposed to develop to the industry growing direction. In the Scheme 2 the organization chain of private forest owners is supposed to develop to the organizational orientated direction.

It is concluded that as long as the forest owners’ organizational orientated central organization is too weak to form a monopoly as counterweight to the monopsol of forest industry (except the industries of forest owners), it will consider the industry growing direction superior to the organizational orientated alternative.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Rinkinen, E-mail: ir@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4757, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1967). Suomen metsäntutkimus ja sen kehittäminen. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 4 article id 4757. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14541
English title: Forestry research in Finland and its further development.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; tutkimusrahoitus; tutkimustoiminta
English keywords: Finland; forest research; research funding; research institutes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1965, the Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) appointed five working groups representing various fields of forestry to get a general view of the present stage and future need of development of forestry research. The present paper gives a summary of the reports prepared by the working groups and presents some suggestions concerning improvement of the general condition for forestry research.

First, an account is given of the present stage of forestry research; this is done in the form of a list including the institutes where forestry research is practiced. The most important of these institutes are the University of Helsinki, which in 1966 employed 42 research workers, and the Finnish Forest Research Institute which employed 52 investigators. The total number of research workers was 114. The funds available and the financial sources are also dealt with, as well a as the aftergrowth of research workers and the publishing activity.

In addition, a review is presented of the most important tasks of research according to the reports of the working groups. Finally, an account is given of the program of development. According to the program, the number of new researcher’s positions required has been estimated as being rather large. Development of the research activity organization presupposes establishment of some new departments at the Finnish Forest Research Institute and at the University of Helsinki; moreover, a common laboratory as well as a forest-machine station are required. The funds needed at the most important state institutions will be about 90% higher in 1970 and 190% higher in 1980 than at present. The aftergrowth of research workers should be essentially increased and its distribution of the fields of forestry should be more even. No new series of publication have been considered necessary.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4751, category Article
Ilmari Schalin. (1967). On the effect of nitrogen fertilization on the bacteria and microfungi in humus layer. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 3 article id 4751. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14535
Keywords: nitrogen; forest soil; humus; fungi; microfungi; fertilizing; bacteria; lime
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

During the summer and fall of 1966 changes brought about by urea, calcium ammonium nitrate, nitrate of lime, and ammonium sulphate were observed. Application of the fertilizers corresponded to 100 kg/N per hectare.

The effect of urea was immediate. The pH rose and the bacterial density increased to 20–30 times more than determined in the spring, while the microfungal density decreased to one third of the spring density. In the ammonium sulphate plot opposite changes occurred almost as rapidly as in the previous case. A gradually increasing biological activity observed after application of calcium ammonium nitrate and of lime fertilizers seemed almost the same for bacteria and microfungi. Both microbe groups displayed consistent quantitative growth. pH 4.3 was the limit of acidity below which the bacteria showed a tendency to decline and the microfungi to increase, while the opposite was true above this limit.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Schalin, E-mail: is@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4746, category Article
Kari Löyttyniemi. (1967). Tikaskuoriaisesta (Trypodendron lineatum Oliv., Col., Scolytidae) kuorellisen havupuutavaran pilaajana. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 2 article id 4746. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14456
English title: Damages caused to timber with bark by spruce ambrosia beetle (Trypodendron lineatum) in Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; puutavara; hyönteistuhot; hyönteiset; kaarnakuoriaiset; havutikaskuoriainen; varastointi; puutavarapinot
English keywords: bark beetles; roundwood; fellings; insect damage; spruce ambrosia beetle; Trypodendron lineatum; forest depot
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper studied the effect of felling time and conditions in the forest depot of timber to damages caused by spruce ambrosia beetle (Trypodendron lineatum Oliv.) to coniferous timber with bark, both experimentally and observing forest depots in Finland. Effects of fellings was studied by studying the abundance of the beetles in logging residue.

The results show that the spruce ambrosia beetles favour timber felled during the late autumn and winter, stored in a shaded place in the forest. In addition, new spruce stumps maintain and increase the beetle population. Fellings in the forest will increase population during the next year and cause damages in forest depot of timber nearby, because the insect breeds in the stumps. The experiments showed that it is possible to diminish the damages caused by the beetle to timber with bark by spraying with insecticides, and timing the fellings and transport of timber so that there is no timber in the forest in the spring during the time when the insect swarms.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Löyttyniemi, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4745, category Article
Ilmari Schalin. (1967). Microfungi in the humus layer of pine, spruce and birch stands in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 2 article id 4745. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14455
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula; Picea abies; forest soil; humus; fungi; microfungi; yeast
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study elucidates the composition of the microfungal populations of the humus layer of tree forest types – Vaccinium type with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Myrtillus type with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Oxalis-Myrtillus type with birch (Betula sp.). The results indicate that the microfungi encountered in these sites bear close resemblances. The number of species increased but little towards the more fertile sites from VT to OMT. The main difference was limited to the quantitative relationships between the species.

The microfungal density in the humus layer was greatest in VT, and only slightly less in MT and OMT, in this order. In all the sampling areas, occurrence of the microfungi reached a maximum in the middle of summer, at a time when the maximum temperatures were registered in the humus. The quantitative abundance during the early autumn bears a relation to the yield of litter.

The microfungi most commonly encountered in all sampling areas were those of rapid growth, Mucor, Morierella and Penicillium species, along with Trichoderma, a little slower in growth, and actively decomposing cellulose. Mucor fungi, favouring moisture, were most abundant in the early summer and in the autumn. The Mortierella and Penicillium species, which survive dryness, were most abundant in the middle of the summer. The former is twice as common in MT and OMT than in VT, and the latter twice as common in VT as in OMT.

Scopulariopsis and Verticillium species were found regularly in MT and OMT. One Acremonium species was found almost exclusively in VT, and some Aspergillus and Mycogene in OMT alone. Sterilia mycelia was relatively abundant in MT and OMT in particular. Different kinds of yeast fungi were encountered generally in MT and OMT.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Schalin, E-mail: is@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4743, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1967). Metsämaaston luokittelun yhtenäistämispyrkimyksistä. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 2 article id 4743. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14453
English title: Attempts to unify the classification of forest terrain.
Original keywords: metsätyö; kokoukset; maastoluokitus; maasto
English keywords: forest work; meetings; classification of forest terrain
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a report from the meeting of the Section 32 of the IUFRO in Canada on September 15.–25. 1964, which three Finnish forestry experts participated. The theme of the meeting was classification of forest terrain.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4741, category Article
Paavo Aro. (1967). Metsäsanakirjoja - onko niitä? Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 4741. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14451
English title: Forest dictionaries - do they exist?
Keywords: dictionary; forest dictionary; publication
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is an overview on the assortment of forest dictionaries available around the world in 1967, related to the preparation of a new edition of ‘Metsäsanakirja’ (forest dictionary) by the Finnish Society of Forest Science.

  • Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4739, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1967). Vuonna 1966 Suomessa ilmestyneitä metsätieteellisiä tutkimuksia. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 4739. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14449
English title: Publications on forest science research published in Finland in 1966 .
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; bibliografiat
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; bibliographies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper lists the forest publications of forest scientific research published in Finland in 1966 in alphabetic order by the different scientific series, Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae, Folia Forestales, and Metsäteho Reports. It also includes book reviews on forest literature. 

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4737, category Article
S. A. Wilde. (1967). Production of energy material by forest stands as related to supply of soil water. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 4737. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14447
Keywords: biomass; forest growth; soil water; supply of transpiration water; red pine; Pinus resinosa
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study estimates the supply of soil water required for the annual and total production of energy material by the biomass of 32-year-old plantation of red pine, Pinus resinosa Ait. in Wisconsin, the United States.

The supply of transpiration water was determined as the sum of summer precipitation, winter stored water, and condensed vapor, minus gravitational discharge and evaporation of intercepted rainfall. On the average, the 1,20 m root zone of coarse sandy soils of central Wisconsin receives 2,750 M.T. of water per hectare. During the 32nd year of plantation growth, the increment biomass, including 43% of merchantable timber, was 10,100 kg/ha, or 162 x 105 kcal/g. At this time of the culminating growth, the production of 1 kg of wood material consumed 272 kg of water. The corresponding transpiration coefficient 0,37% is near the maximum for the ecosystem of hard pines – sandy soils of glacial outwash with field capacity between 7 and 9%. On the weight basis, the annual leaf fall constituted 32% of the biomass and over 80% of merchantable timber.

The entire supply of water of 96,000 M.T./ha produces in 32 years 211,112 kg of total dry matter at a rate of 1 kg of wood per 455 kg of water, with corresponding transpiration coefficient of 0,22%. The evapogravitational losses during the early stages of the stand’s growth decreased the water utilization efficiency of trees about 40%.

The information obtained permitted to outline several hydrological relationships pertinent to forest culture, namely: maximum rate of forest growth as delineated by the supply of available transpiration water; content of available moisture in soils of high tension capacity; contribution to soil water rendered by natural subirrigation and condensation of athmospehric vapor; growth depressing effect of weeds.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Wilde, E-mail: sw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4735, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1967). Suomen Metsätieteellisen Seuran julkaisutoiminta. Silva Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 4735. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14445
English title: Publishing activity of the Society of Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: julkaisut; Acta Forestalia Fennica; Silva Fennica
English keywords: The Finnish Society of Forest Science; publications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper includes a short description on the publishing activity of the Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science), founded in 1909, and describes the changes in the publishing of the series Acta forestalia fennica and Silva Fennica in 1967. The series Silva Fennica was changed into a quarterly starting from the beginning of 1967, at the same time, the principles of publishing was changed at least in part in favour of short reports.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4734, category Article
Yrjö Kangas. (1966). Valtion metsien hakkuupoistuma ja sen rakenne : Vuosiin 1954-1958 kohdistuva selvittely. Silva Fennica no. 120 article id 4734. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14292
English title: Felling volume and its structure in the Finnish State Forests in 1954-1958 .
Original keywords: hakkuut; valtionmetsät; hakkuumäärät; jätepuu; 1954-1958; hakkuupoistuma; hakkuukertymä
English keywords: Finland; state forests; waste wood; loggings; merchantable timber; felling volume
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this investigation was to study the felling volume and its structure in the State forests of Finland. Special attention was paid on the proportion of waste wood within the felling volume. This information was in demand for the general plan of the State forests that was being prepared at the same time. The survey was performed using a sampling method, and it represented the districts in the northernmost Finland, Ostrobothnia, Eastern Finland and Western Finland of the Forest Services.

The proportion of merchantable timber of the total felling volume was lowest in the northernmost Finland, less than 2/3 of the total cut. In Ostrobothnia the share was ¾, Eastern Finland 4/5 and in Western Finland 5/6. When the tree species were compared, the proportion of waste wood was largest in broadleaved trees, especially in the Northern Finland, while for Scots pine it was lowest. For Norway spruce the share of merchantable timber is markedly lower in the northernmost part of the country, where, for instance, decay increases the proportion of waste wood. For birch, demand of wood influences most the proportion of waste wood.

In general, the proportion of waste wood and merchantable timber in the felling volume was influenced by changes in the demand of timber, structure of the stands, and the felling method. The demand of the timber assortment affects most in the amount of waste wood. The more valuable the timber assortment is, the less waste wood is left in the cutting area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kangas, E-mail: yk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4733, category Article
Mikko Ilvessalo, Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1966). Suomen pienmetsätalouden tutkimuksessa v. 1930 inventoitujen pienmetsälöiden kehityksestä vuodesta 1930 vuosiin 1963-64. Silva Fennica no. 119 article id 4733. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14291
English title: Development of small forest holdings between 1930 and 1963–64 in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; metsävarat; pientilat; Suomi; pienmetsätalous
English keywords: forest management; Finland; forest resources; private forests; small holdings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the 1930s studies showed that state of the standing crop and forests of small private forest holdings in Finland was weak. In 1960s it was regarded necessary to study the possible change in the silvicultural state of these forests. Therefore, sample stands of the small holdings surveyed in 1930 by Osara were surveyed anew in the areas of Karelia and Savo, and in Central Finland in 1963–1964. A line plot survey was combined with ocular estimation as in 1930, but in 1963–1964 the lines and sample plots were placed denser than in 1930 to reach similar number of sample plots.

In 1930 the state of the forests of the small holdings was in average very weak, but according to Osara, the age classes younger than 50 years had similar stand volume than in the all the forests of the southern half of the country. The results of this survey show that the volume, structure, growth and development class structure of the forests in average have improved since 1930. In many respects the forests have reached the average state of forests in the southern half of Finland. The most serious problem is the large proportion of broadleaved trees. Thus, the silvicultural state of the forests should be further improved.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: mi@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown
article id 4728, category Article
Yrjö Roitto. (1966). Polttopuun käyttö Euroopassa vv. 1950.1960 sekä mahdollisuudet polttopuun teolliseen käyttöön v. 1975. Silva Fennica no. 117 article id 4728. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14286
English title: Use of fuel wood in Europe in 1950-60 and possibilities of converting fuelwood to industrial uses by 1975.
Original keywords: metsäteollisuus; polttopuu; raaka-aine; Eurooppa
English keywords: firewood; Europe; fuel wood; wood consumption; 1950-1960; forest industries; raw material
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the statistics, the fuel wood consumption in Europe has declined since 1925/1929, when the total fuel wood consumption was 144 million m3. In 1960 the consumption was 108 million m3. Because of insufficient statistics in the early years, the drop may even be larger than shown by the figures. The aim of this paper is to assess what part of European fuel wood removals in 1960 could be used for industrial purposes by 1975.

It was estimated that in 1975 the use of fuel wood in Europe will be about 45–55 million m3 less than in 1960 and about 10 million m3 of this amount will consist of coniferous species. It is believed that about 45 million m3 could be transferred to industrial use by 1975, and 55 million m3 is supposed to be the maximum reduction achievable by 1975. The estimates are based on the revised European fuel wood removal figures.

The new European timber trends and prospects study reveals a shortage of small-sized coniferous wood of about 25–43 million m3, depending on whether the exports from Europe are curtailed or not. The decrease of coniferous fuel wood of 10 million m3 could almost entirely be transferred for the use of industry.

A more important question is, is there demand for the extra small-size broadleaved wood. It is important to note that there is no longer any technical limitations on the use of this kind of wood for producing pulp, paper paperboard and wood-based panel products.

Fuelwood is often collected by the farmer and used near the farm. If the wood is to be used in the industry, harvesting and transport costs need to be decreased. However, productivity of the logging and transportation may be significantly improved by cutting the trees into longer lengths and professional harvesting. About 40% of the potential transfer of fuelwood to industrial uses is concentrated in Finland (7 million m3), France (5 million m3), and Italy (7 million m3). Other countries with significant potential shifts could be Romania, Spain and Yugoslavia.

The PDF includes a summary in French, German, Dutch, Russian and Finnish.

  • Roitto, E-mail: yr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4724, category Article
Seppo Ervasti, Lauri Heikinheimo, Viljo Holopainen, Kullervo Kuusela, Gustaf Sirén. (1965). The development of Finland's forests in 1964-2000. Silva Fennica no. 117 article id 4724. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14282
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsätalous; puunkäyttö; metsäteollisuus; metsävarat; Suomi; ennusteet; puuntarve
English keywords: forest management; Finland; forest resources; allowable cut; wood utilization; 1964-2000; forecast; removal
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Economic Council asked Heikinheimo, Holopainen and Kuusela to prepare a report on the development of Finland’s forest resources up to the beginning of the next century. The expansion of forest industry beyond the level foreseen in earlier forecasts, the large-scale removal and neglect of the basic improvements required have weakened the condition of the wood production to such an extent that extensive measures are needed to ensure the continuity of the supply of wood. The results of the calculations are formed in three separately analysed alternatives.

Alternative I: Realisation of the Teho programme and the removal corresponding to it. The development of the growing stock according to the programme would only permit a cut amounting to an annual drain of ca. 51 million m3 up to the year 2000. After that it would be possible gradually to increase the removal. This drain would not itself to utilise fully the already existing production capacity of the industry.

Alternative II: Consequences of the predicted removal if the Teho programme is realised as such. The wood utilization forecast based on the premises given to the team show that the annual drain will grow in 1964–1975 from 52 to 58 million m3, and thereafter by 0.5% annually. This would lead to over-cutting, and exhaust the present growing stock by the turn of the century. If annual total drain of ca. 58 million m3 would after 1975 be sufficient, exhaustion of the growing stock would be postponed for 4–5 years.

Alternative III. Teho programme expanded in conformity with the removal forecast. A new programme is proposed, which includes, among others, large scale fertilization of fully grown firm forest land at about the rate of 100,000 ha/year, intensified artificial regeneration, assurance of the supply of planting stock and seed, increase of forest drainage from the present 155,000 to 250,000 ha/year by 1970, site preparation of the cutting areas for artificial regeneration, increase of tending or seeding stands to 300,000 ha/year, replacement of fuelwood by other fuels, increase of wood import and new forest roads.

  • Ervasti, E-mail: se@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown
  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
  • Sirén, E-mail: gs@mm.unknown
article id 4723, category Article
Toivo Matilainen. (1965). Kasvutappiosta ja sen määrittämisestä Etelä-Suomen talousmetsissä. Silva Fennica no. 117 article id 4723. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14281
English title: The increment loss and its determination in economically exploited forests in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; menetelmät; vajaatuottoiset metsät; kasvutappiot; uudistaminen
English keywords: regeneration; Southern Finland; methods; under-productive forests; deficient stock volume; increment loss
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study is an attempt to clarify the decrease in growth, or the increment loss, caused by sudden reduction of growth of the growing stock below a certain level, and to find a method for its determination. Increment loss is defined as a decrease in growth during the rotation due to a deficient stock volume. The material consists of Koivisto’s yield tables for repeatedly thinned stands in Southern Finland, and the results of the Third National Forest Inventory concerning the mean volume and increment in the productive sites.

For the calculation of increment loss three formulae were constructed where the increment loss is calculated 1) as the difference between the removal by thinnings in normally developed stands during a time equal with the period of deficient stock and the suddenly removed stock, 2) according to the compound interest calculation principle as the sum of the differences which are obtained by subtracting from the removal in each thinning during the period of deficient stock its initial value, and 3) as the straight interest of the stock deficiency during the period of deficient stock.

According to the calculations, the increment loss is greatest in stands to be grown, viz. 50 m3 solid measure excluding bark per hectare tended Norway spruce stands on Oxalis-Myrtillus type sites at 40% deficiency below minimum stock. In stands to be regenerated the losses are, too, greatest in the similar stands. It exceeds 200 m3/ha when stands younger than 50 years have to been regenerated and the removal amounts to 50% of the stock. In stands to be regenerated the increment loss for spruce, due to the slow initial development by the species, is greater than for Scots pine and birch. The loss is the same at different period of age if the relative deficiency of the stock is of equal size.

According to the study, each stand has a characteristic variation in the increment loss which depends mainly on the relative degree of deficiency from the minimum stock. The formulae and methods can be used to determine the increment loss in average and better stands in Southern Finland when the stock suddenly decreases.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Matilainen, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4722, category Article
Metsäverokomitea. (1965). Metsäverokomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 116 article id 4722. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14280
English title: Report of the forest taxation committee.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; metsäverotus
English keywords: Finland; forest taxation; taxation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Government appointed a committee in 1959 to study the drawbacks of the present system of forest taxation, and to make recommendations for their elimination. It was not within the Committee’s terms of reference to decide whether the present taxation procedure, which is based on assessment per unit of area, should be replaced entirely by another system.

The committee made several proposals to mitigate the hardships entailed in the collective nature of Finnish forest taxation. It also proposed tax relief for areas which are to be the main target of forest improvement work. Among the other recommendations of the committee, can be mentioned simplification of the taxation in Northern Finland by having only two yield classes for that region.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Metsäverokomitea, E-mail:
article id 4721, category Article
S. A. Wilde. (1965). Theory of relativity, soil science, and forest mensuration. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4721. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14276
Original keywords: metsätyypit; maaperä; metsänarviointi; kasvupaikat; kasvukyky; tuottokyky
English keywords: soil; forest mensuration; forest type; forest site; productive capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

No other manifestation of life is allied more conspicuously to the theory of relativity as the growth of forest stands which is a function of the inherent growth potential of trees, the productive capacity of environment, and time.

The height over age quotient of a forest stand is usually the most reliable indicator of the productive forces of the habitat. Stem analysis have shown that increment of a tree at different ages is closely correlated with the extension of roots into individual geological horizons of different productive capacity. Growth curves of stands of a same tree species growing on different soils can be disparate due to different conditions. The temporal variety of tree growth on different sites is of prime importance in the construction of yield tables. Investigations of natural plant communities of Finland provided one rational approach towards the construction of yield tables. By confining mensuration analyses to define floristic types, the Finnish foresters harmonized their records with Einstein’s formula for space-time matrix of material events.

  • Wilde, E-mail: sw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4720, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1964). Aikatutkimuksia koivun karsimisesta. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4720. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14279
English title: Time studies in the pruning of birch.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätyö; työntutkimus; aikatutkimus; karsinta
English keywords: forest management; pruning; time studies; forest work; work studies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

On the basis of time studies on pruning, one thousand stems in four stands was pruned, carried out in 1962. The work was done in two phases with Olli pruning saw, first attached to a shaft about 1.8 metres long and the to a shaft about 4 metres long.

The total time of moving from one stem to another when pruning the stem varied from 0,28 to 0.31 min per stem in the different working sites. The resting time was 19–20% of the effective working time, which included actual pruning time and the moving time. In average, 7.5% of the actual pruning time was unproductive. The actual pruning took in average 0.75–1.1 min/stem in the different sites. The time depended on size of the tree, the DBH, and on the length of the part to be pruned. The total working site time for the pruning was in average 1.34–1.98 min/stem. The output of the work per 7 hours’ working day varied from 226 to 280 stems, and the costs from 10 to 14 pennies per stem.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4719, category Article
H. K. Seip. (1964). Methods and possibilities of long-term forecasts in forest management planning. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4719. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14278
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäsuunnittelu; ennusteet
English keywords: forest management; forest planning; forest management planning; forecasts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper describes different methods of long-term forecasts in forest management planning with a special attention on intention forecasts for a total forest property or district. Methods for calculating the sustained yield on the basis of the actual increment or the yearly area cut are discussed. It is concluded that a better estimate of the sustained yield is obtainable by the application of a long-term forecast technique. Forecasts for 100 years should not be viewed as plans, but as a background for making short-term decisions. Some of the long-term-type programmes, such as the programme of maximum profit, sustained yield in volume and in money are discussed briefly.

It is pointed out that there is often present a conflict between the various elements of the policy formulated by a forest owner. This leads to the conclusion that the calculations of the profitability of single projects may be misleading.

The precision of a long-term forecast is discussed, and how under certain assumptions the error of the allowable cut is influenced by errors in area, volume, age etc. It is shown that the precision in area and volume is more important in this connection than, say, the precision in increment. In conclusion, existing knowledge, methods and equipment for calculations constitute a basis for long-term forecasts which make them an important instrument in forest management planning.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Seip, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4717, category Article
Aarne Laitakari. (1964). Suomen metsien tila 1730-luvulla ruotsalaisen geologin ja vuorimiehen, Daniel Tilas’in kuvaamana. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4717. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14275
English title: The condition in Finland’s forests in the 1730s as described by Daniel Tilas, a Swedish geologist and mineralogist.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; historia; Suomi; 1730-luku
English keywords: forest management; forestry; Finland; history; 1730s
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present article reviews a geological report given by Daniel Tilas, a Swedish mining manufacturer, towards the end of the 1730s as the report regards information on the Finnish forests. His report gives at hand that forests in several localities southwest of the region demarcated by the towns of Loviisa, Äänekoskei and Kristiina were seriously diminished or burdened by tar burning and shifting cultivation. Larger saw log stands were found mainly in the scaterly populated parishes of Central Finland. Thus, in the chain of ridges between Orivesi and Ruovesi, covering an area of about 4,000 km2, there was a heavily stocked Scots pine forest, as reported by Tilas.

The report given by Tilas is kept in the files of the Geological Research Institute in Helsinki.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4716, category Article
Leo Heikurainen, Matti Keltikangas, Kustaa Seppälä. (1963). Kustannusten jakaminen yhteisissä metsäojitushankkeissa. Silva Fennica no. 115 article id 4716. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14274
English title: Allocation of costs in joint forest drainage undertakings.
Original keywords: metsäojitus; kustannukset; menetelmät; ojituskustannukset; kustannusten tasaus
English keywords: forest drainage; costs; methods; project costs; allocation of costs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One forest drainage undertaking in Finland often consists of woodlots belonging to several owners, and over hundred owners may be involved. In the present paper a method for allocation the costs to different owners in a joint drainage undertaking is worked out. The problem has been emphasised by the new Waterways Law, which enables also such drainage projects to be undertaken to which some of the land owners oppose. In those cased the costs must be allocated according to the benefit driven by each owner from the project.

The method attempts to assess the benefits to be driven from the forest drainage, those costs of the drainage that are joint and thus subjected to allocation, and what is the area affected by drainage as used as a basis for cost allocation.

The joined costs are apportioned in the following manner. The area of peatland adjusted to differences in the benefit obtained by drainage is ascertained by the land holder by multiplying the index number by the corresponding areas. In the case of cultivated agricultural land, also an index showing the need for drainage is used in computing the adjusted area. Each topographic unit in the map is provided with a notation of its apportionment area. Joined costs are allocated to different land owners in relation to their adjusted land areas.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 4715, category Article
Lauri Heikinheimo, Leo Heikurainen, Viljo Holopainen, Matti Keltikangas, Kullervo Kuusela, Tatu Möttölä. (1963). Metsätalouden parannusten työllisyys- ja tulovaikutukset. Silva Fennica no. 114 article id 4715. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14273
English title: Effects of forest improvement on employment and income.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäpolitiikka; komiteanmietinnöt; metsätyö; työllisyys
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; forestry; Finland; employment; forest work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The agricultural committee appointed by the Finnish Government in 1958 pointed out a problem that the rural population needed to be ensured employment and earnings from forestry. A forestry study group was called to investigate the effects of forest improvement on employment and income, on four fields: a) forest drainage, b) afforestation, c) thinning of young stands, and d) construction of forest roads. Items a, b and c increase output, and d creates outlets for timber and increases stumpage value.

The study outlined three alternative silvicultural programmes. The Basic Programme corresponds average forest management in Finland in 1953–1959. The Medium Programme can be seen conditional to the realization of the felling plan worked out in a study group Heikurainen-Kuusela-Linnamies-Nyysönen in 1961 in a committee report of Forestry Planning Committee. Finally, according to an Intensive Programme to which forest management, especially afforestation and forest drainage, will be raised to the highest possible level.

The costs of different silvicultural measures of the three programmes were estimated. The allowable cuts were calculated corresponding to the silvicultural programmes for the period 1961–1970 and 2001–2010. After calculating labour input and costs, could the increase in employment and income be estimated for the whole economy, and separately in forestry, communications and industry. When calculating the labour input required for the forest management work and road construction, the probable rise in productivity following mechanization and rationalization has been taken into account.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown
  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown
  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown
  • Möttölä, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown
article id 4714, category Article
B. L. Dzerdzeevskii. (1963). Study of the heat balance of the forest. Silva Fennica no. 113 article id 4714. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14272
Keywords: temperature; forests; forest ecology; metsät; lämpötila; metsäekologia; taseet
View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Dzerdzeevskii, E-mail: bd@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4707, category Article
Oiva Suominen. (1963). Metsiköiden alttius lumituhoon. Tutkimus Etelä-Suomessa talvella 1958-59 sattuneesta lumituhosta. Silva Fennica no. 112 article id 4707. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14234
English title: Susceptibility of stands to devastation by snow. Investigation into snow devastation in Southern Finland in winter 1958-59.
Original keywords: lumituhot; mesätuhot; etelärannikko
English keywords: Finland; snow damage; forest damages; stem breakages
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Exceptionally widespread snow damages occurred in January 1959 in the southern coastal region of Finland. An inquiry showed that significant devastation had occurred over an area of 42,620 ha. The purpose of the present investigation was to study the susceptibility to snow damages of different stands in different locations. Only the stem breakage was recorded. 924 stands along 92 one-kilometre lines were studied in the western continuation of Salpausselkä ridge in the summer 1960. A supplementary study was carried out in 1961 in separate stands.

Most heavily damaged stands were found in a damage zone closest (31–40 km) to the coast of Gulf of Finland. The damages were 39% fewer in the zone 61–70 km from the coast. No stands over 140 m above sea level escaped damage. Stands on the edge of an open area such as a field, lake etc. fared better than areas within the forest. Eastern slopes were more susceptible for snow damages in these weather conditions. Also, conifers were more frequently damaged than deciduous trees. Dense stands, and stands aged 61–100 years had most damages.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Suominen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4706, category Article
Pentti Nisula. (1963). Aikakello- ja pistokoemenetelmän vertailu. Silva Fennica no. 112 article id 4706. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14233
English title: A comparison between the stop-watch method and the random-sample method.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työntutkimus; aikatutkimus; menetelmät
English keywords: time studies; forest work; methods; work studies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to find out to what extent it is possible to time phases of work by making instant observations at regular intervals according to the principles of the method of random samples, and arrive at similar results as obtained by timing continuously with a decimal-minute stop watch. In the first mentioned method the observer of the time study is given a sound signal at even intervals, in this case each 1/10-minute period, during the signal he records the phase of work (element) the object is performing.

The material of the study consists of studies in skidding and loading in connection with transportation by tractor during a period of 8 days. The duration of each element in using tractor hand in skidding and hauling was measured with an ordinary stop watch using repetitive timing. This material was then converted into random sample material.

The analysis of the material showed that the method of random samples yielded observations from all phases of work present in the material obtained by measuring with the stop watch. The duration of elements as determined by the random-sample method were of the same order as determined with stop watch. The results did not cause any observable systematic deviation or rhythmic repetition of elements.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Nisula, E-mail: pn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4705, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Simo Poso. (1962). Koe metsikköluokitusten suorittamiseksi ilmakuvien avulla. Silva Fennica no. 112 article id 4705. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14232
English title: Tree stand classifications from aerial photographs: an experiment.
Original keywords: metsänarviointi; ilmakuvat; metsäninventointi; menetelmät
English keywords: forest inventory; stratification; aerial photographs; forest mensuration; methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In connection to the Third National Forest Inventory of Finland, two survey strips in the northernmost Finland were photographed on scale 1:15,000. Infrared films and a yellow filter were used. For the present experiment a total length of 66 km of the strips was photographed. The strips were surveyed visually from the ground by stands. Sample plots were measured at kilometre intervals. The aerial photographs were surveyed the distances covered in the ground. The work was aided by stereograms which showed 16 large-size sample plots localised on aerial photographs.

The main groups of land identified along the survey line were productive and poorly productive forest land, wasteland and another land, in addition, peatland and firm land were distinguished. Although some differences were noted, the two survey methods provided fairly similar results. For an estimation of the tree species composition the material is one-sided since the district is mainly Scots pine. The principal tree species was successfully distinguished on aerial photographs in 78 out of 82 comparable pairs.

The mean of ground observations of dominant height of the stands was 10.9 m, that of observations on aerial photographs 11.2 m. The result of stand volume estimates reveals a distinct correlation between the various methods of estimation.

In an earlier study it was shown that it is possible, using a stand volume table based on characteristics revealed in aerial photography, to create a general idea of stand volume on the southern half of the country. A few additional factors, of interest for the stratification necessary in forest inventories, were also studied. A distinct correlation was observed between the results of aerial and ground survey for all the characteristics discussed. The present experiment showed that the prerequisites for stratification through aerial photographs do exist. Further investigation is needed into the most appropriate methods for stratification in each situation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown
article id 4699, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1961). A century of Finnish state forestry 1859-1959. Silva Fennica no. 112 article id 4699. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14230
Keywords: forestry; Finland; Forest Service; state forests; history; administration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a short presentation in English of the activities of the Finnish Forest Service, organization responsible for the management of the State Forests of Finland, during its first century. The article gives a short history of the Forest Service and description of the forest property, development of the Forest Service, forest conservation work and business activity of the organization.

A complete presentation of the history and activities of the organization since its establishment in 1859 up to the present time is published in Finnish in Silva Fennica No. 107.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4698, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1961). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran 50-vuotisjuhlallisuudet 29.4.1959. Silva Fennica no. 111 article id 4698. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14229
English title: 50 years’ jubilee of the Society of Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: järjestöt; metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; kokoukset; 1909-1959; vuosijuhla
English keywords: forest research; forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; the Finnish Society of Forestry; associations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Society of Forestry (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) celebrated its 50 years’ jubilee in 29th April 1959. This publication includes description of the ceremony. Included are also the greetings, and speeches held at the celebration meeting.

The PDF includes some of the texts in English.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4697, category Article
Metsätalouden suunnittelukomitea. (1961). Metsätalouden suunnittelukomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 110 article id 4697. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14228
English title: Report of the forest planning committee.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäpolitiikka; komiteanmietinnöt
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; forestry; Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present publication concerns the report of the committee appointed by the Finnish Government to draft a programme or the development of Finnish forestry and increase of its production.

Part I of the paper reviews the development of forestry and forest policy in Finland. After the World War II – following the land settlement – ca. 1.5 million hectares of land, mostly owned by the state, was transferred to private ownership. The committee states that because the division of small farms and land settlement policy private forests have tended increasingly to become small forests. The decrease in size of forest units has interfered development of forestry. In part II, the forest utilization programme for the period 1963–1972 is outlined. In the country, logging in 1953–1958 was carried out on a fairly sustained yield basis. The regional picture is, however, not as good, and in Southern Finland there has been over-cutting.

A long-term logging plan was prepared on the request of the committee. The allowable cut following this plan would suffice the calculated wood requirement for the years 1963–1972. In the part III, the committee introduces a silvicultural program for the years 1963–1972 to increase the yield of wood. The targets of logging, sowing and planting, and silvicultural work are considerably greater than what was achieved in the 1950s. To speed up the realisation of the silvicultural programme, working plans should be prepared on a large scale for forest enterprises, afforestation and forest drainage should be increased, and a national seed storage should be established.

Part IV discusses the forest work situation from the stand point of the realisation of the forest utilisation programme and silvicultural programme. Part V introduces a host of recommendations concerning forest policy and economic policy.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Metsätalouden suunnittelukomitea, E-mail:
article id 4690, category Article
Metsäntutkimuskomitea. (1960). Metsäntutkimuskomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 109 article id 4690. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14222
English title: Report of the forest research committee.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäntutkimus; metsäpolitiikka; Helsingin yliopisto; komiteanmietinnöt; metsäntutkimuslaitos; tutkimusrahoitus
English keywords: forest policy; Finland; forest research; University of Helsinki; forest sciences; research funding; Forest Research Institute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1956 the Finnish Government appointed a committee to plan the promotion of forest research in accordance with the needs of the national economy. The present publication contains an account of the committee’s work and its recommendations.

Attention is drawn to the fact that forestry in Finland is a natural and important means of livelihood. Hence forestry research must be effective and versatile, for extensive forestry calls for intensive research. In the subsequent chapters, a historical survey of forest research in Finland is presented, including a list of the institutes, organisations and other bodies active in this work. Finnish forest research is mainly centred around Forest Research Institute, which was founded in 1918, and similar research is also pursued at the University of Helsinki, as well as by many other institutes and scientific societies.

After a reviewing the present needs for research and the demands intensive forestry sets upon scientific investigation, the committee concludes that contemporary forest research in Finland cannot completely satisfy these demands. Consequently, the country’s research institutes should be expanded and developed considerably.

The recommendations concern mainly the development of the Forest Research Institute. The committee suggests doubling the personnel of the institute, creating several new departments and increasing the financial allocation to the institute. Certain reforms in the administration of the institute is also recommended. Special attention is drawn to the development of the publicity service. Also, the research in the forestry departments University of Helsinki should be developed. National and international co-operation between various research institutes and organizations should be improved.

The report is supplemented by a draft proposal concerning legislation on the Forest Research Institute, a plan for developing the training of research workers and a recommendation on the retention of certain land areas for scientific and experimental work carried out by the Forest Research Institute.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Metsäntutkimuskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4702, category Article
Matti Halmekoski. (1961). Kääpiöviljelmäväestön ansiomahdollisuudet tilojen alueittaisen sijainnin valossa. Silva Fennica no. 108 article id 4702. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9137
English title: The earning opportunities of the population of small farms as reflected in their regional location.
Original keywords: metsätalous; maatalous; asutus; maatilat; pientilat; 1950-luku; elinolot; kääpiöviljelmät; pienviljelijät; tulot
English keywords: forestry; Finland; agriculture; settlement; farms; small farms; income; living conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Finnish legislation concerning settlement states that a farm should be able to provide, according to the various local conditions, their owners together with their families possibilities for a) living based on agriculture and forestry, b) part of their living the bulk of it acquired outside the farm, or c) part of their living from the garden, and possibly part of it by livestock, in addition to from work outside the farm. The present analysis discusses the earning opportunities of the inhabitants of small farms, characterized by the fact that generally they are not able to ford their owners living obtained principally from agriculture and forestry.

According to the results of the 1950 General Agricultural Census of Finland, there exists in the country 74,134 holdings the size of 0.5–1.99 ha (dwelling farms), and 99,400 holdings the size of 2–4.99 ha (dwelling-and-cultivation farms). These small farms accounted for 37.2% of all farms in Finland. As a rule, it is possible to run a small farm only in such region, where favourable conditions give possibilities both for farming and for sufficient amount of wage-earning work outside the farm. Thus, location has a big influence on the financial status.

Dwelling farms were common in urban municipalities and near the coastal areas. Those situated in countryside were located in Eastern and Northern Finland. Dwelling-and-cultivation farms were few in the coastal regions, but they predominated the municipalities of the watershed districts near Jyväskylä, and eastern and northern parts of the country. The forests of the small farms were too small to provide additional income to the farms. Farms owning relatively larger forest areas were situated in the counties of Lapland, Oulu, Mikkeli and Kuopio, and farms with little forests in Turku and Pori County. Net out-migration has been substantial in the districts with a relatively large number of small farms.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Halmekoski, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4696, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1960). Suometsätieteen tutkimustoiminta Suomessa. Silva Fennica no. 108 article id 4696. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9135
English title: Swamp forestry research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; suot; suometsätiede; soiden kuivattaminen; soiden ojitus
English keywords: forestry; Finland; peatlands; forest research; draining of peatlands; research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About one third of the land area of Finland is covered by peatlands, furthermore, some mineral soils are troubled by excess water. Due to the prevalence of peatlands, forest drainage has been the most important form of forest improvement work. Consequently, peatlands have been an extensively studied topic within forest sciences in Finland. This paper gives a review on the central research subjects in science of peatlands, introducing little less than a hundred of the hundreds of publications published in the field. The author describes in more detail research on the formation and area of peatlands, peatland types and their suitability for forest draining, site factors on peatlands, techniques of forest ditching and the management of peatland forests.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4689, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1960). Metsähallinnon vuosisataistaival 1859-1959. Silva Fennica no. 107 article id 4689. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14130
English title: A century of Finnish State forestry 1859-1959.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; historia; metsähallinto; Suomi
English keywords: Finland; Forest Service; forest administration; state forests; history
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This book deals with the Finnish Forest Service, organization responsible for the management of the State forests of Finland, since its establishment in 1859 up to the present time. Attention is paid especially to the following topics: the area of State Forests and its changes; the organisation of Forest Administration; the promotion of transportation conditions for State forestry; silvicultural treatment of State Forests, their management and commercial activity; the Forest Service as an employer; the State Schools for training forest foremen; the activity of the Forest Service as regards private forests.

The PDF includes a short summary in English, a more comprehensive history of the Forest Service is published in Silva Fennica no. 112.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4688, category Article
L. Heikurainen, Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1960). Symposio metsätyypeistä ja metsäekosysteemeistä Motrealissa elokuun 24. päivänä 1959. IX Kansainvälisen kasvitieteellisen kongressin yhteydessä. Silva Fennica no. 105 article id 4688. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14129
English title: Symposium on forest types and forest ecosystems during the IX international botanical congress Montreal, August 24th 1959.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; bibliografiat; ekosysteemit; kasvupaikkaluokitus; kokoukset; metsäekologia
English keywords: vegetation; ecosystems; forest types; bibliographies; site classification; Symposiums
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper is a review on the topics of Symposium on forest types and forest ecosystems, held in connection to the IX internal botanical congress in Montreal in August 1959, the chairman of which was Ilmari Hustich. The article includes 18 preparatory papers that were distributed among the participants of the symposium. The common theme of the papers was the question of finding common platform for the different schools of forest types and forest ecosystems. In addition to the papers, the article includes a summary of the proceedings and discussions of the symposium.

 

The following papers were presented in the symposium:

Aichinger, E. Können wir eine gemeinsame Platform für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Arnborg, T. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Dansereau, P. A combined structural and floristic approach to the definition of forest ecosystems.

Daubenmire, R. Some major problems in vegetation classification

Ellenberg, H. Können wir eine gemeinsame Platform für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Hills, G.A. Comparison of forest ecosystems (vegetation and soil) in different climatic zones

Kalela, A. Classification of the vegetation, especially of the forest, with particular reference to regional problems

Krajina, V.J. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Kühler, A.W. Mapping tropical forest vegetation

Linteau, A. Y. a-t-il. Un terrain d’entente possible entre les différentes écoles au sujet de la classification de types forestiers?

Medvecka-Kornaś, A. Some problems of forest climaxes in Poland

Ovington, J.D. The ecosystem concept as aid to forest classification

Puri, G.S. The concept of climax in forest botany as applied in India

Rowe, J.S. Can we find a common platform for the different schools of forest type classifications?

Scamoni, A. Können wir eine gemeinsame Grundlage für die verscheidenen Schulen in der Waldtypenklassifikationen finden?

Sukachev, V.N. The correlation between the concept ’forest ecosystem’ and ’forest biogeocoenise’ and their importance for the classification of forests

Webb, L.J. A new attempt to classify Australian rain forest

  • Heikurainen, E-mail:
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4692, category Article
Mauno Forsström. (1960). Maanhankintalain ja siihen liittyvien lakien toimeenpanon vaikutuksista valtion metsätalouteen. Silva Fennica no. 104 article id 4692. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9131
English title: Influence of the Settlement Act and the related regulations on the State forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; valtion metsät; asutus; Suomi; maanhankinta; maanluovutus
English keywords: forestry; state forests; settlement; Settlement Act; land acquisition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Settlement Act (332/36) of Finland that regulated land-acquisitions was repealed by the Land Use Act (353/58), effective from the beginning of 1959. This paper deals with the effects land settlement and implementation of the acts has had on State forestry. The investigation concentrates on the magnitude of the losses caused by the land reform, initiated by The World War II, in time period of 5.5.1945–31.12.1957, during which time the evacuees from the areas transmitted to Soviet Union were settled. The first part of the paper summarises the history of landholding and the State Forests in Finland.

According to the study, the total area of cessions of the state forest land, based on land-acquisition legislation, rises to over 1 million hectares, about 10% of the land area. It seems that these lands have been better than the average forest lands of the state. In addition, about 100,000 ha of jointly owned forests were established on former state lands on the basis of the Settlement Act. Timber has also been collected for construction of the settlement from the State forests. The value of the land and the construction timber is estimated to be about 3,759 million Fmk.

It has been stated that settlement has increased supply of forest labour in rural areas, where there has been labour shortage in forestry. On the other hand, the State Forests have given seasonal work opportunities for the rural population.

The state forest holdings in Southern Finland are at present so small that it limits rational forest management in the area. It is concluded that it is possible that the state forests in Southern Finland will be used to provide supplemental land for the small farms. In the State Forests of Northern Finland are plans for establishment of new jointly owned forest and settlement. This poses a threat for the state forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Forsström, E-mail: mf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4691, category Article
Arvo Seppälä. (1960). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran julkaisusarjojen sisällysluettelo : Acta Forestalia Fennica 51-70 (1942-1959), Silva Fennica 61-103 (1945-1960). Silva Fennica no. 103 article id 4691. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9130
English title: Publications of the Society of Forestry in Finland. Index.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forestry; bibliographies; bibliografiat; The Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present bibliography is an index of publications brought out by the Society of Forestry in Finland (now The Finnish Society of Forest Science) in 1945–1960, a sequel of a similar index published in 1946. It consists a classification of the parts according to subject treated, based on the Oxford system, a system used in international forestry literature. The studies have been provided with Oxford numbers. The index includes the publications of Acta forestalia fennica (AFF), Silva Fennica (SF) and the Commentationes forestales.

The PDF includes a summary in English and German.

  • Seppälä, E-mail: as@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4686, category Article
Kalle Putkisto. (1959). Puutavaran valmistus- ja metsäkuljetustöiden koneellistumisen vaikutus metsätalouden työvoiman tarpeeseen : ennuste vuoteen 1972. Silva Fennica no. 101 article id 4686. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9127
English title: Effect of the mechanization of timber preparation and forest transport on the need of labour force in forestry. Prognosis up to 1972.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsätyö; työvoima; puunkorjuu; koneellistuminen; ennusteet; metsäkuljetus
English keywords: forestry; forest transport; mechanization; wood harvesting; fellings; workforce; forest work; prognosis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1957 the annual cuttings in Finland were 40.2 million m3 without bark. The aim of the study was to estimate the rate of mechanization of harvesting of timber in Finland, and make a prediction of the state of mechanization by 1972. According to the study, harvesting and transportation of the felling volume in 1957 would have required about 25.5 million working hours. Mechanization of forest work has decreased it only by 0.32 million working hours. The profitability of forest work has improved in 1950s, which is mainly due to changes in harvesting, such as shifting to longer lengths of pulpwood and props and cutting unbarked timber.
The study predicts that in 1972 it will take 14.8 million working hours to harvest and 5.4 million working hours to transport a corresponding felling volume as in 1957. However, a new way of producing timber or a working method of wood may change the picture completely. Reduction in harvesting expenses through mechanization may lead to diminishing the minimum diameter of logs, which affects profitability of work. It is also probable that mechanization of wood transportation will lead to working sites with longer distances of forest transportation. Also, industry using wood as raw material will also obviously expand.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Putkisto, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4681, category Article
A. G. Blomqvist. (1959). The itineraries of G.A. Blomqvist in 1867-1869. Silva Fennica no. 100 article id 4681. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14124
Keywords: forest management; forestry; travelogue; travel literature
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The founder of forest management in Finland, A.G. Blomqvist, travelled widely around the country when he was collecting data for growth and yield tables. He wrote detailed itineraries of his travels. He describes in his notes the forests and forest management practices, such as shifting cultivation, tar burning, felling methods and forest regeneration. The notes were a part of his assignment for the Forest Service in addition to the growth and yield tables, and helped to understand the state of the forests at the time.

The Finnish Society of Forest Sciences acknowledges the value of A.G. Blomqvist’s itineraries and decided to publishes them in this issue of Silva Fennica to prevent the texts to be forgotten.

  • Blomqvist, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4687, category Article
V. Sukatsev. (1960). Metsätyyppien tutkimisen opas. Suomentanut Erkki Laitakari. Silva Fennica no. 99 article id 4687. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14125
English title: A guide to the study of forest types.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; oppaat; eliöyhteisöt
English keywords: community; forest site type; forest type; site factors
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Professor V. Sukachev, a Soviet developer of the doctrine of forest types, published a guide to the study of forest types in 1931. He states in the introduction of the guide that his aim is to facilitate the work of beginners in determining forest types and to instruct them in developing methods for their description and classification.
This Finnish edition of the guide includes new picture material and has an extensive supplementary preface, written by the author, that presents his view on forest types. The guide describes the concept of forest types, methods of describing forest types, guidelines to material collected in the forests and principles of classification of the different forest types.

  • Sukatsev, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4685, category Article
Metsänhoitoyhdistyslain tarkistamiskomitea. (1959). Metsänhoitoyhdistyslain tarkistamiskomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 98 article id 4685. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9126
English title: Report of the committee set out to revise the Law on Forest Management Associations.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; lainsäädäntö; metsänhoitomaksu; metsänhoitoyhdistykset; Metsänhoitoyhdistyslaki
English keywords: legislation; Forest Management Associations; committees; forestry fee; Forest Management Association Act
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Law on Forest Management Associations was passed in 1950. According to the law, forest owners have to pay a forestry fee, which is used to finance local forest management associatons. The effect of the law on Finnish private forestry is considered to be significant.
The number of consulting forest officers has increased by 95% and the labour input by 107% since the law came into effect. Thus, the guidance available for forest owners has increased markedly. 85% of timber cut from private forests are marked by professional foresters, while the share was earlier less than 30%. The amount of forest management work, such as clearing of felling sites, sowing and care of plantations, has also increased.
On the other hand, experience has pointed out a need for revising some points of the law. To this aim, the Government of Finland appointed a committee to outline the ammendments. The present article contains the report of the committee.
The committee suggests that the forestry fee, that according to the present law is 2-6% of the net yield computed for communal income tax, will be changed to 2-5%. Further, forest holding in which the annual increment is less than 20 cu.m. are at the moment exempt from the fee. It is suggested that holdings with an annual increment of less than 30 cu.m. pay half a fee. In addition, the committee suggests some clarifying provisions to be adopted.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Metsänhoitoyhdistyslain tarkistamiskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4679, category Article
Esko Hellén, Gert Blåfield, Martti J. Havukkala, Olavi Sajama. (1958). Metsä- ja uittotyöpalkkatarkkailu vuosina 1932-1957. Silva Fennica no. 96 article id 4679. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9125
English title: Wage control in forestry and log floating in Finland.
Original keywords: uitto; metsätyö; palkat; palkkasäännöstely; palkkataso; ammattiliitot
English keywords: floating; forest work; wages; pay rate; labour market organizations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The state of Finland had to intervene in the forest wages after the wages had dropped very low during depression in 1932-33. Even able-bodied workers were forced to resort to communal poor aid. Therefore, the Ministry of Communications and Public Works imposed in winter 1932-33 a study on the level of forest wages. Based on the investigations it was decided to develop control and guidance of forest and floating wages. A committee was appointed to follow the development of forest wages and to promote the formation of the wages on a reasonable level.
The country was divided into 14 wage districts, and for each district was confirmed an own norm of wages in accordance with the costs of living in the area. Inspectors controlled the wages primarily in such work places that were complaind of. Consequently, the earnings increased yearly in the 1930s.
During the Second World War, the main objective of economic policy of the government of Finland was to prevent inflation. The regulation of wages strived to compensate workers for the war-time rise in the cost of living. The Econimic Powers Act issued in 1941 was the first legislation that concerned regulation of wages. The Wages Commission prepared from the winter 1942 onward the wage tables per unit of forest works for employers. During the war, the employers were prepared to pay higher wages than the wage authorities considered possible.
Right after the war the main concern of wage control was that because of labour shortage forest and floating wages rose too high. From the end of 1948 onward, however, the principal task was to prevent paying of too low wages. Regulation did not succeed in preventing inflatory rise in wages in postwar conditions, and it was necessary to rise wages continually.

The Union of the Finnish Forest and Floating Workers was founded in 1946, and it concluded a collection agreement with the Employers’ Association of the Finnish Woodworking Industries in 1947. After 1949 the forest workers were represented in the Central League of Finnis Trade Unions (SAK). The regulation of wages ended in 1955, and after that the level of wages were negotiated by the labour market organizations.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Hellén, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Blåfield, E-mail: gb@mm.unknown
  • Havukkala, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown
  • Sajama, E-mail: os@mm.unknown
article id 4678, category Article
W. Wittich. (1958). Kasvupaikkaopin kehitys ja merkitys metsänhoidolle Saksassa. (Helsingin yliopistossa 26.4.1958 pidetty esitelmä, suomentanut Peitsa Mikola). Silva Fennica no. 96 article id 4678. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9124
English title: Development and significance of the knowledge of site factors and site types in forestry in Germany.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; maaperä; kasvupaikka; kasvupaikkaoppi; Saksa
English keywords: forest management; site type; soil; forest type; site factors; soil science; Germany
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a summary of a presentation by W. Wittich, held in the University of Helsinki in 26.4.1958.
The significance of fertility of the site in tree growh was known already for over 100 years ago in Germany, but after the First World War the view was abandoned in forestry. According to the Dauerwald system of managing forests that was introduced at the time, the type of site was considered relatively insignificant in forest management. Therefore, similar practices were used in all kinds of sites. The opposition against the use of this method resulted in new research on the site factors.
Knowledge of the relation of the site types and vegetation makes it possible to improve productivity: in regional planning the production that is considered to be necessary is assigned to the sites that have best conditions for it. For instance, in Niedersachsen county about 6% of the forest lands are reserved for cultivation of oak.
Another line of soil science studies the root causes behind the hands-on experiences of forest management. The aim is to abandon rigid approaches in forestry. Studying the effects of forest management practices on soil has been targeted, for instance, on effects of clear cutting on decomposition and vegetation, how the soil affects choice of tree species, and decomposition of litter from different tree species. Knowledge of soil and the trees’s demand of nutrients helps to mend disturbancies, such as nutrient deficiensies. Consequently, fertilization has become a new tool to improve productivity in forestry.
The article includes a German summary.

  • Wittich, E-mail: ww@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4674, category Article
Erkki Kivinen, Erkki Laitakari. (1958). Helsingin yliopiston maatalous-metsätieteellisen tiedekunnan vaiheita 50-vuotiselta taipaleelta. Silva Fennica no. 95 article id 4674. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14110
English title: 50 years of education in agriculture, forestry and home economics at the University of Helsinki.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsätalous; historia; maataloustieteet; yliopisto; maatalous; kotitalous; kalatalous; korkeakouluopetus
English keywords: forestry; forest education; university; agriculture; education; limnology; house education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Agricultural education in Finland begun in 1840, when an agricultural college started its activity in the estate of Mustiala in Southern Finland. A decree published in 1896 stated that the highest agricultural education should be transferred from Mustiala to the University of Helsinki, and two professorships and an assistant professorship should be established. The first professor of agricultural chemistry was appointed in 1900, and the work to compile the scheme for the agricultural university studies was started. By 1957 the personnel had increased to ten professorships and 23 docents.

In 1924 the section of agriculture of the Philosophical faculty was changed to the Faculty of agriculture and forestry. By the spring 1957 a total of 2,180 Bachelor of Agriculture Examinations, 2,196 Bachelor of Forestry Examinations and 1,198 Candidate’s Examinations had been attained. Experimental farms were established in Viik an in Malminkartano in 1931, however, the areas were in the beginning leased to the Prison Administration. The farm in Viik had also laboratories for research purposes. In 1949 it was decided that also the agricultural institutes should be placed in Viik.

The highest forest education was established in a forest college in Evo in Central Finland in 1862. In 1900 it was suggested that also the highest forest education should be transferred to the University of Helsinki. It was affirmed by a decree in 1906. In 1957 there was 8 professors and 15 lecturers in the faculty. A large adjustment in the content of the examination was performed in 1951. Up to spring 1957 a total of 2,196 Bachelor of Forestry Examinations was achieved in the faculty.

The education of home economics commenced in the faculty of agriculture and forestry in 1946.

The article includes an English summary.

  • Kivinen, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown
article id 4667, category Article
Viljo Holopainen. (1957). Metsätalouden edistämistoiminta Suomessa : Tapio 1907-1957. Silva Fennica no. 94 article id 4667. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14126
English title: Promotion of private forestry in Finland, Tapio 1907-1957.
Original keywords: metsätalous; historia; yksityismetsät; Tapio; Keskusmetsälautakunta Tapio
English keywords: forestry; Finland; private forests; promotion of forestry; Central Forestry Association Tapio; Tapio
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

For many decades Finland’s forest policy has been focused on private forestry, accounting for approximately 60% of Finland’s forest area. The objective has been to regulate forest management by legislation and to promote private forestry. The aim of the study was to explore the role of the Central Forestry Association Tapio in promoting private forestry.

A detailed synthesis of Tapio’s 50 years long history and activities is drafted. According to the three forest inventories (in 1921-24, 1936-37 and 1951-53), big improvements have been made in cutting methods, mainly in the sense that selective cuttings have decreased. The condition of private forests is, however, not as good as that of the state and company forests. Improvements introduced in the legislation in 1928 have had great influence in forestation and drainage of peatlands in private forests. The private forests, however, suffer from a lack of planning.

Through Intensified forest policy it has been possible to ensure supply of roundwood for forest industry. An efficient information service on timber markets have been organized, and the measurement of roundwood has been standardized. Progress in the promotion of forestry has suffered from unfavourable trends in forestry, mainly from the nearly doubling of the number of forest holdings in the present century and from the contraction of their size.

The article includes an English summary.

  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4666, category Article
Eero Nieminen. (1957). Matkalaskut, päivärahat ja palkkiot asutustoimikuntatöissä. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4666. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14067
English title: Charging for travel, daily allowances and fees in settlement work.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; metsäopetus; metsähallinto; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; state forests; settlement
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Finnish Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation decribes how the personnel of settlement commissions are to arrange travelling on settlement business, how travel claims should be written, and how daily allowances and fees should be paid and accounted for.

  • Nieminen, E-mail: en@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4665, category Article
Pentti K. Leino. (1957). Asutustoimikuntatoimistot, niiden toimihenkilöt ja kenttätöiden järjestely. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4665. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14066
English title: Special offices for settlement boards, their employees and the organization of field work.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; metsäopetus; metsähallinto; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; state forests; settlement; settlement activities; settlement farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the administration and work of four settlement board offices, established in 1956 in Oulu, Kajaani, Rovaniemi and Kittilä in Northern Finland. The new offices were established to dissolve the waiting list of petitions, due to Second World War and increasing settlement activities.

  • Leino, E-mail: pl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4664, category Article
Veli-Kustavi Klemetti. (1957). Puuston arviointi tilan hinnoittelussa ja hinnan muodostus tilakokonaisuutta silmälläpitäen. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4664. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14065
English title: Evaluation of growing stock in the pricing of settlement farms and composition of the total price of a farm.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat; metsänarvonlaskenta; metsän arvo; maanarvo; hinnanmuodostus
English keywords: forest land; forest valuation; forest education; state forests; settlement; settlement farms; land value; price formation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

 

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses different ways to determine the price of growing forest stock in settlement farms. The Settlement Act describes the main principles for the evaluation of forests. The growing stock of forest land has been devided into valueable and small timber. Construction timber and valuable trees are marked separately, and small timber is estimated by line survey. According to the act, the total price of a farm should be only what a sensible buyer would pay for it. Therefore, the value must be reduced to a reasonable price if the added value of the different parts is too high considering, for instance, the location of the farm and construction and clearing costs.

  • Klemetti, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4663, category Article
E. Johansson. (1957). Tilan hinnoittelussa huomioonotettavista näkökohdista. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4663. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14064
English title: Viewpoints on evaluating settlement farms.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; maan arvo; metsän arvo
English keywords: forest valuation; forest education; settlement; settlement farms; land value; value of the forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the directions of Ministry of Agriculture in Finland, issued in 1947, concerning evaluation of settlement farms and supplementary lots. The new direction differs from the old ones especially in the evaluation of small timber. Arable land has to be valued at a price corresponding to its forest yield value. As it is a prequisite for the profitability of a new farm, the writer points out that such land should be valued at higher price than a corresponding forest land. A way to count out the price is presented.

  • Johansson, E-mail: ej@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4662, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1957). Metsämaan tuottoarvon laskeminen. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4662. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14063
English title: Calculation of yield in terms of value of forest land.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat; tuottoarvo; maanhankinta; maanlunastus; metsämaan arvo
English keywords: forest land; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; settlement; settlement farms; land purchase; land value; yield on terms of value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation concerns the evaluation of forest land to be surrendered for a settlement farm. According to the Settlement Act, state land surrendered for settlement purposes should fetch the price that any sensible buyer would pay in buying the land. The prices used in evaluation are, however, still the prices of 1944. A new method for calculating the yield in terms of value of forest land has been developed by professor Yrjö Ilvessalo, based on the König-Faustman formula. This method is described in Tapio Forestry Manual.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4661, category Article
Urho Karisto. (1957). Tilan tai lisämaan perustaminen, teknilliset ja kannattavaisuusnäkökohdat. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4661. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14062
English title: Economic viewpoints in the establishment of a farm or a supplementary land lot.
Original keywords: kannattavuus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat; mesäopetus
English keywords: profitability; forest education; settlement; settlement farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation addresses the prerequisites and planning of a settlement farm or supplementary land lot. The basic requirements are that the area has enough arable or cultivated land and a suitable place for the farm buildings, necessary forest land, and that the area is close to roads or that it is possible to build a road at a reasonable cost.

  • Karisto, E-mail: uk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4660, category Article
A. Kotiaho. (1957). Viljelyskelpoisuustutkimukset, niiden suoritus ja tulosten tiedoittaminen. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4660. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14061
English title: Arability research, its execution and information of the results.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; viljavuus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; suot; viljelymaa; viljelyskelpoisuus; turvemaat
English keywords: peatlands; arable land; forest education; settlement; arability of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

In 1925-1944 the Finnish Swamp Cultivation Association (now Finnish Peatland Society, Suoseura) carried out research on the arability of peatlands, mostly on state lands that were the main object of settlement work and the arability of which had been little explored. Later the work has been transferred to the Settlement Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (ASO) and some other authorities. ASO has prepared arability maps based on the nutrient analysis of the lands.

  • Kotiaho, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4659, category Article
P. Piepponen. (1957). Arvo- ja rakennuspuiden merkitseminen asutustilojen metsissä. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4659. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14060
English title: Marking of construction and other valuable timber in the forests of settlement farms.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; asutuslaki; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat; puunkorjuu; yksityismetsälaki
English keywords: valuable timber; wood harvesting; fellings; forest education; settlement; settlement farms; Land Settlement Decree
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Fellings of valuable timber in the forests to be surrendered for settlement farms have been discussed widely in Finland. This presentation describes the effects of the new section in the Land Settlement Decree and new directions given by Central Forestry Association Tapio based on the decree. According to the directions, the fellings have to follow legislation concerning other fellings in private forests. The felling of all large, valuable timber, as has previously been the custom in settlement farm forests, does not follow this principle.

  • Piepponen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4658, category Article
Olavi Hyttinen. (1957). Asutustilojen arvopuukysymyksestä. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4658. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14059
English title: Valuable timber trees on settlement farms.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus; kotitarvepuu; asutustilat; arvopuu
English keywords: forest management; valuable timber; fellings; forest education; household timber; settlement farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

When resettlement plots have been established in Finland, a so-called household wood principle used to be used: in addition to fields, the new farm has been given forest land enough to supply it household timber. Trees larger than needed for construction of the farm were considered unnecessary, and the valuable timber trees over certain diameter could be harvested by the surrenderer of the land. This has led to fellings at minimum diameter in contrary to rational forest management. The presentation describes new legislation and directions that aim at correcting the situation.

  • Hyttinen, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4657, category Article
Viljo Lilja. (1957). Asutustilojen metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4657. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14058
English title: Forestry on settlement farms.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kannattavuus; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus; asutustilat
English keywords: forestry; profitability; forest education; agriculture; settlement; settlement farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses the conditions of forestry in the small resettlement farms in Finland. The silvicultural condition of small farm forests has been found to be worse on average than that of big holdings. A difficult economic situation often forces the owner into excessive fellings. The forest owner of a settlement farm should, therefore, be given possibilities to adequate living opportunities. Therefore, the new Resettlement Act aim at supporting a so-called forest principle, which is based on a view that it is not possible on a small farm to earn a living by agriculture only and some forests must be connected to it.

  • Lilja, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4656, category Article
P. O. Väisänen. (1957). Maatilojen perustaminen ja niiden elinkelpoisuus erityisesti Pohjois-Suomessa maatalouden harjoittamisen kannalta. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4656. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14057
English title: Establishment of farms and their profitability with particular reference to agriculture in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; kannattavuus; metsäopetus; maatalous; jatkokoulutus; asutus; maatilat; maatalousmaa
English keywords: northern Finland; arable land; profitability; forest education; agriculture; settlement; farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

The main part of arable land that could be cleared out into fields lies in Northern Finland, where climate conditions restricts agriculture. This presentation discusses conditions for profitable agriculture and settlement activities in the north.

  • Väisänen, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4655, category Article
A. Lifländer. (1957). Keskitetty hakkuutoiminta Perä-Pohjolassa ja asutuskysymys. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4655. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14056
English title: Centralized fellings in Northern Finland and the settlement question.
Original keywords: hakkuut; Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: fellings; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; settlement; settlement activities
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

In 1950s in the administrative region of Northern Finland 2,951 million ha of state forests awere under economic management while 3,285 million ha were not managed. Settlement activities mostly took place in the area that was managed, and where fellings were arranged in a centralized way. In these areas logging costs were minimized by, for instance, constructing roads, improving floating channels and constructing camps. This presentation describes ways to coordinate and rationalize both the settlement activities and fellings in these areas.

  • Lifländer, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4654, category Article
T. Marjanen. (1957). Tilojen ja lisämaiden perustaminen valtion maille. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4654. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14055
English title: Establishment of holdings and supplementary land lots on state land.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; state forests; settlement; settlement work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for forest officers working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

The Land Settlement Act gives the landless population of Finland right to apply resettlement farms or supplementary state lands from Forest Service that manages state lands. After the Second World War the settlement work intensified markedly. This presentation describes guidelines for establishing holdings and supplementary lots on state lands.

  • Marjanen, E-mail: tm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4653, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1957). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit : 1956. 8. Silva Fennica no. 92 article id 4653. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13981
English title: Professional development courses for the state forest officers in 1956.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; asutustoiminta; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; foresters; forest officers; settlement work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 92 includes presentations held in 1956 in the 8th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

 

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

 

Marjanen, T.  Establishment of holdings and supplementary land lots on state land

Lifländer, A. Centralized fellings in North Finland and the settlement question

Väisänen, P.O. Establishment of farms and their profitability with particular reference to agriculture in Northern Finland

Lilja, V. Forestry on settlement farms

Hyttinen, O. Valuable timber trees on settlement farms

Piepponen, P.  Marking of construction and other valuable timber in the forests of settlement farms

Kotiaho, A. Arability research, its execution and information on the result

Karisto, U. Economic viewpoints in the establishment of a farm or a supplementary land lot

Linnamies, O. Calculation of yield value of forest land

Johansson, E. Viewpoints on evaluating settlement farms

Klemetti, V-K. Evaluation of growing stock in the pricing of settlement farms and composition of the total price of a farm

Leino, P.K. Special offices for settlement boards, their employees and the organization of field work

Nieminen, E. Charging for travel, daily allowances and fees in settlement work

 

The issue includes short English summaries of the presentations.

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4670, category Article
Maatalousväestön taloudellista asemaa selvittävä komitea. (1957). Maatalousväestön taloudellista asemaa selvittävän komitean mietintö. 2. Käsittelee pääasiassa metsä- ja sivuansiotuloja. Silva Fennica no. 91 article id 4670. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9117
English title: Proceedings of the committee on economic status of the Finnish agricultural population.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; metsätyö; metsätulot; maatalousväestö
English keywords: private forestry; forest work; rural population; forest income; farm economy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Government appointed a committee in 1955 to analyse the economic status of the population living from agriculture. The present paper contains Part II of the proceedings of this committee. It discusses the earnings of the agricultural population from forestry and occasional work.

Agricultural population was defined as all people living from holdings of at least 2 hectares of agricultural land. Forestry income includes, besides the value of stumpage sold, earnings from logging in connection with delivery contracts. Earnings from occasional work include wages for logging made to the account of someone else, as well as wages for agricultural work, floating, carpentry, road construction and maintenance work etc.

In 1951–1954, the farms in Finland received an average aggregate of 29 milliard Fmk for stumpage, 10 milliard Fmk of which consists of the value assigned to the timber consumed by the farms themselves. The average income from stumpage was 110,000 Fmk per farm. The earnings from logging in connection with delivery contracts amounted to 3.3 milliard Fmk, and the earnings from occasional work to 6.7 milliard Fmk. The income from stumpage together with the earnings from delivery loggings amounted to 123,000 Fmk per farm. Adding the earnings from occasional forest work, an aggregate forestry income of 150,000 Fmk per farm has been obtained, 70–75% of which accounts for stumpage price.

The occasional earnings from sources other than forestry were on average 12–13 milliard Fmk, or 45,000–50,000 Fmk per farm. The agricultural income of the farms was 60.4 milliard Fmk, or 230,000 Fmk per farm. Thus, the aggregate income of the farms was 110 milliard Fmk, or 420,000 Fmk per farm.

The financial surplus from forestry per farm for the farms included in the study in 1951–1954 was on average 21, and the income from forestry 18 times as high as in 1934–39. The income from stumpage at the end of the same period was 18, and the earnings from occasional work 27 times as high as at the beginning of the period.

The agricultural income has the greatest relative importance in Southern Finland and Eastern Bothnia. The income from stumpage, in turn, has the greatest relative significance in supporting agriculture in the inner part of Finland, while the occasional income plays its most vital role in northeast Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Maatalousväestön taloudellista asemaa selvittävä komitea, E-mail:
article id 4669, category Article
V. A. Kolehmainen. (1957). Vehkatallinmaa. Silva Fennica no. 90 article id 4669. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9116
English title: Vehkatallinmaa, a successful reforestation area in Central Finland.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; kylvö; metsitys; metsäpalot
English keywords: regeneration; natural regeneration; forest fire; sowing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1933, forest fire caused by locomotive sparkle burned about 600 hectares of forest in a forest district named Vehkatallinmaa, in Central Finland. In 1934–36, the burned area was reforested, using different sowing and planting methods. At the same time, areas with poor runoff were drained. The results from reforestation throughout the area have been good. Also, natural regeneration of coniferous trees, especially Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has occurred. Even deciduous trees, especially birch (Betula sp.), have regenerated naturally in the area. The forests are an evidence of the adaptability of broadcast sowing on snow crust as a method of reproduction.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kolehmainen, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4668, category Article
E. E. Stentzel. (1957). Forest work science and technics in the German Democratic Republic. Silva Fennica no. 90 article id 4668. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9114
Keywords: work study; mechanization; forest work; DDR
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest work is physically hard. However, there are ways to make the work less damaging with right practices and utilization of machines. The article firstly presents the legal and silvicultural requirements for forest work. Then the ways to organize the work and machines used as well as the practical implications are discussed. Different work phases such as felling, skidding and transportation of timber are presented.   

The PDG contains a summary in German.

  • Stentzel, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4652, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1956). Hakkuilla käsiteltyjen koivikoiden rakenteesta ja kasvusta. Silva Fennica no. 90 article id 4652. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9115
English title: On the structure and growth of birch stands treated with cutting.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsänarviointi; kasvu; koivu; metsikön rakenne; kasvututkimus
English keywords: forest management; Betula pendula; Betula; Betula pubescens; silver birch; fellings; increment; Betula verrucosa; growth and yield studies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is continuation of the earlier structure and growth studies of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in Forest Research Institute. The material represents birch stands (Betula verrucosa, now B. pendula, and B. Pubescens L.) in Southern Finland. The stands were treated with different fellings, and in regard to their silvicultural condition classified as good, satisfactory and unsatisfactory. Height of the trees, height of living crown, volume, increment and volume increment and development of stem diameter series was measured.

The most characteristic difference between the silviculturally good and poor stands was that the the annual increment of the good stands concentrated into large size trees, and the increment of unsatisfactory stands into small and inferior trees.

It is concluded that if the aim of stand treatment is to produce large and high quality volume increment, the most favourable stand volume of  birch stands, compared with naturally normal stand volume, seems to be 90-85% at the age of 41-55 years, and 80-70% at the age of 56-65 years. If growth of large size trees is aimed at, the maximum number of the dominant trees per hectares cannot be more than 400 at the age of 50-60 years.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4651, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1956). Outlines of cartographical and timber surveying unit. Silva Fennica no. 90 article id 4651. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9113
Keywords: Finland; remote sensing; forest mensuration; aerial surveying; forest surveys
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

After the Second World War Finnish Forest Service was faced with large e-mapping and timber surveying project in Northern Finland. The funds for mapping were very limited. In order to re-map the large areas, the only way was to look for alternative methods for the ground methods. The photogrammetric equipment of Finnish Army was made available to the civil service. Consequently, since 1947 several forest mapping projects were carried out in co-operation between the Forest Service and the Army Topographic Service.

When more funds were coming available for the project, new instruments were acquired. The article describes the present mapping procedure and suggests alternative ways in procedure and utilization of new equipment. It concludes that if the forest area under modern timber management plans is several million acres, the ideal implemental framework for mapping and timber surveying unit in Finland should be the following: Radial Secator RS I and slotted templates for the radial line plot, Stereotope Plotter for drafting general maps, the old Delft Scanning Stereoscope for photo interpretation, and Aero-Sketchmaster for transport of the photo details.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4650, category Article
Metsätilastokomitea. (1956). Metsätilastokomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 89 article id 4650. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9112
English title: Report on Committee on Forest Statistics.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsätalous; tilastot; komiteanmietinnöt; Suomi; metsätilastot
English keywords: forestry; forest research; statistics; forest statistics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The ministry of agriculture appointed a committee to prepare a proposal for the reorganization of Finnish forest statistics. The committee suggests that the forest statistics will be prepared by forest district board areas. National forest surveys and national wood consumption surveys should be carried out at intervals of 10-15 years by Forest Research Institute.

Felling and price statistics for private forests should be prepared by using a sampling method described in the report. The statistics of total commercial roundwood felling will be obtained by adding to the result the annual felling from state and company forests. Also, wage and employment statistics in forestry will be prepared by a sampling method.

Statistics concerning timber transportation should be improved, and finally, a central organ for forest statistics should be established within the Forest Research Institute to collect and develop forest statistics. The statistics should be published as an annual yearbook. To ensure co-operation between the authorities, a special sub-committee should be appointed to collaborate with the permanent committee of statistics in Finland.

  • Metsätilastokomitea, E-mail:
article id 4647, category Article
Pekka Sainio. (1955). Hirven talvisesta ravinnosta. Silva Fennica no. 88 article id 4647. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9109
English title: Winter nutrition of elk.
Original keywords: paju; metsätuhot; mänty; koivu; hirvi; taimikkotuhot; talviravinto; hirvituhot
English keywords: Scots pine; seedling damage; Alces alces; nutrition; moose; forest damage; elk; elk damage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Increase in the elk (Alces alces L.) population and the problems of its grazing has called for detailed research. The present study concentrated on three observation areas representing northern, western and eastern parts of Finland. There were 28 field observers watching 68 elks.

Earlier investigations in Finland indicate that aspen (Populus tremula L.) is the staple diet of elk. This study reached different conclusions, probably largely because of aspen is gradually becoming an increasingly rare tree species in Finland. According to this study, the principal food of elk in the winter is willow (Salix sp.). In the whole country, willow accounts for about 70% of elk’s nutrition. In the Far North the percentage is approx. 90. Of the other tree species, the order of preference is: aspen, Scots pine, mountain ash, juniper and birch. In addition, in Western Finland where snow is less deep, lingonberry and blueberry shrubs are on the menu. Beard moss on the spruce was frequently eaten locally. Elk seems to have eaten mainly the last annual shoot of trees and bushes. In few cases it has gnawed the bark of Scots pine, aspen and willow. Elk consumes in average 340 twigs or terminal shoots per day in the winter. This corresponds to about 1.8 kg of food.

The problem of elks damaging Scots pine seedlings has been observed in Western Finland, were the elk population is higher. The article suggests that suitable feeding places would be left for elk in places that are unsuitable for agriculture or forestry. Leaving, for instance, birch seedlings in Scots pine stands has been noticed to attract elks and to increase the damage to pine.

The article includes an abstract in English and a summary in Swedish.

  • Sainio, E-mail: ps@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4646, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1955). Tutkimuksia metsänhoitolautakuntien ja -yhdistysten leimaustoiminnan kehityksestä. Silva Fennica no. 87 article id 4646. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9108
English title: Studies on crop marking of District Forestry Boards and Forest Management Associations.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; puukauppa; tukkipuu; leimaus; metsälautakunnat; metsänhoitoyhdistykset; pinotavara
English keywords: logs; silviculture; private forests; timber sales; marking of timber; stacked wood; District Forestry Boards; Forest Management Associations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Wood demand and practices in the marking of trees for cutting have affected the silvicultural state of the forests of Finland in the early 1900s. The aim of the study was to study the development of timber sales and the marking of trees for logging, with a special emphasis on variation in the volume of the sales and assortment range. The study is based on statistics of the District Forestry Boards and Forest Management Associations about timber marked for cutting in 1931-1953.

The professionals in the District Forestry Boards and Forest Management Associations have marked annually in average 9 million stems of heavy timber and about 7 million m3 of stacked wood for sales. The volume  follows business cycles, the changes in the volume of stacked wood being larger than of heavy timber. When demand was high, the number of professional workers limited the supply of wood. There were large differences in the volumes marked within the country. The share of small diameter stacked wood has increased since 1930s compared to heavy timber.

The article includes a summary in German.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4645, category Article
Oiva Suominen. (1955). Metsätyömieskylät : ehdotus vakinaisten metsätyömiesperheiden asuntokysymyksen järjestelyksi. Silva Fennica no. 86 article id 4645. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9107
English title: Forest worker villages: Permanent accommodation of forest worker’s families.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsätyöntekijät; metsätyö; asutus; asuminen; asunto-olot; metsätyömieskylä
English keywords: settlement; stateforests; forest workers; accomodation; labour; forest worker village
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The remote areas of Eastern and Northern Finland are mostly owned by the state. Forestry in these areas has been mainly managed by arranging temporary lodgings for the forest workers. A report on the suitability of forest worker villages as a more permanent solution to the accommodation problem was commissioned from forest officer Oiva Suominen.

Seasonal work, arduousness of the work and distance from home have decreased the attractivity of forest work as a profession. On the other hand, forestry has provided rural population work during winter, when there is little work in agriculture. To be able to increase permanent labour in state forestry, it is necessary to arrange permanent lodging to the workers and their families. Permanent workforce is needed to arrange wood harvesting and manage the state forests effectively. The article includes a suggestion of how to establish the forest worker villages. It suggests the locations and sizes for villages for the districts of Eastern Finland, Ostrobothnia and Perä-Pohjola.

The article includes a summary in German.

  • Suominen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4643, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1954). Aikatutkimuksia metsäojitusten kivitöistä. Silva Fennica no. 84 article id 4643. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9105
English title: Time studies on stone work done in forest drainage.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäojitus; työntutkimus; aikatutkimus; koneellistuminen
English keywords: forest drainage; work study; mechanization; time study; drainage of peatlands; ditches
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

When ditches are dug in forest drainage, smaller stones are removed by hand, but the larger ones require the use of explosives or stone lifting machinery. Use of explosives have been a more common method for the larger stones. Due to development of detonation methods, it has also been used for smaller stones than earlier.

The investigation was a time study comparing five different stone lifting machines. Time needed for different stages of the work was measured. The stages lasted approximately as long for all of the machines. However, the effectivity of the machines could not be determined, because the stones removed were not similar enough. Stone lifting machine Pekka appeared slightly more effective than the other four machines. It was also easy to assemble, disassemble and move.

The article includes a summary in German.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4641, category Article
Metsänhoitolakikomitea. (1953). Metsänhoitolakikomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 83 article id 4641. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9104
English title: Report of the Forest Management Law Committee.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; komiteanmietinnöt; lainsäädäntö; metsän hävittäminen; metsänhoitolaki
English keywords: forest management; legislation; forest devastation; Forest Management Law
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A Committee was appointed in 1946 by the government of Finland to draw a draft to substitute the 1928 Law on Private Forests. The article is a report of the committee, and gives a suggestion to a new Forest Management Law and Forest Management Decree.

The aim of the 1928 law was to prevent devastating fellings. The committee introduces a new concept, duty to tend forests in accord with the principle of progressive forestry. This principle is drafted in the first paragraph of the law: Forest should be so tended, protected and used that, as far as possible, the productive capacity of the soil will be fully utilized and economically profitable, and increasing yield secured.

The proposal also includes measures to prevent devastation, the concept of which has been changed from the previous law. For instance, a cutting which is in disproportion to the growing stock of the forestry holding is considered devastation. Responsibility for the measures to secure regeneration after felling rests with the forest owner if the felling has been carried out in line with sound silvicultural practice. The district forestry boards are suggested to be the organizations that supervise the observance of the law.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Metsänhoitolakikomitea, E-mail:
article id 4642, category Article
Einar Maliniemi. (1954). Tilastollinen tutkimus sahapuiden hakkuusta ja ajosta Perä-Pohjolassa. Silva Fennica no. 82 article id 4642. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9103
English title: Statistical analysis on felling and haulage of sawlogs in Perä-Pohjola in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; Perä-Pohjola; metsätyö; puunkuljetus; palkkaus; tukkipuu; puunkorjuu; työntutkimus
English keywords: northern Finland; work study; timber harvesting; sawlogs; haulage; forest work; wages; wood transportation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The wages of logging and haulage has been dependent on the decisions of foremen. The aim of this study was to provide better insight on how working conditions in a logging site affect productivity of the work. Six working sites operated by Forest Service, Veitsiluoto Oy and Kemi Oy in the communes of Salla, Muonio and Kolari in Lapland were studied. The forests in the area were mostly Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.).

The effect of average volume of the stems, the average daily haulage over distances of various lengths, density of the stand and shape of the stem on effectivity was calculated. The size of the team was of considerable importance to the felling and haulage result in the Northern Finland where the feller assists in loading of the logs. One of the aims of the study was to find out what size of team is most advantageous for each haulage distance. The results show the optimum distance of haulage for teams of different sizes.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Maliniemi, E-mail: em@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4638, category Article
Risto Sarvas. (1953). Ohjeita pluspuiden valitsemista ja ilmoittamista varten. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4638. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14054
English title: Instruction for the selection and registration of plus trees.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus; metsänuudistaminen; siementuotanto; metsänjalostus; pluspuu
English keywords: regeneration; selection; breeding; seed production; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes principles of breeding of forest trees and the selection of fast growing, healthy and qualitatively good trees, named plus trees, for seed production in Finland.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4637, category Article
Eero Paavola. (1953). Selostus kenttäkokeista, jotka koskivat eräiden kemiallisten aineiden käyttömahdollisuuksia metsänkylvössä. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4637. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14053
English title: Review of field experiments on the fitness of certain chemicals for use at seeding.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; kylvö; metsänviljely; jatkokoulutus; metsänuudistaminen; heinäntorjunta; herbisidit; torjunta-aineet
English keywords: ground vegetation; herbicides; forest regeneration; forest education; seeding
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes a field experiment on the use of herbicides to prevent growth of ground vegetation in cutting areas before sowing. The study suggests that the chemicals used in the experiment were not effective enough to prevent growth of ground vegetation in the more fertile lands, but were effective in poorer lands. However, the treatment affected also growth of tree seedlings.

  • Paavola, E-mail: ep@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4636, category Article
Tauno Hautamäki. (1953). Metsämaan laikutuksen koneellistamiskokeiluista. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4636. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14052
English title: Mechanization of ground preparation.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus; maanmuokkaus; metsänuudistaminen; koneellistaminen; laikutus
English keywords: regeneration; soil preparation; mechanization; scalping; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Soil preparation improves formation of seedlings in natural regeneration sites. This presentation describes mechanization of the work using four different machines. According to the study, the effectiveness and quality of the work has improved compared to the earlier machines, and the method is becoming a competitive alternative to slash burning.

  • Hautamäki, E-mail: th@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4635, category Article
Paavo B. Mansner. (1953). Suometsien hoito. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4635. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14051
English title: Forest management of peatland forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsäojitus; jatkokoulutus; suometsät
English keywords: forest management; peatlands; forest education; draining of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the factors that limit growth of trees in peatlands, and principles of draining of peatlands.

  • Mansner, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4634, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1953). Valtion metsien nykyiset metsänhoitotyöt. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4634. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14049
English title: Forest management in state forests of Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; hakkuutavat; metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; felling methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes history of wood harvesting and logging methods used in the state forests in Finland. The article discusses  the problems caused by, for instance, of light sellection fellings to the silvicultural state of the forests. The silvicultural state of the forest could be improved by introducing silvicultural logging methods, and selection of seed trees to improve the genetic quality of seeds used in regeneration.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4633, category Article
Erkki K. Kalela. (1953). Syrjäisten metsien hoito-ongelmia. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4633. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14048
English title: Forest management of remote forest areas.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus; syrjäseudut
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; remote areas
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes problems specific to forest management of remote forests areas. The growth of the forests in these areas are often low due to, for instance, northern location.

  • Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4632, category Article
Viljo O. Sierla, J. J. Arvela. (1953). Metsäkouluun pyrkijöiden esiharjoittelu metsähallinnon hoitoalueissa. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4632. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14047
English title: Practical training of applicants of forest schools in the districts of Forest Service.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; hoitoalue; jatkokoulutus; harjoittelu; metsäkoulu; metsätyönjohtaja
English keywords: training; Forest Service; forest education; forest foreman
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes practical training of applicants of forest schools in districts of Forest Service, and suggest improvements in the training. The forest schools, operated by the Forest Service, educate forest foremen. Before the applicants can enrol in the school, they are required a 2 to 4 years long training.

  • Sierla, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown (email)
  • Arvela, E-mail: ja@mm.unknown
article id 4631, category Article
Toivo J. Komsi. (1953). Oikeustapausten selostuksia metsänhoitajille. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4631. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14046
English title: Forestry related legal cases for forest officers.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäopetus; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; oikeustapaukset
English keywords: forestry; forest education; timber sales; lecal cased
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses legal cases of the supreme court of Finland that are related to forestry and handle subjects that can be of interest to forest officers working in Forest Service. The subjects vary from sale of timber to unauthorized harvest of timber.

  • Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4630, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1953). Suhdannevaihteluista, erityisesti metsätalouden kannalta. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4630. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14045
English title: Effects of business cycles on forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäteollisuus; metsäopetus; jatkokoulutus; suhdannevaihtelut
English keywords: forestry; forest industry; forest education; business cycles
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the 7th professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation introduces the principles of business cycles and describes how they have affected forestry in Finland.

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4629, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1953). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit : 1952. 7. Silva Fennica no. 80 article id 4629. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13980
English title: Professional development courses for the state forest officers in 1952.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 80 includes presentations held in 1952 in the seventh professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

 

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

Effects of business cycles on forestry

Forestry related legal cases for forest officers

Practical training of applicants of forest schools in the districts of Forest Service

Forest management of remote forest areas

Forest management in the state forests

Forest management of peatland forests

Mechanization of ground preparation

Review of field experiments on the fitness of certain chemicals for use at seeding

Review of field experiments on the fitness of certain chemicals for use at seeding

 

The article includes an English summary.

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4639, category Article
Luonnon- ja kansallispuistokomitea. (1953). Uusien luonnon- ja kansallispuistojen perustaminen valtion maille : luonnon- ja kansallispuistokomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 79 article id 4639. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9101
English title: Establishment of new nature parks and national parks on the state-owned lands in Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; Metsähallitus; luonnonpuistot; luonnonsuojelu; komiteamietinnöt; kansallispuistot
English keywords: nature conservation; Forest Service; state-owned lands; nature reserves; nature parks; national parks
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is report of the Nature Park and National Park Committee appointed by the Government of Finland in 1950. It contains a proposal for establishment of new nature parks and natural parks on state-owned lands in Finland. The article also includes a draft of act and decree for establishment of the new nature parks and national parks.

In order to replace the nature reserves lost through the 1944 Armistice with new areas and to create a comprehensive network of nature and national parks, including Southern Finland, the committee proposes new protected areas. The proposal includes the following nature parks: Jussaari, Vaskijärvi, Vesijako, Sinivuori, Häädetkeidas, Salamajärvi, Ulvinsalo, Paljakka, Runkaus, Maltio, Sompio, and Kevo. National parks include Liesjärvi, Linnansaari, Petkeljärvi, Pyhähäkki, Rokua, Oulanka-Juuma, and Lemmenjoki. The total area of the suggested new 23 nature reserves is 1,425 km2. The committee suggets that the administration of the new nature parks and national parks should remain in the responsibility of Forest Service and Forest Research Institute.

The article contains a summary in English

  • Luonnon- ja kansallispuistokomitea, E-mail:
article id 4628, category Article
Gustaf Sirén. (1952). Havaintoja Peräpohjolan valtion mailla vuosina 1948-50 suoritetuista männyn kylvöistä. Silva Fennica no. 78 article id 4628. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9100
English title: Observations on stands of Scots pine sown in state forests in Peräpohjola in northern Finland in 1948-50.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmetsät; kylvö; mänty; metsänviljely; Peräpohjola; uudistuminen
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; regeneration; Scots pine; northern Finland; state forests; sowing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The most common way to artificially regenerate cutting areas in Northern Finland has been sowing, which has, however, often given poor results. The aim of the study was to assess the success rate of sowing and study the causes of poor regeneration.

An inventory was made of 28 areas on Empetrum-Myrtillus and Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type sites sown with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seeds in 1948-1950. In addition, to study the effect of substrata, a sowing experiment was established. According to the inventory, regeneration failed completely in 8 and partially in 6 of the 28 sown areas. Factors that explained the poor regeneration included unfavourable weather conditions in 1948-1952, insufficient clearing of sowing spot especially when the humus layer was thick, and insect damage by Otiorynchus dubius weevil.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Sirén, E-mail: gs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4623, category Article
Metsätalouskomitea. (1952). Puun maakuljetusolojen kehittäminen : vuoden 1949 metsätalouskomitean mietintö N:o 1. Silva Fennica no. 73 article id 4623. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9095
English title: Development of land transportation of wood.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; puunkuljetus; tienrakennus; metsätiet; kuljetus; infrastruktuuri; rautatiet
English keywords: forest road; road construction; forest roads; transportation; wood transportation; railroad
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The government of Finland appointed in1949 a committee to draft a program to promote forestry and increase the production of forests in the immediate future. The committee regarded promotion of transportation of roundwood and fuel wood as the most urgent question of the assignment. A separate committee was assigned to give a report on floating.

The report gives a summary of timber transportation facilities. The importance of land transport, especially truck transport, has grown. This has influenced other means of long-distance transport, such as railways and floating. Building of truck roads can bring large areas of presently unaccessible forests accessible for forest industry.

The committee suggest improvements in road legislation. Improvements needed in the road system for better timber transport facilities are outlined. The committee gives a detailed list of roads, compiled by area. The total length of forest roads to be constructed is 5,584 km, and the estimated cost 6,702 million marks. Railroads would be built 1,453 km at the cost of 35,745 million marks.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Metsätalouskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4622, category Article
O. O. Tirkkonen. (1952). Suomen metsäojitus 1900-luvun alkupuoliskolla. Silva Fennica no. 72 article id 4622. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9094
English title: Peatland drainage in Finland in the first half of 20h century.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; ojitus; tilastot; yksityismetsät; metsäojitus; suot
English keywords: peatlands; Forest Service; state forests; private forests; statistics; drainage of peatlands; central forest associations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the second National Forest Survey, peatlands covered before the World War II 11,156,000 hectares, 32% of the land area of Finland. The early drainage of peatlands in 1700th century had aimed at preventing frost and increasing area of agricultural land. The experiences proved that drainage of wet forests was lucrative also in the point of view of forestry. The drainage of state-owned forest lands was promoted by the Crown Forest Committee in its report in 1900. The systematic drainage work in state lands begun in 1909. In the end of 1920s 500-700 km of ditches was dug annually.

The drainage of private lands begun after 1928, when forestry promotion work in private forests begun. By the end of 1950, 4,815 forest drainage projects had been approved by the Forest Service in the private lands. In addition, 286,000 ha of peatlands was drained on work organized by the central forest associations in 1930-1950, and 239,272 ha by timber companies in 1902-1950. The drained area totalled 755,892 ha. The area of drainable and drained peatland was estimated to be 4.4 million ha.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Tirkkonen, E-mail: ot@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4621, category Article
Metsähallintakomitea. (1951). Metsähallintoa koskevat säännökset : metsähallintokomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 71 article id 4621. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9093
English title: Statutes of Forest Service.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; komiteanmietinnöt; metsähallinto; lainsäädäntö
English keywords: legislation; Forest Service; forest administration; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The government of Finland appointed in 1949 a committee to compose new legislation for Forest Service. The article includes proposals for a Forest and Park Service Act and a Forest and Park Service Decree. The proposals are based on the previous decree on forest administration. The committee proposes changes in the sections of Forest Service. The management of peatlands and forests of the state will be in a same section, and all issues concerning the private forests in one section. State forests would be divided in three districts instead of the present four districts.

The committee will make a separate report on necessary reforms in the administration of Forest Service to ensure that the state forests of Finland will be managed effectively.

  • Metsähallintakomitea, E-mail:
article id 4619, category Article
P. Ennevaara. (1951). Tilastoista ja niiden käyttömahdollisuuksista. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4619. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14015
English title: Use of statistics in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; tilastot; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forestry; forest education; statistics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation introduces different forestry related statistics and discusses the potential use of statistics on the point of view of state forestry.

  • Ennevaara, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4618, category Article
Lauri Olenius. (1951). Ilmakuvien käyttö valtion metsätaloudessa. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4618. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14014
English title: Use of aerial mapping in state forestry.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; ilmakuvaus; kaukokartoitus; metsänarviointi
English keywords: remote sensing; forest mensuration; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; aerial mapping
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Forest Service begun the aerial mapping of the state forests in northern Finland in 1948. This presentation describes the state of the work, practices and methods of the work.

  • Olenius, E-mail: lo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4617, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1951). Ilmakuvamittauksesta. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4617. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14013
English title: Aerial mapping.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; ilmakuvaus; kaukokartoitus; kartoitus
English keywords: remote sensing; aerial photographs; forest education; aerial mapping
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the development of aerial mapping, its principles and methods. The use of aerial photographs and the costs of the method is discussed.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4616, category Article
Mikko Kantola. (1951). Uusimpia saavutuksia puutavaran kuljetuksen alalla. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4616. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14012
English title: Recent achievements in timber transportation.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; uitto; metsätyö; puunkuljetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; koneellistaminen; hevosjuonto
English keywords: mechanization; forest education; floating; forest work; timber transport; horse haulage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the development of forest haulage and long-distance transportation of timber. The article gives examples of improving the effectivity of horse hauling, use of tractors, loading of timber and floating, and gives examples of new equipment used in timber transport.

  • Kantola, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4615, category Article
Jaakko Vöry. (1951). Metsäalan rationalisoimistoiminnan nykyinen vaihe. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4615. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14011
English title: The present stage of rationalization.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäopetus; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; koneellistaminen; rationalisointi
English keywords: forestry; mechanization; forest education; forest work; rationalization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the work and methods of rationalizing forest work and forest management, and the organizations doing work studies. Examples of means to improve the effectivity of practical work are described.

  • Vöry, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4614, category Article
A. Rautavaara. (1951). Johtamismenettely nykyajan valossa. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4614. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14010
English title: Modern management of personnel.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; johtaminen
English keywords: management; forest administration; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the changes in employment relationship and gives guidelines for good management of personnel.

  • Rautavaara, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4613, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1951). Mäntysahatukkien laatuarvioinnin tarkkuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4613. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14009
English title: Accuracy of quality grading of Scots pine saw logs.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; mänty; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus; mäntytukki
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; saw logs; forest education; quality grading; quality classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses accuracy of the quality grading of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) saw logs suggested by professor Ilmari Vuoristo based on a data collected by Valtiala. According to the study, greatest inaccuracies in the grading by visual inspection was caused by differences between the evaluators.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4612, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1951). Mäntysahatukkien laadun mukaisista arvosuhteista. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4612. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14008
English title: Value grading of Scots pine saw logs.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; mänty; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; sahatavara; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus; hinnoittelu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; saw logs; sawn timber; forest education; quality grading; sawn wood; timber grading
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Quality grading has been rarely used in pricing of saw logs due to lack of knowledge on how the quality of logs affects the value of the sawn wood. This presentation discusses the subject based on unpublished data professor Ilmari Vuoristo collected in 1930s on effects of timber grading on the quality and value of sawn wood. The quality classification developed by professor Vuoristo is presented.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4611, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1951). Sahatukkien laatuluokittelulla saavutettavista eduista. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4611. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14007
English title: Benefits of qualitative classification of saw logs.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus; puutavaralajit
English keywords: saw logs; forest education; timber sales; quality grading; quality classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes benefits of the qualitative classification of saw logs to forest owners and forest industry.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4610, category Article
Veijo Heiskanen. (1951). Sahatukkien laatuluokittelutavat. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4610. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14006
English title: Methods of saw log classification according to quality.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus; puutavaralajit
English keywords: saw logs; timber assortment; forest education; quality grading; quality classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the uses and principles of different kinds of grading of saw logs.

  • Heiskanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4609, category Article
F. E. Siimes. (1951). Sahatukkien laatuluokittelu sahatavarain käytön, lajittelun ja koesahausten valossa. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4609. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14005
English title: Classification according to quality of saw logs in the light of use, grading and sawing tests of sawn timber.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; puutavara; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; sahatavara; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus; puutavaralajit
English keywords: sawn timber; Forest Service; forest education; timber sales; timber grades; quality grading; sawn logs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the grading of sawn timber for export and domestic use, and suggests improvements to grading of the sawn products in the saw mills to better answer the needs of export.

  • Siimes, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4608, category Article
V. Pöyhönen. (1951). Teollisuuden raakapuun yleiset laatuvaatimukset. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4608. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14004
English title: General quality standards of industrial raw timber.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; puutavara; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; sahatukit; laatuluokitus
English keywords: forest education; timber sales; timber classes; timber; timber grades; quality standards; quality grading
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the development of standards for timber grades in Finland, and the present quality grades of raw timber for timber sales from state forests.

  • Pöyhönen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4607, category Article
U. Metsänheimo. (1951). Metsäojitustoiminnasta Perä-Pohjolan valtionmetsissä. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4607. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14003
English title: Forest drainage in state forests in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmetsät; ojitus; metsäopetus; Perä-Pohjola; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: peatlands; forest education; state forests; drainage of peatlands; Northerh Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the history and present stage of forest drainage in Northern Finland. The first peatlands were drained in the area in 1909. About 6% of the 600,000 hectares of peatlands suitable for drainage was drained at the time in Perä-Pohjola. The areas to be drained are characteristically very large.

  • Metsänheimo, E-mail: um@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4606, category Article
Antti A. Aho. (1951). Metsähallituksen osuus Pohjois-Suomen jälleenrakennuksessa. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4606. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14002
English title: Contribution of Forest Service to the reconstruction of Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; Metsähallitus; valtion metsät; metsähallinto; sota-aika; toinen maailmansota; jälleenrakentaminen; Lapin sota
English keywords: northern Finland; Lapland; Forest Service; forest administration; state forests; world war II; reconstruction
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

Lapland war in the end of the World War II left Northern Finland in destruction. This presentation describes in detail the work and expenditure of Forest Service in the reconstruction of the settelement in the area.

  • Aho, E-mail: aa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4604, category Article
E. J. Koskenmaa. (1951). Koneiden käyttö tie- ja uittoväylärakennuksilla. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4604. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14000
English title: Use of machines in construction of roads and floating channels.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; uitto; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; tienrakennus; jatkokoulutus; metsätiet; uittoväylät; vesirakennus; koneellistaminen
English keywords: mechanization; forest education; floating; forest roads; floating channels; road costruction; hydraulic engineering
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses opportunities to increase the use of working machines, such as tractors, in construction of roads and floating channels, which have been little used in Finland. The presentation summarizes the machines available and their use based on experiences in Sweden.

  • Koskenmaa, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4603, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1951). Suurten mittasuhteiden työmaita. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4603. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13999
English title: Large scale worksites.
Original keywords: hakkuut; Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: northern Finland; fellings; Forest Service; forest education; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses forest resources and felling potential of the state forests in different parts of the country, and how centralized fellings could be arranged. Most potential for increasing fellings is in Northern Finland.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4602, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1951). Avaussanat. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4602. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13998
English title: Opening words.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; forest education; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation includes the opening words for the course by Dr. M. Lappi-Seppälä

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4601, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1951). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit : 1948-50. 6. Silva Fennica no. 69 article id 4601. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13979
English title: Professional development courses for foresters 1948-1950.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 69 includes presentations held in 1948-1950 in the fourth professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the Forest Service. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

 

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

 

Opening words of the course

Large scale worksite

Use of machines in construction of roads and floating channels

Floating in northern Finland and its challenges

The role of Forest Service in the reconstruction of Northern Finland

Draining operations in the state forests of Perä-Pohjola in Northen Finland

General qualitative requirements for roundwood

Qualitative classification of saw logs based on the use of sawn wood, sorting and test sawing

Classification of saw logs

Benefits of qualitative classification of saw logs

Value grading of Scots pine saw logs

Accuracy of qualitative classification of saw logs

Modern management of personnel

The present stage of rationalization

Accomplishments in timber transportation

Aerial mapping

Use of aerial photographs in state forestry

Use of statistics in forestry

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4600, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1950). Vertailevia havaintoja hoidettujen ja luonnontilaisten männiköiden rakenteesta ja kehityksestä. Silva Fennica no. 68 article id 4600. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9091
English title: Comparative study on structure and development of managed and natural Scots pine stands.
Original keywords: hakkuut; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; harvennushakkuu; kasvupaikkatyyppi; harvennus; luonnometsä; alaharvennus; läpimitan kasvu; tilavuuskasvu; latvuskerros
English keywords: natural forest; Scots pine; thinnings; diameter growth; fellings; increment; thinning from below; forest type; crown storey; tree classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Forest Research Institute of Finland has established permanent sample plots to survey the effect of thinnings on the stands. This study compares the development of tended and natural Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands growing on three different forest types: Oxalis-Myrtillus, Vaccinium and Calluna site type. The effect of heavy thinning from below (Oxalis-Myrtillus and Vaccinium site types) and increment felling (Calluna site type) was assessed by dividing the trees of the stands in tree classification classes according to their crown storey and defects.

The results show that thinning from below and increment thinning increase the proportion of trees in the 1st crown storey, which is already large in the natural stands. Also the diameter distribution is more even and the mean diameter higher after the thinnings.

In Scots pine stands in natural state, volume increment per stem is highest in the 1st crown storey and diminishes strongly towards the lower crown storeys. Thinnings increased the increment. The study indicates that many of the objectives of the intermediate cuttings, including promoting the growth of the best trees and improving the quality of the stand, have in general been achieved. Consequently, the thinnings give means to achieve the most valuable yield in the stand.

The article includes a summary in English.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4598, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1949). Piirteitä valtion metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica no. 66 article id 4598. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9088
English title: Forestry in the state forests of Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsätalous; kannattavuus; metsäpolitiikka
English keywords: forest policy; forestry; Forest Service; state forests; profitabilty
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on state forests of Finland. The aim of the review is to describe the state and management of the state forests. Low revenue of the stat forests has been criticised, and misunderstandings have led to economic policy that has had negative impacts on state forestry.

The history of forest ownership of the state begins from 1400th century when Finland was part of Sweden. The article describes in detail the different stages in ownership of state forests and development of forest administration.

Forest Service was established in 1859. In 1949 it had two departments, a private forest department and a state forest department, and four local conservancies, Peräpohjola, Ostrobothnia, Western Finland and Eastern Finland. The forests were managed according to a business plan, which was based on a forest survey and a long term silvicultural working plan. The business plan gave a basis for annual working plans.

The state forests are mainly situated far from sites of forest industry and large human settlements. This affects demand and prices of wood. Especially demand of small diameter timber has been low. Floating is the main means of transport of the timber. The article describes in detail the forest resources of state forests, forest management practices and changes in state forestry. Suggestions to improve the profitability of state forestry are given. These include, for instance improving transport infrastructure and the productivity of forestry.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4597, category Article
Lauri Teivainen. (1949). Pisavaaran luonnonpuiston metsäkasvillisuudesta ja kasvistosta. Silva Fennica no. 65 article id 4597. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13978
English title: Forest vegetation and flora of Pisavaara national park.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; kasvillisuus; luonnonpuistot; putkilokasvit; metsätyyppi; Pisavaaran luonnonpuisto; Tervola; metsät; kasvupaikkatyyppi
English keywords: vegetation; northern Finland; forests; vascular plants; national parks; Pisavaara national park; forest type; vegetation type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A vegetation survey was conducted in the Pisavaara national park in Northern Finland in 1946 and 1947. The national park (49,9 km2) includes southern half of the Pisavaara hills. The rock is quartzite. The most common vegetation type is dry upland forest type, but also fresh mineral soil sites are typical for the area.

The most common forest type, Empetrum-Myrtillus type coveres almost as much of the area as all the other forest types combined. The article describes in detail the vegetation of all forest types and gives a complete list of all plant species found in the survey. Total of 291 vascular plants was found, 242 of which were native to the area. In addition, 49 anthropochores had spread to the area when the forest ranger’s cottage was built. Number of species growing in the northern edge of their natural range is. Southern species can be found in the southern slopes of the hill.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Teivainen, E-mail: lt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4595, category Article
Lauri Silvàn. (1948). Metsäautoteiden rakentaminen. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4595. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13997
English title: Building of forest lorry roads.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; puunkuljetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; tienrakennus; jatkokoulutus; metsätiet; metsäautotie
English keywords: forest education; road construction; wood transport; forest roads; forest lorry roads
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation discusses cost-effectiveness of building forest lorry roads to expand the availability of timber in state forests, and gives examples of calculating costs of building a road.

  • Silvàn, E-mail: ls@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4594, category Article
Kustaa Kallio. (1948). Maanhankintalaki ja sen metsäkysymykset. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4594. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13996
English title: Forest related issues of land acquisition act.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustoiminta; lainsäädäntö; jatkokoulutus; maanhankintalaki; yhteismetsä
English keywords: legislation; forest education; state forests; settlement; parcelling out land; joinedly owned forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes execution of land acquisition act that came into effect in 1945. The act gave principles of transfer of state forest land for settlement.

  • Kallio, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4593, category Article
Toivo J. Komsi. (1948). Työväen huoltoa koskevasta lainsäädännöstä. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4593. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13995
English title: Application of labour legislation in forest work.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; lainsäädäntö; jatkokoulutus; työterveys; työsopimukset; työturvallisuus
English keywords: forest education; occupational safety; forest work; labour legislation; labour contract
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

 

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes application of labour legislation and occupational safety act in forest work.

  • Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4592, category Article
Einari Wuori. (1948). Lupakirjakauppa. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4592. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13994
English title: Licence sales of timber in state forests.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; state forests; timber sales
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes the principles of licence sales of timber in state forests. In this type of timber sales, a local forest officer has granted a licence for sale of wood or other wood products. The article gives a suggestion to improve the practices of the licence sales.

  • Wuori, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4591, category Article
Aarne Anttila. (1948). Kustannusten arvioiminen hankintahakkuissa. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4591. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13993
English title: Estimation of costs of delivery loggings.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; hankintahakkuut; puun kuljetus; hakkuukustannukset
English keywords: timber harvesting; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; timber sales; sale at delivered price; cost of harvesting; wood transportation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica. 

This presentation describes budgeting of costs of delivery loggings, which have been at times underestimated in the practical forestry in the state forests.

  • Anttila, E-mail: aa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4590, category Article
E. A. Sopanen. (1948). Hankintatöiden paikallinen organisointi. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4590. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13992
English title: Organizing delivery loggings locally.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; hankintahakkuut
English keywords: wood harvesting; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; timber sales; sale at delivered price; delivery loggings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation outlines the history of timber sales at delivered price made in state forests, and describes good practices to arrange timber harvesting locally.

  • Sopanen, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4589, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1948). Eräitä näkökohtia metsähallituksen pysty- ja hankintamyynneistä. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4589. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13991
English title: Aspects of sales at delivered price and stumpage sales made by Forest Service.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; jatkokoulutus; pystykauppa; hankintakauppa
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; state forests; timber sales; sale at delivered price; stumpage sale
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation compares timber sales by delivered price and stumpage sale in the state forest. The buyers of wood have criticised sales bu delivered price from the state forests. The article discusses which of the type of sales is more profitable for the state.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4588, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1948). Perä-Pohjolan ja Lapin metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4588. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13990
English title: Forestry in Perä-Pohjola, North-East Finland, and Lapland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäopetus; Perä-Pohjola; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; Lappi
English keywords: forest management; forestry; Lapland; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes the forests and their silvicultural state in the areas of Perä-Pohjola and Lapland in the Northern Finland. Forest management work needed to improve the silvicultural state of the forests is suggested.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4587, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1948). Metsänhoitotyöt sotavuosien hakkuiden jäljillä. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4587. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13989
English title: Forest management after loggings during the years of World War II.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; sota-aika; toinen maailmansota
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; world war II
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation outlines the state of state forests after the World War II. The area of the forests had decreased and the loggings to cover the needs of war years had influenced the silvicultural state of the forests. The article lists the forest management work that needs to be done in the state forests in the coming years.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4586, category Article
Risto Sarvas. (1948). Metsäpuiden rodunjalostuksesta. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4586. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13988
English title: Forest tree breeding.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; Metsänjalostussäätiö; metsänjalostus
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; Foundation of Forest Tree Breeding; forest tree breeding
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration in 1947. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation introduces the aims and work of Foundation of Forest Tree Breeding, established in 1946.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4585, category Article
Erkki K. Kalela. (1948). Luonnonmukainen metsien käsittely. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4585. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13987
English title: Ecological forest management.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; sukkessio; jatkokoulutus; luonnonmukainen metsänhoito; metsänkäsittelytavat
English keywords: forest management; succession; silviculture; ecology; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica.

This presentation describes how the natural processes of forests and succession could be utilized in forest management and silviculture.

  • Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4584, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1948). Metsätaloudelliset näkökohdat ja keskitetyt hakkuut. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4584. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13986
English title: Forest management and centralized loggings.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; metsäsuunnittelu; hakkuukierto
English keywords: forest management; forest planning; fellings; forest education; felling cycle
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications than Silva Fennica issue 64.

This presentation discusses different ways of organizing felling cycle, forest management practices used in the forests of Finnish forest research institute, and how good practices developed in the institue could be applied in state forests.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4583, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1948). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit 1947. 5. Silva Fennica no. 64 article id 4583. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13977
English title: Professional development courses for foresters 1947.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 64 includes presentations held in 1947 in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. Two of the presentations were published in other publications.


The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

 

Forest management and centralized loggings

Ecological forest management

Forest tree breeding

Forest management after loggings during the years of World War II

Forestry in Perä-Pohjola, North-East Finland, and Lapland

Aspects of sales at delivered price and stumpage sales made by Forest Service

Organizing delivery loggings locally

Estimation of costs of delivery loggings

Licence sales of timber in state forests

Application of labour legislation in forest work

Forest related issues of land acquisition act

Building of forest lorry roads

Planning of new national parks and nature reserves. The presentation is published as a report of nature conservation commission in the annals of the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation

Long distance transport of wood in the economy of districts. The presentation is included in the article Studies on factors influencing intensity of loggings published as Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 55.


The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4596, category Article
Valtion metsäkauppakomitea. (1948). Valtion metsien pysty- ja hankintamyynneistä : valtion metsäkauppakomitean mietintö. Silva Fennica no. 63 article id 4596. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9087
English title: On stumpage sales and sales at delivered price in state forests.
Original keywords: hakkuut; valtionmetsät; kannattavuus; puukauppa; metsätulot; komiteamietinnöt; pystykauppa; hankintakauppa
English keywords: profitability; fellings; state forests; timber sales; committee; forest income; stumpage sale; sale at delivery price
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The government of Finland appointed a committee to study which method of selling wood, sale at delivered price or stumpage sale, is more profitable method for wood sales from state forests.

According to the committee, in normal conditions, when supply and demand determine the price of timber and forest work wages are dependent on the supply and demand of labour, returns from the sale at delivered price has proved more favourable than stumpage sale. During the World War II the case was, however, the opposite. Sale at delivered price can have also other advantages. The state has by means of logging a hold in the labour market and can use loggings, for instance, to ward off unemployment. Also, loggings can be more easily used in rational silviculture. They keep the supervising staff of forest districts employed throughout the year and provide better professional training for the foresters. In addition, the number of buyers from state forests has increased. The stumpage sale may, however, be good method in certain conditions. The committee states that the State forestry officials are best able to decide on the most favourable method of selling.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Valtion metsäkauppakomitea, E-mail:
article id 4582, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1946). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran julkaisusarjojen sisällysluettelo. Silva Fennica no. 62 article id 4582. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9086
English title: Publications of the Society of Forestry in Finland (Suomi) index.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; bibliografiat
English keywords: forest sciences; bibliographies; Finnish Society of Forest Sciences; Society of Forestry in Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes an index of articles published in the series Acta forestalia fennica, Silva fennica and Commentationes forestales by Society of Forestry in Finland (now Finnish Society of Forest Science). The index is divided into four parts, first of which contains a list of treatises, second contains authors and the publications of the authors, third is a systematic index, and fourth alphabetical index according to subject headings.

The article includes an abstract in English and in German.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail:
article id 4581, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1945). Metsäteollisuusyhtiöiden metsistä ja niiden hakkuista. Silva Fennica no. 61 article id 4581. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9085
English title: Forests of woodworking industry and the fellings carried out in them.
Original keywords: hakkuut; polttopuu; yksityismetsät; puun kysyntä; puukauppa; sota-aika; metsäteollisuusyritykset; toinen maailmansota
English keywords: firewood; forest industry; wood harvesting; fellings; private forests; wood demand; timber sales; world war II
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this treatise is to describe forests owned by timber companies, their area and position, the quality of forests, the condition of the forests, and fellings carried out during the World War II.

Area of the company-owned forest was 1,95 million hectares, 1,64 million hectares of which was productive and 0,31 hectares inferior forest soil, not including the areas lost after the war. Most of the forests were situated in remote regions. Average volume of the tree stands was slightly larger than in farm-owned forests. Fellings counted for 84% of the growth of the forests.

During the war  the state set felling quotas for both company, private and state forests. It was widely discussed how well they were met by the different owner groups. According to the statistics, the companies had followed relatively closely their cutting plans in peace years. Cuttings were highest in 1939, when the war begun. In the war years 1940-43, lack of workforce, horses and cars for transport complicated logging. The fellings increased again during truce after Winter War. Especially demand for small timber increased during the war. Felling of firewood increased in all the owner groups, in particular in the private forests that were situated near settlements. in general fellings were higher in forests that were easiest to reach.

During the war the companies acquired timber more from their own forests. The fellings from company forests were in war years 70% of those in peace years. The article concludes that companies fulfilled the requirements as well as it was possible in the circumstances.

The article includes an abstract in English.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4580, category Article
Johannes Virolainen. (1943). Karjalan kannaksen metsätaloudesta ja sen merkityksestä alueen pienviljelijöiden ansiotaloudessa. Silva Fennica no. 60 article id 4580. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9084
English title: Forestry in the Karelian isthmus and its influence on the economy of small farms.
Original keywords: metsätalous; yksityismetsät; puukauppa; maatilat; metsätulot; liiketalous; maatilametsätalous; Karjalan kannas; pientilat
English keywords: forestry; economics; private forests; agriculture; farms; timber sales; small farms; forest income; wood trade; Karelian isthmus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is based on studies made in the Karelian isthmus in 1936-1938 before the World War II broke in 1939. Further studies were not possible after the war when the area was handed over to Soviet Union. Economic data of agriculture and forestry of the farms had mostly been regarded separately in the early economic studies of small farms in Finland. This survey aimed at studying influence of forestry in the economy of a small farm. 141 farms were included in a more detailed survey.

Forestry accounted for in average 38% of total income of the farms in 1937-1938. The farms had sold wood often, the amounts being often small. Good transport connections in the area facilitated the sales. Over 70% were sales at delivered price, and about half of the wood was small-sized timber. According to the results of the survey, forestry was important for the small farms in Karelian isthmus. The farmers could not have made a living without the forests. Hoveter, the farms had had to overuse the forest resources. The wood resources decreased by 18-22% in 1922-1938. They were, however, at the same level as in average in Finland in 1938.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Virolainen, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4578, category Article
Sakari Saarnijoki. (1942). Jalavan esiintymisestä Pyhäjärven, Kokemäenjoen vesistön keskusjärven tulvarannoilla. Silva Fennica no. 58 article id 4578. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9082
English title: Distribution of European white elm in flooded shores of the central lake of Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki water system.
Original keywords: levinneisyys; jalava; kynäjalava; vuorijalava; rantametsä; tulva-alueet; Ulmus glabra; Ulmus laevis; Ulmus montana; uudistuminen
English keywords: regeneration; distribution; elm; European white elm; coastal forests; flood plains
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Distribution of European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pallas) is on its northernmost border in Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki area. This survey describes distribution of European white elm in the flooded shores of the central lake of Pyhäjärvi and Kokemäenjoki river water system.

Both Ulmus laevis and U. montana (now U. Glabra Hudson) can be found in the area, but most of the elms qrowing in thea area are U. laevis. U. laevis occurs around the lake in two separate areas, almost entirely in flooded shores of the lake. Regeneration of elm from seeds was limited on a narrow belt on the higher part of the flooded shore. Consequently, U. laevis can be found as zones around the lake, created by the changes in water level of the lake. The trees are judged to be native for the area.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Saarnijoki, E-mail: ss@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4577, category Article
Metsäverotuksen uudistamiskomitea. (1942). Metsäverotuksen uudistamissuunnitelma. Silva Fennica no. 57 article id 4577. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9081
English title: Reform of forest taxation.
Original keywords: komiteanmietinnöt; lainsäädäntö; metsäverotus; tuottoarvo; verotus; pinta-alaverotus
English keywords: forest taxation; legislation; committee; yield in terms of value; taxation; site-productivity forest taxation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A committee was appointed in 1940 to prepare a proposal for reform of forest taxation. The taxation based on net income of forestry was considered to have limitations, and the actual net income had been observed to be markedly higher than the income that was used in taxation.

The report describes in detail the principles and shortcomings of taxation used since 1922. These include inaccuracies in the forest areas of a woodland estate, and weaknesses in classification of forest land and demand zones. The committee suggests several improvements in calculating the taxable income, which in the new calculations is based on yield on terms of value.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Metsäverotuksen uudistamiskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4576, category Article
Bo-Eric Blumenthal. (1942). Distribution and properties of aspen in Finland. Silva Fennica no. 56 article id 4576. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9080
Keywords: Populus tremula; height growth; distribution; diameter growth; decay; forest site type; aspen
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Aspen (Populus tremula L.) is a common tree in Finland, and has been used, for instance, in matchstick industry. However, there has been little studies on its distribution and properties. In this study, 142 sample trees in different forest site types in Valtimo and Onkamo in Eastern Finland were measured in detail in 1935.

According to the results, during the first 10 years aspens height growth is fastest of the Finnish tree species surpassing, for instance, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula sp.) . The diameter growth is similar to Scots pine up to the age of 50 years, after which the growth of aspen exceeds Scots pine. Branchless portion of the stem compared to the height of the tree increases until it reaches about 50% of the height of the tree. In poorer sites aspen is prone to decay.

Aspen regenerates easily both by root shoots and seeds. If root shoots are left to grow, the mother tree should be free of decay. In general, seedlings are of better quality. Good quality aspen stands require thinning and a rich forest type. If an old aspen stand has decay, the trees should be ring-barked and the site regenerated with a new tree species.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Blumenthal, E-mail: bb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4575, category Article
Eino Saari. (1940). Suurten metsäalojen arvon määrääminen. Silva Fennica no. 55 article id 4575. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9079
English title: Evaluation of large forest areas.
Original keywords: hakkuuarvo; maan arvo; metsänarvonlaskenta; tuottoarvo
English keywords: forest valuation; value of land; felling value; yield in terms of value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Moscow Peace Treaty created a need to calculate values of large forest areas in Finland, such as the value of the private and state forests lost in the Second World War, or value of the remaining forests and the value of forests to be assigned to the evacuees. The article describes principles of evaluation of large forest areas. It concludes that use of felling value of the trees is the right method only if felling of the whole tree stand and sale of the wood is actually possible. If these prequisites cannot be fulfilled, the right method to evaluate the forest area is yield in terms of value. When calculating the yield in terms of value, also other incomes and costs related to fellings should be included.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4573, category Article
Metsäopetuskomitea. (1939). Maalaisväestön metsäopetus. Silva Fennica no. 54 article id 4573. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9078
English title: Forest education of rural population.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; komiteamietinnöt; koulutus; kurssit; maaseutuväestö; nuorisojärjestö
English keywords: forest management; forest education; committee; education; courses; rural population; youth association
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a proposal of a committee, appointed by the government of Finland, to expand the forest education of landowners, concerning use and management of forests. The proposal also outlines a program for a youth association dedicated to forests. The committee proposes that present organizations are used as a basis for the expanding education. The main forms of education suggested were education in public and agricultural colleges, education in forest colleges, forest clubs, forestry study groups and self-study, courses, excursions, exhibitions, competitions and rising of general awareness. Different age groups would be given education adapted to their needs.

The report includes statistics about rural population of Finland in 1938 and detailed description of how the education would be arranged in different parts of the country.

The article includes an abstract in German.

  • Metsäopetuskomitea, E-mail:
article id 4569, category Article
Martti Tertti. (1939). Näkökohtia kuusimetsän hoidosta. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4569. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13976
English title: Forest management of Norway spruce forests.
Original keywords: hakkuut; kuusi; Picea abies; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; päätehakkuu; jatkokoulutus; harvennushakkuu; sekametsä; koivu; Betula sp.
English keywords: Norway spruce; birch; thinnings; mixed forests; final felling; fellings; forest education; professional development courses; thinning from below
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes different types of fellings in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) forests in different forest site types. The use of thinning from below and above, clear cutting of Norway spruce stands, and thinning of mixed forests with birch (Betula sp.) are discussed.

  • Tertti, E-mail: mt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4568, category Article
Atri S. Arimo. (1939). Paloalojen metsittämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4568. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13975
English title: Forest regenration of burned areas.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; kylvö; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kulotus; metsäpalo; jatkokoulutus; metsänuudistaminen; kulo
English keywords: regeneration; planting; forest fire; forest education; sowing; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes preparation and forest regeneration methods of a burned area.

  • Arimo, E-mail: aa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4567, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1939). Ojituksien kunnossapidosta sekä ojitettujen soiden metsien käsittelystä ja metsittämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4567. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13974
English title: Forest management of forests in drained peatlands and maintenance of ditch network.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; valtion metsät; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; kunnostusojitus
English keywords: peatlands; maintenance; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; drainage of peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses forest management practices of drained peatlands and the allocation of responsibilities in draining of peatlands between district forest officers and forest officers responsible of drainage work. Problems has occured in those cases, when the process of draining had lasted so long that at the time of final assessment of the project the first ditches have already needed maintenance.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4566, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1939). Näkökohtia tie- ja polkuverkostosta. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4566. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13973
English title: Views on road and path network.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; hoitoalueet; metsätiet; tieverkosto; polkuverkosto; kuljetus
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; state forests; road network; forest roads; professional development course; paths; transportation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses the development of road and path network in state lands in Finland. The speaker wants to stress the need for systematic expansion of the road network, which would serve several demands in forestry.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4565, category Article
Paavo Jokinen. (1939). Asutustoiminnan yhteydessä valtiolle pidätettävät arvopuut ja niiden hakkaaminen. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4565. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13972
English title: Reservation of valuable timber-trees in connection to settlement activities.
Original keywords: hakkuut; valtionmetsät; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustoiminta; tukkipuu; jatkokoulutus; kotitarvepuu; metsän hävittäminen
English keywords: logs; fellings; forest education; state forests; professional development courses;; household timber
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the conditions according to which the state can reclaim valuable timber-trees on forest land which ownership is transferred to landless population in settlement work.

  • Jokinen, E-mail: pj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4564, category Article
Sulo Järvinen. (1939). Metsähallinnon kalustokirjanpito ja kaluston hoito. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4564. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13971
English title: Bookkeeping and maintenance of equipment in forest administration.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; kirjanpito; kalusteet; kalusto; laitteet
English keywords: Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; bookkeeping; forest equipment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the principles of bookkeeping and maintenance of forestry equipment, which reform was in progress in 1938.

  • Järvinen, E-mail: sj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4563, category Article
Paavo Aro. (1939). Hakkaustapatilasto. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4563. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13970
English title: Statistics of felling methods.
Original keywords: hakkuut; valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; tilastot; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; hakkuutapa
English keywords: forest management; fellings; forest education; statistics; professional development courses; fellingmethods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the use and purpose of statistics about different felling methods compiled in Forest Service.

  • Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4562, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1939). Hoitoalueen työohjelman laatiminen. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4562. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13969
English title: Drafting a work program for a district.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; hoitoalueet
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation presents guidelines for preparing an obligatory work program for a district of state forests.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4561, category Article
Toivo J. Komsi. (1939). Oikeudesta toisen omaan. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4561. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13968
English title: The use property without property rights.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; lainsäädäntö; jatkokoulutus; omistusoikeus; omistusoikeuden luovuttaminen; yksityisomaisuus
English keywords: legislation; forest education; professional development courses; property rights; private property
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation discusses legal aspects of cases when property has been used without property rights. Examples related to forestry, hunting, fishing and reindeer husbandry are presented.

  • Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4560, category Article
L. A. Mäkelä. (1939). Piirteitä Länsi-Suomen piirikunnan metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4560. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13967
English title: Forestry in conservancy of Western Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; jatkokoulutus; Länsi-Suomi
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; Western Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the reform of localized forest administration executed in 1923 and describes in detail forest management in the conservancy of Western Finland.

  • Mäkelä, E-mail: lm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4559, category Article
A. A. Räsänen. (1939). Metsien uudistamisesta Perä-Pohjolassa. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4559. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13966
English title: Forest regeneration in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; maanmuokkaus; metsänuudistaminen; Lappi; yli-ikäiset metsät
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; regeneration; fellings; forest education; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the state of forests in Northern Finland, and suggests that fellings are targeted at the oldest forests until the over-presented over-aged forest are harvested. The preferred regeneration method is natural regeneration in most forest types.

  • Räsänen, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4558, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1939). Kokemuksia paksusammaltyypin metsien käsittelystä. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4558. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13965
English title: Experiences in forest management of Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type forests in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; metsänuudistaminen; paksusammalkuusikko; Peräpohjola; Lappi; siementuotanto
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; regeneration; Lapland; seed production; fellings; forest education; professional development courses; Hylocomnium-Myrtillus type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes a study of forest management practices suitable for in Hylocomnium-Myrtillus site type forests, typical for Northern Finland. A special problem for the forest site type is poor regeneration due weak seed production of Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and thick moss layer.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4557, category Article
Vilho Seppänen. (1939). Miiluhiilto. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4557. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13964
English title: Charcoal burning.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; miiluhiilto; hiili; rautamalmi
English keywords: charcoal; forest education; professional development courses; coal; iron ore
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the principles of charcoal burning in Finland at the time when charcoal had found a new market in ore processing.

  • Seppänen, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4556, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1939). Metsätalous ja matkailu. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4556. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13963
English title: Forestry and tourism.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsätalous; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; matkailu; maisemanhoito; virkistyskäyttö; maisema; luontomatkailu
English keywords: tourism; landscape; wood harvesting; fellings; forest education; professional development courses; nature tourism; landscape management; recreation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes nature turism and recreation in Finland, how timber harvesting and nature conservation affect tourism and ways to adjust fellings to tourism.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4555, category Article
O. Seppänen. (1939). Puutavaran autokuljetuksesta ja sen merkityksestä valtion metsätaloudessa. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4555. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13962
English title: Car transportation of roundwood and its significance to forestry in the state forests.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; puunkuljetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; metsätiet; autokuljetus; tiet
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; professional development courses; stateforests; wood transport; timber transport; transportation of roundwood; road transport; forest roads
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the history of road transport of timber in Finland and discusses its significance and potential to forestry in the state forests.

  • Seppänen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4554, category Article
Ahti Mecklin. (1939). Lainsäädäntö puutavaran mittauksesta. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4554. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13961
English title: Timber measurement legislation.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; puutavara; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; lainsäädäntö; jatkokoulutus; puutavaranmittaus
English keywords: timber trade; forest education; professional development courses; timber sales; timber measurement
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the Timber Measurement Act, adopted in 1938, and its application.

  • Mecklin, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4553, category Article
Viljo Kujala. (1939). Luonnonsuojelusta. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4553. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13960
English title: Nature conservation.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luonnonsuojelu; luonnonsuojelulaki; rahoitus
English keywords: forest management; forest education; professional development courses; nature conservancy; Nature Consercvation Act
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes how need to conserve nature has been recognized in Finland, suggest ways how conservation of nature could be regarded in forest management and describes how it is regulated at present.

  • Kujala, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4552, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1939). Puiden juuristot ja metsänhoito. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4552. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13959
English title: Root systems of trees and forest management.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; juuristo; kasvupaikkatyypit
English keywords: forest management; forest education; forest site type; professional development courses; root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes growth and form of root systems of different tree species in different sites and how growth of roots affect forest management.

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4551, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1939). Metsikön kasvun arvioiminen. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4551. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13958
English title: Assessment of forest growth.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; jatkokoulutus; kasvutaulukot; metsänarvionti; kasvu
English keywords: forest growth; forest mensuration; forest education; growth and yield tables; professional development courses; increment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes different methods of assessing tree growth.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4550, category Article
V. A. Arola. (1939). Kansaneläkelaista ja sen mukaisesta palkanpidätyksestä. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4550. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13957
English title: National Pensions Act and withholding of salary.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; lainsäädäntö; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus; kansaneläkkeet; palkat; vakuutus; Kansaneläkelaki; eläkevakuutus; palkanlaskenta
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; insurance; professional development courses; wages; pensions; payroll; state pension; pension insurance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes the principles of National Pensions Act, passed in 1937, and how it is applied in withholding of salary. 

  • Arola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4549, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1939). Tervehdyssanat. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4549. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13956
English title: Greetings from Mauno Pekkala.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 52 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation includes the salutatory of Mauno Pekkala for the courses. 

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4548, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1939). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit 1938. 4. Silva Fennica no. 52 article id 4548. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13955
English title: Professional development courses of foresters in 1938.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus; hoitoalueet
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 52 includes presentations held in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration in 1938. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

 

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs: 

 
Greetings by Mauno Pekkala 

National Pensions Act and withholding of salary 

Assessment of forest growth 

Root systems of trees and forest management 

Nature conservation 

Timber measurement legislation 

Car transportation of timber and its significance to forestry in state forests 

Forestry and tourism 

Charcoal burning 

Experiences in forest management of Hylocomnium-Myrtillus site type forests 

Forest regeneration in Perä-Pohjola in northern Finland 

Forestry in the conservancy of Western Finland 

The right to use property belonging to someone else 

Preparation of a works program of a district 

Statistics of felling methods 

Bookkeeping and maintenance of equipment in forest administration 

Reservation of valuable timber-trees in connection to settlement activities 

Views on road and path network 

Maintenance of drainage systems and forest management of forests in drained peatlands 

Regeneration of burned areas 

Forest management of Norway spruce forests 

 

The article includes a German summary. 

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4572, category Article
Arvo Lähde. (1940). Metsä- ja uittotyöläisten asunto- ja ravinto-oloista. Silva Fennica no. 51 article id 4572. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13954
English title: Housing and nourishment of forest workers and log floaters.
Original keywords: uitto; henkilöhistoria; metsätyöntekijät; metsätyö; lainsäädäntö; kämpät; ruokatalous; työolot; työmaa-asunnot; ravitsemus
English keywords: legislation; forest work; forest workers; log floaters; working conditions; lodgings; nourishment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Due to constantly changing working sites often in remote places the working conditions of forest workers and log floaters have been inadequate. The article discusses the requirements of the act on the housing of forest workers and log floaters that came into force in 1928, and assesses how it affected the working conditions of the laborers. 

The employers had positive attitude towards the new legislation and they had improved the housing conditions to match the requirements. Most complaints in the inspections of the working conditions were found in Eastern Finland. The shortages were considered to be mostly minor ones. Even if the act concerned only housing, it improved indirectly also nourishment in the working sites. Other factors affecting the working conditions were shelters for the draught horses, health care, and newspapers and other spare-time activities available for the workers. 

The article includes a German summary. 

  • Lähde, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4571, category Article
Tauno Lampimäki. (1939). Nautakarjan laiduntamisesta metsämailla. Silva Fennica no. 50 article id 4571. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9074
English title: Grazing of cattle in forest land.
Original keywords: metsätalous; taimettuminen; metsänuudistuminen; laiduntaminen; laitumet; karja; karjatalous; pintakasvillisuus; taimet; taimituhot; metsälaidun
English keywords: regeneration; forestry; ground vegetation; tree seedlings; grazing; cattle; animal husbandry; woodland pasture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Finland has a long tradition of grazing cattle in the forests and common land. There are also reports of degradation of forests by grazing already in 1600th century. The aim of the survey was to study which positive and negative effects grazing has in forests.

The study concludes that grazing has caused considerable economic losses through damages to forests. In addition, woodland pastures cannot give the yields required in modern animal husbandry. The quality of woodland pastures have decreased after the woodlands used in slash and burn culture have become wooded.

Grazing has also some positive effects to forests. It increases the diversity of vegetation in the woodland pastures and spreads species to new areas. This is supported by the lists of species found in different woodland pastures. Cattle destroy large grasses like Calamagrostis, which may avail growth of tree seedlings in the pastures. Grazing can also prepare the site for tree seedlings. On the other hand, prolonged grazing destroys tree seedlings and prevents regeneration.

The article includes a German summary.

  • Lampimäki, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4570, category Article
Paavo Jokinen. (1939). Havaintoja valtion metsämailla suoritetusta asutustyöstä. Silva Fennica no. 49 article id 4570. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9073
English title: Observations on settlement in the state forests in Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; maatalous; puukauppa; kotitarvepuu; asutustilat; maan lunastus; metsätulot; metsienhoito
English keywords: forestry; state forests; agriculture; settlement; parcelling out land; farms; timber sales
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An act passed by the government of Finland in 1922 prescribed that state-owned forest lands will be parcelled out to landless population. A survey was made in 1934-1935 by Forest Service (Metsähallitus) to investigate the success of the establishment of settlements, and which disadvantages it may have had in forestry in the state forests. In the survey 1,194 farms were inspected.

According to the directives of settlement, the farms should be able support a family of four adults. The area of arable land was in average 5-15 hectares. In addition, the farm should have pasture and forest enough to supply it most of the household timber. According to the study, the regulations had been applied variably. Usually the farms had been given more land than was required. It was estimated that farms had been given 110,000 hectares more forest land for gathering household timber than required in the act. Many farms had sold timber, in some cases to that extent it endangered supply of household timber.

Parcelling out land had affected the management of state forests. If a region had surrendered large forest areas for settlement, it could not follow its cutting plan. Also, there was relatively little state-owned forests in southern Finland, and the effects of parcelling out land were stronger. The report concludes that in general it was not appropriate to parcel out forest land. The execution of settlement should have beeb given to Forest Service.

The article includes a German summary.

  • Jokinen, E-mail: pj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4547, category Article
Risto Sarvas. (1938). Ilmavalokuvauksen merkityksestä metsätaloudessamme. Silva Fennica no. 48 article id 4547. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9072
English title: Use of aerial photography in forestry.
Original keywords: metsätalous; ilmakuvaus; kaukokartoitus; kuvatulkinta; metsänarviointi
English keywords: aerial photography; forest mensuration; aerial stereo photography
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a treatise on use of aerial photography in forestry and its prodpective applications in Finland, based on the writers visit to Techniche Hohschule Dresden in Germany and experiences in his work in Forest Service.

Optimal conditions and principals of aerial photography are described. There is potential in use of aerial photography in Finland. The terrain is relatively flat, and large areas, especially in Lapland, are inadequately mapped. However, to fulfil the current requirements for forest maps, aerial photography should be carried out as aerial stereo photography at a sufficiently large scale. At a certain scale terrain survey becomes cheaper than aerial photography.

In forestry, aerial photography cannot substitute terrain survey, but it complements it. Aerial photographs could, for instance, form a photo archive of a region or be used as a basis for planning drainage of peatlands. In research, aerial stereo photography could become a new discipline.

The article has a German summary.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4544, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1938). Näkökohtia taimien kasvatuksesta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4544. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13953
English title: Production of forest tree seedlings.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; taimitarha; taimituotanto; metsäpuun taimet; taimikasvatus
English keywords: forest nursery; forest education; professional development courses; tree seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes production of forest tree seedlings.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4543, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1938). Metsän uudistamisesta laihoilla kangasmailla. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4543. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13952
English title: Forest regeneration on poor forest sites.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; kuiva kangas; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kulotus; kuivahko kangas; kasvupaikka; metsänuudistuminen; uudistushakkuu
English keywords: natural regeneration; forest regeneration; forest education; professional development courses; broadcast burning; dry upland forest site; dryish upland forest site; regeneration felling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes forest regeneration on poor forest sites.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4542, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1938). Eräitä metsän uudistamisessa huomioon otettavia näkökohtia. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4542. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13951
English title: Forest regeneration.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; metsänuudistaminen
English keywords: natural regeneration; planting; forest education; professional development courses; articifial regeneration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes factors that should be taken into account in forest regeneration. 

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4541, category Article
Toivo J. Komsi. (1938). Rikoslaki ja metsä. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4541. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13950
English title: Criminal law and forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; lainsäädäntö; metsälaki; rikoslaki
English keywords: forest management; Forest Act; legislation; forest education; professional development courses; criminal law
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes how criminal law affects the use of forests.

  • Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4540, category Article
Y. Wuorentaus. (1938). Kalanviljelys ja kalavesien hoito. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4540. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13949
English title: Fish farming and management of fishing grounds.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kalanviljely; kalavesien hoito; kalastus
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; fish farming; management of fishing grounds; fishing grounds
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes fish farming and management of fishing grounds.

  • Wuorentaus, E-mail: yw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4539, category Article
V. M. Klemola. (1938). Riistanhoidosta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4539. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13948
English title: Wildlife management.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; riistanhoito; metsästys
English keywords: wildlife management; forest education; professional development courses; hunting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes administration and state of wildlife management in the state forests of Finland. 

  • Klemola, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4538, category Article
V. Huuhtanen. (1938). Piirteitä Itä-Suomen piirikunnan metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4538. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13947
English title: Forestry in the county of eastern Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäteollisuus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; Itä-Suomi
English keywords: forest management; forestry; forest industry; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; eastern Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes forest management in the state forests in the county of Eastern Finland.

  • Huuhtanen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4537, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1938). Sekametsien kasvatuksesta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4537. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13946
English title: Management of mixed forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; sekametsä
English keywords: forest management; mixed forests; forest education; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes management of mixed forests.

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4536, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1938). Metsän uudistumisen tarkkailusta kovilla metsämailla ja ojitetuilla soilla sekä ojien tarkkailusta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4536. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13945
English title: Inspection of regeneration of forests in mineral soil forests and drained peatlands and checking of ditches.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; ojitus; metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; suot; hoitoalueet; taimettuminen; taimikko; ojitusalueet
English keywords: natural regeneration; drained peatlands; peatlands; seedling stands; forest education; state forests; artificial regeneration; professional development courses; districts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes inspection of forest regeneration of mineral soil forest types and drained peatlands, and inspection of ditches. 

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4535, category Article
A. A. Räsänen. (1938). Aluehallinnon töiden järjestelystä. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4535. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13944
English title: Organization of work in regional administration.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; hoitoalueet; metsäsuunnittelu
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers; districts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes planning and organization of work in regional administration.

  • Räsänen, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4534, category Article
Martti Tertti. (1938). Hakkausalan raivaamisesta. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4534. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13943
English title: Clearing of a felling area.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänraivaus; hakkuuala; metsänuudistaminen; raivaus; alikasvos
English keywords: regeneration; fellings; forest education; professional development courses; cutting area; clearing of felling areas; undergrowth
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development coursesarranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administrationespecially in regional levelThe education was arranged by Forest Service. 
This presentation describes clearing of felling areas. 

  • Tertti, E-mail: mt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4533, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1938). Harvennushakkauksista. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4533. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13942
English title: Thinning of forest stands.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; harvennushakkuu
English keywords: forest management; thinnings; fellings; forest education; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes principles of thinning of forest stands. 

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4532, category Article
E. J. Koskenmaa. (1938). Hoitoalueen talous ja tieverkosto. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4532. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13941
English title: Economy of a regional district and road network.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; tienrakennus; hoitoalueet; tienrakennuskustannukset; metsätiet; tieverkosto
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; road network; forest road; road construction; district
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation summarises the state of road network in districts of Forest Service, the costs of road construction and future needs of transport.

  • Koskenmaa, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4531, category Article
Paavo Jokinen. (1938). Asutuslain mukaisesta asutustyöstä valtion mailla ja metsänhoitajan tehtävistä tässä asutustyössä. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4531. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13940
English title: Execution of settlement in compliance to the Land Settlement Act in state lands and role of a forest officer in managing the work.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; yksityismetsät; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustoiminta; asutus; asutuslainsäädäntö; maatilat; metsäinventointi
English keywords: forest inventory; forest education; state forests; private forests; professional development courses; settlement; farms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes execution of settlement in compliance to the Land Settlement Act in the state lands, and the role of a forest officer in managing the settlement. 

  • Jokinen, E-mail: pj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4530, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1938). Ojitettujen soiden metsittämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4530. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13939
English title: Afforestation of drained peatlands.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; ojitus; metsäopetus; metsänviljely; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; metsitys; suot
English keywords: afforestation; natural regeneration; drained peatlands; peatlands; forest regeneration; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes afforestation of drained peatlands. 

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4529, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1938). Maa ja metsän uudistuminen. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4529. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13938
English title: Forest regeneration and soil.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; kulotus; maanmuokkaus; metsämaa; maaperä
English keywords: regeneration; soil preparation; natural regeneration; soil; forest education; professional development courses; broadcast burning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes the effect of properties of soil on forest regeneration. 

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4528, category Article
Eino Saari. (1938). Hoitoalueiden ja piirikuntien vuotuisen taloustuloksen laskeminen. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4528. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13937
English title: Calculating the annual financial performance of a forest district and a county.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsätalous; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; talousarvio; hoitoalue; metsänhoitajat; kirjanpito
English keywords: Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; budget; foresters; forest officers; bookkeeping
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation describes calculation of the annual financial performance of a forest district and a county. 

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4527, category Article
R. Tuhti. (1938). Suomen valtion toiminta maa- ja metsätalouden edistämiseksi. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4527. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13936
English title: Promotion of agriculture and forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäopetus; maatalous; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; valtionavut; valtiontuki
English keywords: forest management; forestry; subsidies; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; agriculture; professional educational courses; public-sector funding
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

 
This presentation discusses the means Finland has used to promote agriculture and forestry in the country. 

  • Tuhti, E-mail: rt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4526, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1938). Tervehdyssanat. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4526. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13935
English title: Greetings by Mauno Pekkala.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 46 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service. 

This presentation includes the greetings of Mauno Pekkala for the courses.

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4525, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1938). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit 1937. Silva Fennica no. 46 article id 4525. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13934
English title: Professional development courses of foresters in 1937.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajat; jatkokoulutus
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 46 includes presentations held in the third professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration in 1937. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

Greetings by Mauno Pekkala

Promotion of agriculture and forestry in Finland

Calculating the annual financial performance of a forest district and a county

Forest regeneration and soil

Afforestation of drained peatlands

Settlement in compliance to the Land Settlement Act in the state lands and role of a forest officer in management of the settlement work

Economy of a regional district and road network

Thinning of forest stands

Clearing of a felling area

Organization of regional administration

Inspection of forest regeneration of mineral soil forest types and drained peatlands, and inspection of ditches

Management of mixed forests

Forestry in the county of eastern Finland

Wildlife management

Fish farming and management of fishing grounds

Criminal law and forests

Factors to consider in forest regeneration

Forest regeneration in poor forest sites

Production of forest tree seedlings

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail:
article id 4545, category Article
Metsänhoidon edistämiskomitea. (1938). Yksityismetsätalouden edistäminen. Silva Fennica no. 45 article id 4545. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9070
English title: Promotion of private forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsätalous; metsälaki; metsänhoitolautakunta; metsänhoitomaksu; metsänhoitoyhdistys
English keywords: forest management; forest taxation; legislation; private forests; forest owners’ association; forestry board
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The government of Finland appointed a commission to study how the work of forest owners’ associations could be promoted. In 1936 there was 232 forest owners’ associations in Finland. They had 20,632 members, who owned 1,841,304 hectares of forests. The owners of large forest holdings were overpresented among the members. The associations together with forestry boards were important actors in increasing the productivity of the private forests.

The commission concluded that rational forest management should be extended to all private forests, which could be best achieved through the forest owners’ associations. It suggested that the membership should remain voluntary, and that the financing of the associations would be arranged by self-taxation of the forest owners. The so called forest management tax should be devoted to the local forest owners’ associations. Also the state should continue to support the associations. Both state and the smallest forest holdings would be released from the forest management tax. The companies, estates and other large forest owners that employ their own forest management staff would pay a quarter of the tax. The tax could be based on the area of the forest, income of the timber sold or a combination of these. The commission suggested a forest management law, which would deal with the forest management tax and the forest owners’ associations.
The PDF includes a summary in Swedish and English.

  • Metsänhoidon edistämiskomitea, E-mail: mhek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4524, category Article
Risto Sarvas. (1937). Havaintoja kasvillisuuden kehityksestä Pohjois-Suomen kuloalueilla. Silva Fennica no. 44 article id 4524. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9069
English title: Observations on development of vegetation in burned areas in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; kasvillisuus; kuloala; metsäpalo; metsätyyppi; sukkessio
English keywords: succession; vegetation; northern Finland; forest fire; forest site type; dry upland forest site
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to follow development of vegetation in dry upland forest sites after forest fire. The sample sites were situated in the counties of Muonio, Kolari, Sodankylä, Pelkosenniemi, Savukoski, Kemijärvi and Salla, in the northernmost Finland.
The growth of plant communities can arise either from the vegetation and seeds that survived the fire, or from seeds that spread from the surrounding areas. The development of vegetation in the burned areas was unexpectedly independent of the surrounding areas, which indicates that role of the seeds from the outside of the burned ares is small. The occurence of different species of lichens, moss, scale moss and vascular plants in the burned areas are described in detail. The development of vegetation was strongly dependent on the forest site type. The thin humus layer of Cladina site type burns usually evenly, and also the vegetation develops more evenly than in the more fresh site types. Vegetation typical for burned areas was fully developed within 10-15 years, and after 25 years it began to resemble the vegetation of Cladina site type forests. The ground vegetation of Calluna type burned area was more patchy. It developed quicker than in Cladina type. Absense of lichens made it seem more fertile than is usual for Calluna type. The humus layer of Empetrum-Myrtillus site type burned unevenly, and if the area was lightly burned, the vegetation recovered quickly. The vegetation was often patchy.
The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4523, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1937). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran 25-vuotisjuhla 18.4.1934. Silva Fennica no. 43 article id 4523. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9068
English title: 25th anniversary of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences on April 18th, 1934.
Original keywords: esitelmät; metsätiede; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest sciences; Finnish Society of Forest Science; speeches
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The article includes description of the 25th anniversary festivities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences, held on April 18th, 1934. The volume contains the speeches and addresses held in the jubilee, dealing with Finnish forestry, and its development.
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: sms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4520, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1937). Valtionmetsien metsänhoitotöistä. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4520. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14098
English title: Forest management in state forests.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit
English keywords: forest management; forestry; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; forest districts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes forest management in state forests in Finland.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4519, category Article
A. A. Räsänen. (1937). Metsä- ja uittotyöväestön huolto. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4519. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14097
English title: Personnell maintenance in forest work and floating.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; uitto; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; työvoima; ruokahuolto
English keywords: forest education; floating; forest work; professional development courses; food supplies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the personnel maintenance in forest work and floating.

  • Räsänen, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4518, category Article
Eljas Kahra. (1937). Työttömyyskysymyksestä. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4518. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14096
English title: Unemployment problem.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; uitto; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; työllistäminen; työttömyys
English keywords: employment; forest education; forest work; professional development courses; unemployment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation discusses unemployment in Finland, and means to solve the problem. One of the sources of employment could be forest work.

  • Kahra, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4517, category Article
U. Metsänheimo. (1937). Metsäojituksen vaikutuksesta vesitalouteen. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4517. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14095
English title: Effects of forest draining on water management.
Original keywords: ojitus; suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; vesitalous
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; draining of peatland; ground water level
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the effects of draining of peatlands on water management in the peatland and the surrounding area.

  • Metsänheimo, E-mail: um@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4516, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1937). Karsimisesta arvopuun kasvatusta silmällä pitäen. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4516. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14094
English title: Pruning as a means to produce quality timber.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; karsiminen; laatupuu; oksikkuus; pystykarsinta
English keywords: pruning; timber quality; forest education; professional development courses; branchiness; knottiness
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes how pruning is used to produce quality timber.

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4515, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1937). Metsäverotuksen perusteista. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4515. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14093
English title: Principles of forest taxation.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäverotus
English keywords: forest taxation; forest education; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the principles of forest taxation in Finland in 1930s.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4514, category Article
Antti Kilpiö. (1937). Maalaiskuntien tuloista ja menoista. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4514. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14092
English title: Revenue and expenditure of rural municipalities.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; maalaiskunta; kuntatalous
English keywords: forestry; local economy; forest education; professional development courses; rural municipalities
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the revenue and expenditure of rural municipalities and the impact of forestry in their economy.

  • Kilpiö, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4513, category Article
Martti Tertti. (1937). Kuusimetsien uudistushakkauksista. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4513. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14091
English title: Regeneration felling of Norway spruce stands.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kasvatushakkuu; kuusikko; päätehakkuu
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; fellings; forest education; professional development courses; intermediate felling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the principles of reneneration felling in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst) stands.

  • Tertti, E-mail: mt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4512, category Article
Ahti Mecklin. (1937). Puutavaran kantohinnan arvioimisen perusteista. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4512. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14090
English title: Principles of determining stumpage prices.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsäopetus; puutavara; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puukauppa; kantohinta
English keywords: stumpage price; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; timber sale
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes determination of stumpage prices in timber sales of the state forests in Finland.

  • Mecklin, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4510, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1937). Hoitoaluehallinnon tehostamisesta. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4510. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14088
English title: Improving efficiency of the administration of state forests in Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; hoitoalue
English keywords: forest management; Forest Service; forest education; state forests; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the productivity of forestry and administration in different districts of state forests in Finland, and how the efficiency of the administration could be improved.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4509, category Article
K. T. Jutila. (1937). Maa- ja metsätalouden välisistä vuorosuhteista Suomen kansantaloudessa. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4509. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14087
English title: Interaction of forestry and agriculture in the national economy of Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäopetus; maatalous; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kansantalous
English keywords: forestry; forest education; professional development courses; agriculture; national economy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the relationships between forestry and agriculture in the national economy of Finland.

  • Jutila, E-mail: kj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4508, category Article
J. Koivisto. (1937). Maalaiskuntien kunnallishallinnon pääkohdat. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4508. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14086
English title: Administration in the rural municipalities in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; maalaiskunta; kunnallishallinto; kunnat
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; rural municipality; local administration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes the administration of rural municipalities in Finland.

  • Koivisto, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4507, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1937). Uuden asutuslainsäädännön ja erittäinkin valtion metsämaiden asuttamista koskevien säännöksien pääkohdat. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4507. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14085
English title: Main points of the new legislation concerning settlement policy and land settlement in state forests.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustoiminta; asutuspolitiikka
English keywords: legislation; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; settlement; settlement policy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes legislation concerning settlement policy in the state lands.

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4506, category Article
K. Kivialho. (1937). Kansantalouspolitiikan pääpiirteet. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4506. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14084
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kansantalous
English keywords: economics; forest education; professional development courses; economic policy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation describes national economy from the forestry point of view.

  • Kivialho, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4505, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1937). Tervehdyssanat. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4505. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14083
English title: Greetings of Prof. A.K. Cajander for professional development courses for foresters.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica issue 42 includes presentations held in professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service

This presentation includes the greetings of professor A.K.Cajander for the courses.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4504, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1937). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit 1936. 2. Silva Fennica no. 42 article id 4504. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a14082
English title: Professional development courses for foresters in 1936, 2nd course.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänhoitaja
English keywords: forest management; forest administration; forest education; professional development courses; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 42 includes presentations held in the second professional development courses, arranged for foresters working in the public administration in 1936. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

Greetings of A.K. Cajander

Principles of economic policy

Main points of the new legislation concerning settlement policy and land settlement in the state forests

Administration in the rural municipalities

Interaction of forestry and agriculture in the national economy of Finland

Improving effectivity in the administration of state forests

Implementation of new legislation on parcelling out land in the state lands

Principles of determining stumpage prices

Regeneration fellings of Norway spruce stands

Revenue and expenditure of rural municipalities

Principles of forest taxation

Use of pruning to produce good-quality timber

Effects of forest drainage on water management

Unemployment problem

Personnell maintenance in forest work and floating

Forest management in state forests

  • Metsähallitus, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4503, category Article
Metsähallitus. (1937). Metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit 1935. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4503. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8997
English title: Professional development courses for foresters in 1935.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; metsänhoitaja
English keywords: forest management; forest administration; forest education; foresters; forest officers
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

The issue includes the following presentations; the individual presentations can be found in separate PDFs:

Practical forest inventory methods

Preparation of national budget in forestry administration

Peatlands’ suitability to draining

Statistics of wages in forest work and floating

Forest management planning

Parceling out new farms in state forests

Facilitating natural regeneration

Promoting self-sufficiency in food supply of the farms in the remote areas of Finland

Forest nurseries in Finland

Administration in the forest districts of Forest Service

Building and maintenance of roads

Practices of forest drainage work

Artificial regeneration of forests

Travelling guidelines and travel invoices in forest administration

Forestry statistics

Peatlands suitable for agriculture in state lands, and the factors affecting drainability of the peatlands

Planning of wood harvesting in Forest Service

Road units and right of way in village roads

Quality of coniferous forests and the value of timber

Use and accounting of funds of Metsähallitus (Forest Service)

Production of good quality timber

Planning and renovation of buildings

Observations on forest management work in state forests
  • Metsähallitus, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4502, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1937). Havaintoja viimeaikaisista metsänhoitotöistä valtionmetsissä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4502. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13912
English title: Observations on forest management work in state forests.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; kylvö; valtion metsät; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; istutus; kasvatushakkuu; taimikon perkaus; kulotus
English keywords: forest management; silviculture; planting; forest education; state forests; sowing; forest work; professional development courses; cleaning of sapling stand; broadcast burning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue 39 of Silva Fennica includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes the forest management work in the state forests.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4501, category Article
Ilmari Lehtinen. (1937). Eräitä näkökohtia rakennusten suunnittelussa ja korjaustöissä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4501. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13911
English title: Planning and renovation of buildings.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; rakentaminen; rakennusten korjaus; rakennusten ylläpito; puurakennus; puutalo
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; maintenance of buildings; wooden house; renovation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue 39 of Silva Fennica includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes building and renovation of wooden buildings, that were owned by the forest organizations.

  • Lehtinen, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4500, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1937). Laatupuun kasvattamisesta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4500. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13910
English title: Production of good quality timber.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; puun laatu; metsänkasvatus
English keywords: forest management; silviculture; forest education; professional development courses; quality of timber
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue 39 of Silva Fennica includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes methods of forest management that lead to production of qood quality timber, needed in the saw industry.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4499, category Article
Sulo Järvinen. (1937). Määrärahain käyttö ja tilitys. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4499. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13909
English title: Use and accounting of funds of Metsähallitus (Forest Service).
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; metsätalouden kirjanpito
English keywords: Forest Service; forest administration; forest education; forestry bookkeeping; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue 39 of Silva Fennica includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes the administration of funds and bookkeeping in Metsähallitus (Forest Service) in practical level.

  • Järvinen, E-mail: sj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4498, category Article
Ilmari Vuoristo. (1937). Havupuumetsien laatuarvo ja laadun arviointi. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4498. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13908
English title: Quality of coniferous forests and the value of timber.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; sahatavara; sahateollisuus; puun laatu; tukkipuu
English keywords: sawn timber; timber quality; saw log; forest education; professional development courses; saw industry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The issue 39 of Silva Fennica includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes the quality of timber and coniferous forests in the point of view of saw industry.

  • Vuoristo, E-mail: iv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4497, category Article
Erkki J. Simola. (1937). Kyläteiden tieyksiköistä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4497. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13907
English title: Road units and right of way in village roads.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; kylätie; tiestö; tieosakas; tieyksikkö; tien kunnossapito
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; maintenance of roads
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes the use and maintenance of village roads.

  • Simola, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4496, category Article
E. A. Sopanen. (1937). Leimausehdotuksen laadinnasta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4496. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13906
English title: Planning of wood harvesting in Forest Service.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; leimikko; leimausehdotus; puukauppa
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; professional development courses; wood sales; stand marked for harvesting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes how to make a document required in Metsähallitus (Forest Service) when a stand is marked for harvesting.

  • Sopanen, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4495, category Article
Mauno J. Kotilainen. (1937). Soiden viljelyskelpoisuuteen vaikuttavista tekijöistä ja valtionmaiden soiden viljelyskelpoisuudesta lähinnä niiden asutusmahdollisuuksia silmällä pitäen. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4495. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13905
English title: Peatlands suitable for agriculture in state lands, and the factors affecting drainability of the peatlands.
Original keywords: suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustila; maanviljely; viljelykelpoisuus; maatila
English keywords: peatland; forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses; homesteads; farm
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation discusses the use of peatlands in agriculture and peatlands' suitability to farming.

  • Kotilainen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4494, category Article
Eino Saari. (1937). Metsätaloudelliset tilastot. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13904
English title: Forestry statistics.
Original keywords: tilastot; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; valtion metsien inventointi; metsätilasto; hintatilasto; valtion metsien tilastot; metsävarat; hakkuutilastot
English keywords: National Forest Inventory; forest education; statistics; professional development courses; statistic of state forests; roundwood trade statistics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation lists statistics available on forestry.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4493, category Article
Aimo Mela. (1937). Matkustussäännöstä ja matkalaskuista. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4493. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13903
English title: Travelling guidelines and travel invoices in forest administration.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; työmatka; matkat
English keywords: forest administration; forest education; professional development courses; business travel; travelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation describes travelling guidlines in forest administration.

  • Mela, E-mail: am@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4492, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1937). Metsän keinollisesta uudistamisesta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13902
English title: Artificial regeneration of forests.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; kylvö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsän uudistaminen; istutus
English keywords: planting; forest regeneration; forest education; sowing; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

 This presentation describes the methods of artificial regeneration of forests.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4491, category Article
A. J. Cautón. (1937). Kuivaustöitten suorittamisesta metsänkasvattamista varten. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13901
English title: Practices of forest drainage work.
Original keywords: suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus; ojitussuunnitelma
English keywords: forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses; drainage plan; drainage system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation gives guidelines for draining of peatlands.

  • Cautón, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4490, category Article
Erkki J. Simola. (1937). Teiden rakentamisesta ja kunnossapidosta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4490. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13900
English title: Building and maintenance of roads.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; tienrakennus; teiden kunnosapito
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; building of roads; maintenance of roads
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level.

This presentation gives guidlines in building and maintaining roads in forest administration.

  • Simola, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4489, category Article
Einari Wuori. (1937). Hoitoalueen kansliatöiden järjestelystä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4489. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13899
English title: Administration in the forest districts of Forest Service.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; hoitoalue; toimistotyö; hallintotyö
English keywords: Forest Service; forest education; professional development courses; administration; forest district
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the administration in districts of Forest Service.

  • Wuori, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4488, category Article
V. K. Ahola. (1937). Taimitarhatöistä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4488. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13898
English title: Forest nurseries in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; taimitarha; taimituotanto
English keywords: forest education; professional development courses; forest nurseries; tree seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes cultivation of seedlings in forest nurseries.

  • Ahola, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4487, category Article
Erkki J. Kinnunen. (1937). Metsäseutujen työläisten omavaraistuttaminen elintarvikkeisiin nähden. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4487. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13897
English title: Promoting self-sufficiency in food supply of the farms in the remote areas of Finland.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; maanviljely; omavaraisuus; elintarvikkeet
English keywords: forest; professional development courses; state lands; agriculture; food production
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation studies the food supply and economic situation of the farmers in the remote parts of Finland.

  • Kinnunen, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4486, category Article
Martti Tertti. (1937). Metsien luontaisen uudistumisen edistämisestä. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4486. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13896
English title: Facilitating natural regeneration.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; kylvö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; luontainen uudistaminen; taimetuminen
English keywords: natural regeneration; silviculture; forest education; sowing; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes natural regeneration in forests and factors affecting the success of regeneration.

  • Tertti, E-mail: mt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4485, category Article
Paavo Jokinen. (1937). N. s. uusien tilojen muodostaminen valtion metsämaille. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4485. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13895
English title: Parceling out new farms in state forests.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; asutustila; asutustoiminta; lohkominen
English keywords: colonization; forest education; state forests; professional development courses; homesteads; parceling out of land
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes parcelling out of land for new farms in state forests.

  • Jokinen, E-mail: pj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4484, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1937). Metsätaloussuunnitelmat. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4484. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13894
English title: Forest management planning.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; hakkuusuunnitelma
English keywords: forest management; forest education; professional development courses; cutting plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes forest management planning in the state forests.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4483, category Article
Esko Hellén. (1937). Metsä- ja uittotyöpalkkatarkkailu. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4483. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13893
English title: Statistics of wages in forest work and floating.
Original keywords: metsäopetus; uitto; metsätyö; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; palkkaus
English keywords: forest education; floating; forest work; professional development courses; wages; rate of pay
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes statistics of wages in forest work and in floating.

  • Hellén, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4482, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1937). Soiden ojituskelpoisuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4482. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13892
English title: Peatlands’ suitability to draining.
Original keywords: ojituskelpoisuus; suo; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsäojitus
English keywords: forest education; draining of peatlands; professional development courses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes different kinds of peatlands and their suitability to draining and forestry.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4481, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1937). Metsähallinnon tulo- ja menoarvion laatiminen ja käsittely. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4481. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13891
English title: Preparation of national budget in forestry administration.
Original keywords: metsäpolitiikka; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsähallinto; tulo- ja menoarvio; budjetti; määrärahat; talousarvio
English keywords: forest policy; forest administration; forest education; professional development courses; funding; budget; national budget; state
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes the peparation of national budget in forestry administration.

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4480, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1937). Käytännöllisistä metsänarvioimistavoista. Silva Fennica no. 39 article id 4480. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a13890
English title: Practical forest inventory methods.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäopetus; metsänhoitajien jatkokurssit; metsänarvioiminen; puuvarat; metsien inventointi; linja-arviointi
English keywords: forest inventory; forest mensuration; forest education; professional development courses; wood resources; strip-survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silva Fennica Issue 39 includes presentations held in professional development courses in 1935 that were arranged for foresters working in public administration. The presentations focus on practical issues in forest management and administration, especially in regional level. The education was arranged by Forest Service.

This presentation describes different forest inventory methods.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4477, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1935). Metsänhoitolaitoksen 75-vuotisjuhla 19. IV. 1934. Silva Fennica no. 36 article id 4477. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9063
English title: 75 years’ jubilee of the Finnish Forest Service on April 19th, 1934.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsätalous; historia; esitelmät; juhlat; valtion laitokset
English keywords: Forest Service; state forests; anniversary
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a description of the 75th anniversary of Finnish Forest Service (now Metsähallitus, Forest Service), held on April 19th 1934. The greetings of the quests, presented in the Commemoration festival and Banquet, are included in the article.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: fsfs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4476, category Article
P. J. Pelttari. (1935). Yksityismetsien työtarjonnasta. Silva Fennica no. 35 article id 4476. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9062
English title: Supply of work in private forests in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; yksityismetsät; hakkuu; metsätyö; puunkuljetus; työpaikat
English keywords: employment; haulage; fellings; private forests; workforce; forest work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A review on the availability of forest work in the private forests in Finland was compiled on the request of the Unemployment Council. Private forests, and forests of municipalities and parishes covered 52.7% of the forest lands in Finland, according to the forest inventory made in 1922-1924. The proportion of private lands were estimated to increase in the future when state lands were parceled out to private land owners. Shifting cultivation, forest fires and selective fellings have influenced condition of the private forests. The interest to improve productivity of the forests has, however increased in 1920s and 1930s, which increases work opportunities.

The work opportunities in private forests is estimated to be 27.6 million man-days and 5.4 million horse-days annually.  Wood harvesting and hauling are the main source of employment with 20.3 million man-days. The workforce is estimated to be 75,920 men and 16,200 horses, but more intensive forest management could increase the numbers to 91,900 and 18,100, respectively. To improve the condition of private forests, it should be obligatory to mark the trees for cutting before the fellings. One means to improve forest management would be cooperation between the forest owners.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pelttari, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4475, category Article
Olavi Cajander. (1934). Viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta sekä lehtokasvillisuudesta ja -kasvistosta keskisen Längelmäveden seudulla. Silva Fennica no. 34 article id 4475. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9047
English title: Distribution of fertile lands and vegetation indicative for herb-rich forest sites in Längelmävesi area in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; Häme; lehdot; Satakunta; viljavuus; viljava maa
English keywords: fertility; plant geography; herb-rich forest sites; vegetation analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Typical for the area of Längälmävesi, in Satakunta in Southern Finland, are densely populated fertile lowland areas near the waterways and poorer sparcely populated upland areas. The changes in fertility of the land influence the vegetation, and has directed where the population has settled. A vegetation survey was made using specific plant species as indication to fertility. A detailed description of the species composition and distribution of the plant species indicative for fertile land is presented in the article.

Analyzing the fertility only based on the plant species indicative for rich soils underestimates the proportion of fertile lands. Farmlands, on the other hand, have been cleared also on less fertile soils, which would give an overestimate of the fertile lands. A map of fertile lands was drawn based on both vegetation and location of the fields. The changes in fertility influenced also bird species observed in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Cajander, E-mail: oc@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4474, category Article
Mauno Forsström. (1933). Metsätyöntekijän erikoisasemasta työoikeudessa. Silva Fennica no. 33 article id 4474. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9046
English title: Special status of forest workers in the labor law.
Original keywords: metsätyöntekijät; työehtosopimukset; työoikeus; työsuojelu
English keywords: forest worker; collective agreement; occupational safety
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Labour legislation has developed strongly in a short time, and ways of its application have not yet been established. The article defines first the concept of forest worker from the point of view of the labour law. Collective agreement, contract of employment, wages, work instructions, and labour disputes concerning forest work are discussed. Finally, the author discourses the issues associated to occupational safety and health legislation, for instance, working hours, accident insurance and forest accommodation.

Forest work is typically seasonal, and it is payed for time or piece rates or by the job. The collective agreements have been difficult to apply in forest work, and more important have been the contract of employment. Labour disputes have been rare. The reported accidents in forest and floating work have increased since the Law on Accident Insurance entered into force in 1925. Compared to many other sectors, forest work has high risk for accidents.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Forsström, E-mail: mf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4473, category Article
Alfred Brandt. (1933). Hiisjärven luonnonpuiston kasvillisuudesta. Silva Fennica no. 32 article id 4473. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9045
English title: Vegetation in the Hiisjärvi protected area in Eastern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; kasviyhdyskunnat; luonnonpuistot; luonnonsuojelualueet; metsätyypit; suokasvillisuus; vesikasvillisuus
English keywords: forest site type; nature reserve; protection of nature; nature park; peatland type; aquatic flora
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Metsähallitus (Forest Service) decided to protect two areas around Hiisijärvi lake in Eastern Finland already in 1916. Later, a natural park was suggested to be established in the area. A survey of the vegetation in the area was composed in 1931-1932. The total land area of the protected area was 3.5 km3. A vegetation map was drawn based on a nature inventory. A detailed description of the forest site types, peatland types, aquatic flora and the vegetation of the area are included in the article. The calcareous soil promotes rich vegetation. Typical for the area are also rich fens. The area can be divided to a eutrophic and a oligotrophic part.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Brandt, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4471, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1933). Metsätalouden metsänhoitoteknillinen tarkkailu : pääasiassa yksityismetsätaloutta silmälläpitäen. Silva Fennica no. 30 article id 4471. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9043
English title: Forestry bookkeeping from the point of view of private forestry.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; yksityismetsätalous; metsätalouden kirjapito
English keywords: forest management; private forestry; forestry bookkeeping; financial accounting of forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

As the use and value of forests have increased, forests have been managed more as a business. Financial bookkeeping defines the production costs of wood, costs of forest management work, investments in forest improvement, taxes and administrative costs, income from the sales of forest products etc. Bookkeeping reports the annual costs and income in the forestry, but does not give information of the future profits or appropriate organization of the economy of forestry.

The author introduces a system that he calls “metsänhoitoteknillinen tarkkailu” (silvicultural monitoring), which would give economic information of the forestry, and could also replace a forest management plan in the private forests. The bookkeeping system will list in detail the volumes and areas of fellings and silvicultural measures in different years, and deduce the sustainability of the use of forests and future incomes in forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4469, category Article
Paperipuun-vientikomitea. (1933). Paperipuukysymys. Silva Fennica no. 28 article id 4469. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9041
English title: The pulpwood question.
Original keywords: kuusi; vienti; kauppapolitiikka; komiteanmietinnöt; kuitupuu; paperiteollisuus; raakapuu
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; paper industry; wood consumption; wood export
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A Commission was appointed to examine the significance of pulpwood exports from the political-economic and social point of view. A survey was made of the development of woodworking industry in Finland. The article includes a detailed review on paper industry in Finland and abroad, pulpwood resources in Finland and outlook of the industry. The export of pulpwood was significant in 1925-1927, the most important country being Germany. The commission notes that It would be more profitable to refine the wood into more expensive products. It does, however, not see it necessary to restrict export of pulpwood. If restrictions are considered necessary, prohibition of export is a better way than export duties.

The best way to promote domestic paper industry is to increase the supply of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Measures are suggested to increase the productivity of the forests through forest improvement. The annual increment of spruce is calculated to cover the consumption in near future, provided the export of pulpwood does not amount to 600,000 m3, and the local demand of pulpwood does not exceed 7.8 million m3 annually. The Commission proposes that state ownership of forests is increased, forest management is intensified, and restrictions of forest industry to acquire forest land are removed.

It suggests also reliefs in taxation and import duties on fields related to transport, and equipment and raw materials needed by the paper industry.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Paperipuun-vientikomitea, E-mail: pv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4468, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1933). Metsän puutteesta sekä sen syistä ja torjumistoimenpiteistä Ruotsi-Suomessa. Silva Fennica no. 27 article id 4468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9040
English title: Forest devastation, its causes and prevention in Sweden-Finland.
Original keywords: metsänkäyttö; metsäpolitiikka; metsätuotteet; metsien häviäminen; metsiensuojelu; Ruotsi-Suomi
English keywords: forest policy; shifting cultivation; wood utilization; forest products; Ruotsi-Suomi
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The earliest local records of lack of timber in Finland are from the 1600th century when Finland belonged to Sweden. The causes vary from burning of tar and shifting cultivation to local factories using fuel wood. Best preserved were forests in Lapland and Kainuu in Northern Finland and those parts of Karelia where shifting cultivation was not practiced. Especially harmful was shifting cultivation, because it made it impossible to grow valuable timber. The state did not intervene in the use of forests until it itself began to need more wood. Shipbuilding was the first cause to limit the use of wood, especially need of mast trees of pine and oak. Also the use of timber by private sawmills began to raise general concern in the 16th century. They influenced the decrease of forests in the 1800th century, due to the limited wood procurement areas and selection felling of timber trees. The establishment of sawmills became regulated in 1700th century. Collective forest ownership by the farms was seen at the time one of the reasons to forest devastation. In 1654 the state of Sweden forbade the burning of mast or in timber forests. Mining industry needed much fuel wood, and shifting cultivation was forbidden near the mines in 1734. Regulations and instructions were also on given on use of wood, for instance, in building, in fences, leaf fodder, fuel wood and tar burning.

Despite of many efforts, the government of Sweden could not prevent devastation of forests in Finland. The many wars of the state hindered economic growth, the regulations were sporadic and often difficult to apply, there was little supervision, the understanding of forestry was poor, and the remote Finland was often neglected in Sweden.

The PDF includes a summary in German.
  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4466, category Article
Maatalousyliopistokomitea. (1932). Ehdotus maatalousyliopiston perustamiseksi. Maatalousyliopistokomitean mietintö n:o 2. Silva Fennica no. 25 article id 4466. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9022
English title: Proposal for the establishment of an agricultural university in Finland.
Original keywords: maatalousopetus; metsäopetus; maatalousyliopisto; eläinlääkintä; Helsingin yliopisto; maanmittaus
English keywords: University of Helsinki; agricultural education; forestry education; veterinary sciences; surveying; university of agriculture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Agricultural University Committee recommended in its first report that the higher education in agriculture and forestry should be transferred to Helsinki, the capital of Finland. The same arguments that were presented on the education of agriculture and forestry can be applied to education of agricultural engineers, surveyors and veterinaries.

According to the proposal of the Committee, the Government reserved in 1931 buildings in Wiik and Malmgård estates for the education of agriculture and forestry. Thus, the higher education of agriculture and forestry have been appointed training areas near Helsinki, where also the education of agricultural engineers, surveyors and veterinaries could be located.

Connections to the University of Helsinki has proven invaluable to the development of higher education of agriculture and forestry. However, the Committee recommends the establishment of separate agricultural university for the sectors, because the other faculties support the separation of the faculty from the university. It seems to the Committee that education in agriculture and forestry no longer poses sufficient opportunities of development within the University of Helsinki. The education in veterinary science should remain in connection to education in agriculture. The education of surveyors and agricultural engineers are at present arranged partly at the Technical University, and their location remains to be decided. A proposal for the organization, staff, education, decrees and professors is included in the article.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Maatalousyliopistokomitea, E-mail: my@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4463, category Article
Erkki K. Cajander. (1932). Tietoja metsänviljelystoiminnasta Suomessa 1923-1930. Silva Fennica no. 22 article id 4463. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9019
English title: Artificial forest regeneration in Finland in 1923-1930.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; metsänhoito; metsänistutus; kylvö; valtion metsät; yksityismetsät
English keywords: forest management; planting; state forests; private forests; forest improvement; sowing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on early forest regeneration and management in Finland. Beginning of the 1900s marks change in attitudes and resources for forest management. The state increased the funding of forest regeneration and improvement in the state forests in 1928. State funding is directed also to forest improvement in the private forests, and organizations established to promote forest management in the private forests are reorganized. For instance, District Forestry Boards were appointed the forest improvement work in private lands, in addition to promotion of private forestry. Sowing increased in the state forests from 772 ha to 1,566 ha, in forests of the forest companies from 3,006 ha to 4,954, and in private forests from 1,417 ha to 1,566 ha in 1923-1926. The figures of private forests are, however, incomplete. The most usual methods are patch sowing and broadcast sowing on snow. Seeds used in sowing increased from 3,357 kg to 14,387 kg, and planting from 413 ha to 1,020 ha in 1923-1930. Almost half of the sown areas were in the state forests, and most of the planted area in the forests of the companies. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was the main tree species in artificial regeneration, and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) was more popular in planting.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ec@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4462, category Article
E. E. Kaila. (1932). Tervanpolton leviäminen Suomessa 1700-luvun puolimaissa. Silva Fennica no. 21 article id 4462. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9018
English title: Tar burning in Finland in the middle of the 18th century.
Original keywords: tervanpoltto; vienti; taloushistoria; metsien käyttö
English keywords: forest utilization; burning of tar; export; economic history
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Tar was an important export article in Finland, then a part of Sweden, in the 18th century. For instance, in 1640 half of Finnish trade consisted of tar. In other countries, like Norway, Poland, Archangel in Russia, and North Sweden, burning of tar was minor compared to Finland. In Finland, tar was produced of young pine trees. Tar production concentrated in more remote locations of the country, where it would be too difficult and expensive to transport timber and wood products. The cheapest products, such as wood, boards and planks, were produced on a coastal zone at farthest 30 km from the coast. Tar was produced in the zone beyond the coastal district. The inland parts of Southern Finland were, however, hilly which made even the transport of tar difficult. Tar production ended by the middle of the 19th century when wooden ships were abandoned, and the value of forests and other wood products increased.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kaila, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4461, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1931). Organizations of the forest research in Finland. Silva Fennica no. 20 article id 4461. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9002
Keywords: forest science; organizations; research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The main idea when founding of the Forest Science Research Institute (later Finnish Forest Research Institute) was to have an independent research institute. The institute had from the beginning the right to pursue experiments in certain state owned forests.

The higher forest education and the research institute are separate from each other. Since 1908 is the higher forest education at the University of Helsinki, before that is was organized in the forest institute in Evo. The forest institute in Evo gave forest education of intermediate grade. The first doctoral defense in forest science took place at the University of Helsinki in 1913.  There is however a close relation between the research institute and university; many professors of the institute teach at the university, and many university professors are engaged in the research work of the institute.  

There was a need to ensure that the forest research will not be monopolized by the research institute and the university. For that purpose The Finnish Society of Forest Science was founded in 1909. Its objective was to enhance the cooperation among forest scientists and with other disciplines as well as with the practical forest professionals. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4459, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1931). Tieteellinen tutkimustyö sekä korkein opetus maatalouden ja metsätalouden alalla. Silva Fennica no. 18 article id 4459. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a9000
English title: Research and higher education of agriculture and forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; tutkimus; metsätalous; maataloustieteet; metsäopetus; maatalous; yliopistot
English keywords: forest sciences; agricultural sciences; university
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Applied research in the fields of agriculture and forestry is as demanding as theoretical research. The perception that it could be less exact is incorrect. Different variables have to be accounted for, for instance in cultivation of cereals. To define the effect of one variable, the scientist has to know and take account of the combined effect of the all the variables influencing the growth of the species. Results that can be put into practice are often demanded quickly, and the they should be broadly applicable. The research and education in the fields of agriculture and forestry have to respond to domestic needs. It is therefore necessary to secure that the research has sufficient equipment and premises.

The higher education and research of agriculture and forestry should be organized in the capital of the country, where the main organizations of the field are located. The present buildings of the faculty are, however, not adequate for teaching and research. The applied sciences need also connections to practice. Forest education has a forest experimental area, but agricultural education has no experimental fields in its use. The best location would be in Wiik area near the capital Helsinki. In addition, the teaching staff in the faculty is insufficient. New professorships should be established both in agriculture and forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4457, category Article
Maatalousyliopistokomitea. (1930). Korkeimman maa- ja metsätalousopetuksen kehittäminen. Silva Fennica no. 16 article id 4457. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8998
English title: Development of higher education on agriculture and forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; komiteanmietintö; maatalousopetus; maataloustieteet; metsäopetus; yliopisto
English keywords: forest education; forest science; agricultural education; agricultural sciences; university
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a proposal for organizing higher education on agriculture and forestry in Finland. The committee assessed that the best location for both forestry and agriculture education is the capital of Helsinki, where are situated the University of Helsinki, the College of Technology, the College of Commerce, most scientific institutions of the country, and the central government departments. Because the degree programs cannot be extended to include all the subjects of the developing fields of agriculture and forestry, it is suggested that the studies of agriculture will have four, and the studies of forestry three disciplines. The students would specialize in one main subject. The faculty should be divided into agricultural science and forest science sections.

The present teaching staff is considered insufficient. Thus, the committee proposes several new posts of professors, lecturers and teachers. Another problem is shortage of suitable premises. Therefore, new buildings should be constructed for the education of agriculture and forestry, and the Forest Research Institute. Agricultural experimental estates are proposed to be established in the Wiik estate and in the Malmgård estate. Accordingly, forest experimental station would be established at Korkeakoski. To enable the education of scientifically schooled personnel, grants should be provided for both studies abroad and for scientific work in Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Maatalousyliopistokomitea, E-mail: my@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4456, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1930). Characters and meaning of forest types. Silva Fennica no. 15 article id 4456. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8990
Keywords: classification; presentation; plant community; vegetation unit; forest types; forest site classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains three presentations given about forest type classification at the University of Tarto in Estonia. The article has an introduction, a part about the meaning of the natural classification of forest sites and up to now conducted studies on site classification. The second part presents the characteristics of plant communities and the forest types, and practical and theoretical meaning of forest types.

Classifying the forest sites is important in practical forestry, because the forest growth and forest valuation are dependent on the productivity of the soil. The classification of the sites for forest management purposes needs to result in classes that are easily distinguished in the forest. This then leads to forest management that best fits to a certain forest site. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4455, category Article
O Tähtinen. (1930). Katsaus Jokioisten kartanon eli n.s. Jokiläänin metsätalouden vaiheisiin. Silva Fennica no. 14 article id 4455. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8989
English title: A short account of the history of the forestry of the Jokioinen Estate.
Original keywords: metsänkäyttö; historia; kartano; kaskiviljely; polttopuu
English keywords: forest utilization; shifting cultivation; estate management; fuel wood; history
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Jokioinen Estate was established in 1562 when king Erik XIV of Sweden granted a large area around Jokioinen in the southwest Finland to Klas Kristersson Horn. The estate had several landlords until it was acquired in 1872 by Jokkis Stock Company, and finally sold to the government in 1918. The forestry of the estate was influenced by complications concerning the ownership of the land. A part of the tenants of the estate had originally been independent and owned their farms, but some farms were so-called family-right-farms, which were inherited from father to son, but the farmer did not own the land. A third type of farmers were ordinary tenants, who were directly dependent on the landlord. Especially ambiguous was the family-right-farmers’ right to harvest timber from the forests. The Finnish government acquired the estate to solve the problems and gave the tenants right to buy their farms.

Until the 18th century most of the farmers in Jokioinen area practiced shifting cultivation. This method of farming influenced strongly the forests, and continued until the increased market price of timber made it unprofitable. The forests were also the source of fuel wood for both the farmers and the landlord. The estate had own saw-mill industry since the 18th century. In 1871 a trained forester was hired for the estate. When the government acquired the estate, it comprised 32,000 hectares of land. The state retained 7,000 hectares of the forests. They were managed by a trained forester and administrated under the Board of Agriculture.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Tähtinen, E-mail: ot@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4454, category Article
C. C. Böcker. (1929). Silviculture in the Northern countries. Silva Fennica no. 13 article id 4454. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8987
Original keywords: metsänhoito; Pohjoismaat; Ruotsi; hakkuutavat; metsäpolitiikka; metsänhoidon historia
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; silviculture; Nordic countries; Sweden; felling methods; history of silviculture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article gives a review on the history of forest management in the Northern countries. The article concludes that in the Northern Countries with their immense supplies of forest and small demand, because of sparse population, there was no hurry for developing the study of forest economics, as was the case in Central Europe. It was only when the modern wood using industry had revolutionized the marketing conditions, that the opportunity was provided for forest economics to develop. The paper introduces the book ’Om skogarnas skötsel in Norden’ (Silviculture in the Northern Countries) written by a Finn C.C. Böcker. That paper was compiled in behalf of a request of the king of Sweden, King Carl XIV Johan, who offered a price to a person who would draw a scheme for organizing forestry in Sweden, where Finland at that time belonged to. The prize was divided by Böcker and a swede, af Ström.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish and English and the original text in Swedish.

  • Böcker, E-mail: cb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4453, category Article
Metsätieteellinen Tutkimuslaitos, Suomen Metsänhoitoyhdistys, Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1929). Näkökohtia Suomen metsätalouden tehostamiseksi. Silva Fennica no. 12 article id 4453. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8986
English title: Improving the productivity of forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; puunkäyttö; metsäteollisuus
English keywords: forestry; forest industry; wood utilization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a joint study of the Forest Research Institute, the Forest Association and the Society of Forestry (now Finnish Society of Forest Science) on means to increase the productivity of forestry in Finland.

The study identifies five ways to improve the productivity of forestry in the country. First, the yield of forests should be increased by draining peatlands, reforestating understocked forests, changing tree species, if they are unsuitable for the site, increasing improvement fellings and enhancing regeneration in the cutting areas. Second, the utilization and trade of small-diameter timber should be developed. Third, export of wood should be promoted, while the use of wood as fuel instead of imported fuels should be increased. Fourth, the export of Finnish wood products should be secured, for instance, by reducing manufacturing costs and developing production methods in the industry. Fifth, both the elementary and higher education of forestry should be developed further.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Metsätieteellinen Tutkimuslaitos, E-mail: mtl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Suomen Metsänhoitoyhdistys, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown
  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: fs@mm.unknown
article id 4449, category Article
Oskari Jalmari Lukkala. (1928). Metsähallinnon suonkuivatustoiminnassa saavutettuja kokemuksia sekä suuntaviivoja suonkuivausta koskevan tutkimustyön kehittämiseksi. Silva Fennica no. 8 article id 4449. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8397
English title: Experiences on draining of peatlands in the State forests in Finland by Forest Service and lines along which research on the draining of peatlands should proceed.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; suo; metsänparannus; metsäntutkimus
English keywords: Finland; state forests; draining of peatlands; forest improvement
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Systematic draining of peatlands begun in the state forests of Finland in 1908. It was considered necessary, because 41.4% of the state forests, 5.6 million hectares, consist of peatlands. Of the peatlands, 1.9 million hectares was estimated to be suitable for draining. Furthermore, paludification still continues in the forest lands. By the year 1926, a total of 52,275 hectares of peatland had been drained in the state lands.

Certain factors decide whether the peatland is suitable for draining: the growth increment capacity after draining, technical difficulties in draining, and difficulties in regeneration. Peatland type indicates the growth capacity of the drained peatland. The peatland should turn at least to Vaccinum forest site type or better type to be worth of draining. If the peat layer is thin, the quality of peat is an important deciding factor. The peatland may also be too expensive to drain due to, for instance, long ditches, main ditches difficult to dig, small inclination, uneven surface, and deep cavities at the bottom. The younger the trees of the stand, the faster the growth of the stand revives. The peatlands usually regenerate naturally provided there is sufficient seed trees, and there is seldom need for artificial regeneration.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4448, category Article
Lauri Ilvessalo. (1927). Ehdotus Suomen metsätieteellisen tutkimustoiminnan kehittämiseksi. Silva Fennica no. 7 article id 4448. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8396
English title: Proposal for the development of forest research work in Finland.
Original keywords: järjestöt; metsätieteet; tutkimus; tutkimuslaitokset
English keywords: The Forest Research Institute; The Society of Forestry; forest sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

National research has important role in creating the basis of forestry in Finland. The Forest Research Institute was established in 1918. In 1927 it had three departments: Department of Silviculture, Department of Forest Mensuration and Valuation and Department of Forest Soils. Each department had one professor and an assistant. Several areas of research are proposed to be expanded, and three new departments are suggested: Department of Swamp Investigation, Department of Forest Utilization and Department of Forest Economics. In addition, research workers should be hired in forest zoology and forest pathology.

The Society of Forestry (now: The Finnish Society of Forest Science) was established in 1909 to promote research in forest and wood science in Finland. It publishes two science journals, holds meetings and gives out grants for research. The society receives an annual state subsidy of 100,000 Finnish marks, which is almost entirely used to cover the costs of maintaining the society's publishing activities. Thus, very small means have been available, for instance, for grants for research work. The annual subsidy should be increased to 225,000 Finnish marks.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: li@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4447, category Article
Oiva Johannes Lakari. (1927). Valtion metsätalouden tehostaminen. Silva Fennica no. 6 article id 4447. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8395
English title: Work for greater efficiency in the state forestry.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; kannattavuus
English keywords: forest management; forestry; profitability; Forest Service; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article proposes a plan to improve the efficiency of forest management in the state forests in Finland. The forests are situated mostly in Northern Finland. In 1926 the state forests covered 39.5% of the total land-area of the country, 13,580,611 hectares in total. A proportion of 52.3% of the land was productive forest land, 21.4% forest land of poor growth and 24.8% waste land. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). predominated 56.9%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) 30.5% and Betula sp. 11.9% of the productive forest land. The fellings have mainly been selective fellings of sawn timber, because the demand for small timber was small. Due to this, there is lack of seedling and young stands. Metsähallitus (Forest Service) has been able to increase the sales of small timber by increasing delivery loggings over standing sales. The net profit of state forestry was 136 million marks in 1929.

Several factors have had negative impact on profitability of state forestry: Major part of the forests are situated in Northern Finland, they are of poorer quality than the private forests, and they are located unfavorable in terms of wood demand. The means to improve financial result of state forest include expanding transport network, such as railroads and floating channels. The yield of the forests can be substantially increased by draining peatlands, improving the effectivity of forest management and increasing the proportion of delivery loggings. Changing the silvicultural practices alone is estimated to increase the productivity of the forests by 50–100%. However, the costs of the peatland draining and silvicultural work are high, and direct profits can’t be expected until later.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4446, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). Methods for preparing yield tables. Silva Fennica no. 5 article id 4446. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8394
Keywords: growth and yield table; forest site class; quality class; fertility; growth series
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on methods used in Central Europe and in Finland to construct growth and yield tables, and on their defects and advantages. One of the main defects of growth and yield tables prepared previously in Central Europe is that the site quality classes for different tree species have been formed independently and using different principles. Thus, the yields of different tree species on a similar site can’t be compared. In addition, the quality classes of this kind of growth and yield tables and growth series are artificial.

The Society of Forestry in Finland (now Finnish Society of Forest Sciences) started to prepare new yield tables for the most important tree species in Finland in 1916. The new yield tables aimed to improve the yield tables made in Central Europe in two aspects. Firstly, the quality of the site of each sample plot was assessed on the spot and independently from the standing crop. Thus the sample plots of each site class in setting up the growth series can be treated as independent groups. Consequently, the quality classes are be the same for all tree species. Secondly, mathematical-statistical methods were used to determine which of the stands that belong to the same quality class belong also to the same growth series.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4445, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). The scientific foundation of forestry as exemplified by Forest Research Work in Suomi. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4445. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8393
Keywords: inventory; Finland; North America; forest mensuration; forest research; forest site type; line plot survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a lecture given by A.K. Cajander in the International Congress of Plant Science. The lecture describes results of Finnish forest research that might be regarded significant also for North America. Because of similarities in nature and forest management, forest research may use similar methods in both areas.

For instance, line plot survey in the form used in Finland could well be applied in North America. In Finland, lines were drawn at 26 kilometer intervals. Visual estimates about, for instance, species, tree growth and productivity class, were made along the lines and sample plots were taken every other kilometer. To gain full advantage of the method, a productivity classification and yield tables are needed. When these are known, it is possible to find out how to increase the productivity of forests with suitable tree species and proper forest management. This kind of inventory of forest resources and the state of forests provides reliable information for forest policy. Another important issue for forest research is forest management, which requires understanding on their biology. At the same time, research must provide methods for practical forestry.

A summary in Finnish is included in the PDF.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4444, category Article
Toivo Wilhelm Paavonen. (1927). Forest fire insurance in Suomi. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4444. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8392
Keywords: Finland; forest fire; insurance; fire insurance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Establishing an insurance company for insuring the private forests was suggested already in 1911 in Finland. In 1925 two companies, the Suomen Metsänomistajain Keskinäinen Metsäpaloapuyhdistys (The Forest Owners' Mutual Forest Fire Insurance Company) and the Keskinäinen Vakuutuslaitos Sampo (The Sampo Mutual Insurance Company), operated in forest fire insurance. They both had similar conditions, rates and principles for estimating losses caused by forest fire.

A total of 2,18 million hectares (16,4%) of the 13.3 million hectares of private forests in Finland were insured in 1925. Of the insured forests, 0.01–1.35% burned annually in 1916–1925. The insured forests were classified either small forests (size of the trees less than 18 cm in diameter), large forests or forests in general. The basic insurance compensated the stump value of the timber felled and lying in the forest up to 25% of the volume in the area. In case the fire decreases productivity of the land, the insurance covered the forest soil up to 50% of the value of the land. Larger losses could be compensated by paying an additional premium.

A summary in Finnish is included in the PDF.

  • Paavonen, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4441, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). Preparation of growth and yield tables. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4441. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8389
Keywords: stand growth; forest site type; growth and yield tables; site quality class; stem frequency distribution series
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One of the difficulties in constructing growth and yield tables has been to determine which of the sample plots growing the same tree species and belonging to the same forest site type, with reference to the quality of stands, have to be included in the same growth series.

New growth and yield tables for the most important tree species were constructed in Finland in 1916–1919, using new principles that aim at avoiding some of the common weaknesses. There were two main differences to the earlier work. First, the site quality class (forest site type) was determined for each sample plot when the sample plot was measured, independently of the stand occupying the site. In this way it was possible to treat the sample plots of each site as an independent group from the beginning, and so that the quality classes were the same for all the tree species. Second, mathematic-statistical methods were used to deduct the so-called stem frequency distribution series, when studying which of the sample plots of the same quality class belong to the same growth series. They represent the average number of stems of the different diameter classes. A more detailed description of the method used to create the growth and yield tables is published in Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 15.

In the PDF is included a summary in Finnish.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4440, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1927). The inventory of forest resources. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4440. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8388
Keywords: inventory; forest resources; forest mensuration; line plot survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Line plot survey has proven the best method to assess forest resources in the Northern countries on a country level; it is cost effective and gives reliable results. The accuracy of the survey depends on, however, how close the lines are set. To get homogenous statistics of an entire country, the survey should not span over too long a period. Thus, the distance between the lines should be chosen wide enough to give accurate results quickly for the whole country, while accepting slightly less exact results for its smaller districts.

If line survey is performed on large areas, it is not possible to count and measure trees, measure the tree growth. etc. along the whole length of the line because of its costs. Therefore, more precise measurements are limited to sample plots, which are spaced evenly along the lines. Between the sample plots, the volume and growth of each stand touching the line are estimated visually. These visual estimates have often systematic faultiness, which can be eliminated with correlation calculations. Visual observations gather information, for instance, about land owner, soil type, land-use class, forest site type, tree species and age class of the stand, density, wood volume ja annual growth per hectare, and the current silvicultural state of the stand. With help of this kind of information it is possible to get sufficient statistics about the forest resources of a country.

A summary in Finnish is included in the PDF.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4439, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). Some aspects of forest research work. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4439. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8387
Keywords: forest management; forest mensuration; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article highlights the need to classify the forest sites in objective and exact classes. This is important both from a practical and a scientific point of view as well as from a silvicultural point of view, for the forest management varíes for each tree species, and according to the site, even if the species remains the same. It is evident that the same classification of sites according to quality ought to be applicable to silviculture, forest mensuration and statistics. In Finland, a forest site type rating has been created for this purpose.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4438, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). Teaching of forestry in Suomi, general features. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4438. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8386
Keywords: forest education; forest officer; Master of Forestry; University of Helsinki
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The higher education of forestry in Finland was transferred to the University of Helsinki in 1908 from the Evo Forest Institute, where it was established in 1859. The principal idea was that the University should educate practical forest officials with a scientific education, and that the more talented students should be able to continue their scientific studies. The four main diciplines were silviculture, forest management, forest utilization and forest policy. The studies for the forest officer examination took about 3–4 years. For those students interested in further scientific studies, a Candidate (Master) and Licentiate (Doctor) examination was arranged.

In addition to higher education, elementary forestry education was arranged at five Forest Schools in different parts of the country.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4437, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1927). The organization of forest administration in Suomi. Silva Fennica no. 4 article id 4437. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8385
Keywords: Forest Service; forest administration; forest research; forest education; state forests; Metsähallitus; private forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A temporary organization for forest service was established in 1851 for the State forests of Finland. It was made permanent in 1859, and a central board, chief forest supervisors, forest supervisors and forest guards were appointed for the state forests. The Forest Research Institute, established in 1917, was subordinated to the Board of Forestry. In addition, the higher forest education was subordinated to Board of Forestry until it was moved to the University of Helsinki in 1908.

In 1921 the administration was reorganized to meet the requirements of developing forestry in the state forests. The Forest Service was divided into two sections: The State Forest Section and the Private Forest Section. The first consists of four divisions and the latter two. The forests under the supervision of the State Forest Section are divided into four districts, and each of these into two or three inspection territories. Under the supervision of the Private Forest Section are the forest schools, the Forest Research Institute, and the forest officials working for the ecclesiastical forests and Provincial Forest Committees. The Forest Research Institute is only nominally subordinated to the Private Forest Section of the Board of Forestry. It has 17 experimental areas in various parts of the country. These areas have been separated from the supervisor-areas of the state forests.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 4435, category Article
Lauri Ilvessalo. (1926). Metsien säilymisen turvaaminen Karjalan kannaksen Suomenlahden rannikolla. Silva Fennica no. 2 article id 4435. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8383
English title: Ensuring preservation of forests on the coast of Gulf of Finland in the Karelian Isthmus.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; metsien hävittäminen; männikkö; ylihakkuu; metsänkäyttö; hakkuut
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; deforestation; forest utilization; Southern Finland; overcutting; fellings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Metsähallitus (Forest Service) commissioned a study about condition of forests on the coast of Gulf of Finland in the Karelian Isthmus. The study was made because of a growing concern on overcutting of the private forests in the area. Dominant tree species in the area is Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). In fresh mineral soil sites Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) grows in mixed forest with pine or as pure stands. The forests are in average 50 to 70 years old. Younger or older stands are less frequent.

At the beginning of 18th century the local peasants sold plots for Russians, and a villa area was created along the coast. When Finland became independent, many of the properties changed owners. Timber harvesting of the forests increased and many small sawmills increased the demand of wood. Because of the cuttings, productivity of the forests decreases and danger for wind damage in the forests increases.

The author suggests that legislation created to prevent deforestation as well as counselling should be applied to improve forest management. In addition, a protective area should be formed in the Karelian Isthmus where forest preserving directives should be followed.

A summary in German is included in the PDF.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: li@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Article

article id 7183, category Article
Kauko Hahtola. (1967). Maatilametsätalouden yhteys taloudelliseen ja sosiaaliseen ympäristöön. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 84 no. 2 article id 7183. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7183
English title: Farm forestry and its socio-economic environment.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; maatilat; maatilametsätalous
English keywords: forest management; mechanization; private forests; farms; farm economy; farm forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study is to reveal the links between farm forestry and its economic and social environment. The second-stage factor analysis used was based on factor scores per municipality, representing the dimensions of total farm operation and of its economic and social environment. The population was 17 municipalities or groups of municipalities in the South Karelian Forest Board district.

The conclusions of the results are directly applicable only to the ideal types presented. A socio-economic environment marked by industrialization detrimentally affects both the standard of forest management, as assessed subjectively by field workers, and the productivity of logging, as measured by labour input/m3 of output. This finding holds good even despite the modernization of forest management indicated by the adoption of renewal cuts.

The clearest negative factor for forestry is the irrational distribution of forest holdings. This impedes the rationalization of forest management and the efficiency of loggings. Extensive scattering of forest holdings also delays the mechanization of logging. The spread effects of industrialization relate to a higher level of forest management and labour productivity of logging. Family farming links up closest with features that enhance the importance of the forest to the farmer. Such features include regularity and size of delivery cuts.

Centralized agriculture, mainly village settlement areas, displayed the poorest forest management. Problem farms are typified by small farm units, unemployment and a low degree of forest management.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7182, category Article
Kauko Hahtola. (1967). Hankintahakkuut ja maatilakokonaisuus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 84 no. 1 article id 7182. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7182
English title: Delivery cuts of timber in farm management.
Original keywords: työvoima; hankintahakkuut; koneistuminen; maatilametsät
English keywords: mechanization; fellings; labour; farm economy; farm forestry; delivery logging; farm forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study links up with the general development of logging on private farm woodlots, practiced by the Work Efficiency Institute (Työtehoseura). It is based on the idea that the promotion of forest management on farms should be integrated with general agricultural development. The aim of the study was to find out the relation between delivery cuts and management of the farm as a whole, including economic and social environment. The first, methodological part develops a model representing farming, based on factor analysis. The second part tests the applicability of the factor analysis in the light of the empirical data, and studies the relation between delivery cuts and total farming and regional differences in farming.

Despite the descriptive nature of the factors obtained, the solution permitted a multi-dimensional examination. It seems that certain aspects typical to scattered settlement accentuate the importance of the forest for the farm. These include a high ratio of forest to arable land, barren soil and forest holdings that form unbroken tract of land. The importance of forestry is accentuated by the self-sufficiency of farms in labour and tractive power. On the other hand, there were lines of production and forms of livelihood and land utilization that compete with forestry, such as off-farm employment and alternative forms of land-use. One factor indicative for small importance of forestry for the farms was the small size in ratio to arable land. Often money for machinery has come from forest revenues.

The factor analysis indicate that a rational parcelling of forest holdings leads to better cutting methods. Also, cutting method improve and the proportion of renewal cuttings increase on moving from remote areas towards population centers. Productivity of delivery cuts is affected by the total employment of labour and tractive power on the farm. Abundance of labour and the use of farm’s own labour are probably detrimental to the productivity of delivery cuts. When the farms grow, the increase in the quantity felled and the rise in the degree of mechanization favour productivity.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7181, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1967). Keltalieon (Lycopodium complanatum L.) itiöllinen uudistuminen Etelä-Suomessa kloonien laajuutta ja ikää koskevan tutkimuksen valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 83 no. 3 article id 7181. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7181
English title: Sporal regeneration of ground pine (Lycopodium complanatum L.) in Southern Finland in the light of the dimensions and the age of its clones.
Keywords: regeneration; forest fire; Pteridium aquilinum; bracken fern; ground pine; Lycopodium complanatum; Diphasiastrum complanatum; sporal regeneration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In an earlier paper of the author it was established that sporal regeneration of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) is almost entirely connected with fire, and that the size of the bracken fern clones, distinguished by their characteristics, was related to the time of the fire. In previous studies has been found that also sporal regeneration of ground pine (Lycopodium complanatum L., now Diphasiastrum complanatum) is rare. The occurrence of several plant species were studied in relation to bracken fern in the earlier investigation. This paper reports findings concerning ground pine.

When the size-age problem of bracken fern was solved, parallel measurements of ground pine stand on the same site led to the solution of the size-age problem and sporal regeneration of ground pine. The linkage is also valid when the size of ground pine stands was compared to the dates of fires. The ground pine stands are very long-lasting. The stands are fragmented more easily than bracken fern by environmental factors, such as fires, and tend to form large patch clusters with time. Large individual stands reveal the rarity of sporal regeneration of ground pine. The resemblance with bracken fern clones indicate a common factor of regeneration, fire, and a very even spreading rate. Though considerable variation of the colour and structure of ground pine was observed, the circular stands were identical patch by patch.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7180, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1967). The correlation between the size of Finnish bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) clones and certain periods of site history. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 83 no. 2 article id 7180. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7180
Keywords: regeneration; distribution; forest fire; Pteridium aquilinum; bracken fern; wars; ground fire
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In an earlier paper of the author it was established that bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.) that the sporal regeneration of the species is almost entirely connected with fire, and that the size of the bracken fern clones, distinguished by their characteristics, was related to the time of the fire. The time of the fire was determined by the samples taken with auger from the trees on the sample plots. A large data on the occurrence of bracken fern was collected around Finland, but only part of it could be used in the previous study, as the trees of the site provided no means to find out it the site had been burned earlier.

In earlier studies, a mass occurrence of sporelings of bracken fern in England has been connected to cities bombed and burned during the World War II. In this study the data of the clones is connected to historical sources and the time of wars in Finland. The comparisons in this study have confirmed the results achieved by comparing the dimensions of the bracken clones to the fire dates. It was found that the wars have caused an increase in the regeneration frequency of bracken fern.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7177, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Simo Poso, Christian Keil. (1968). The use of aerial photographs in the estimation of some forest characteristics. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 82 no. 4 article id 7177. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7177
Keywords: forest inventory; accuracy; forest mensuration; methods; aerial photograps; volume of growing stock
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this investigation is to study, for north European conditions, some overall standards of accuracy attainable in the estimation in a number of forest characteristics from aerial photographs. Field data was acquired in three areas, comprising whole stands, fixed and variable size sample plots and sections of survey strips.  

The results show that land use classes could be estimated to a rather high degree of precision from aerial photographs. The accuracy of determination of the main tree species (Scots pine, Norway spruce and deciduous trees) was more moderate; three quarters of all stands were interpreted correctly from the present photographs. The estimate of pure stands was noticeable better than those for mixed stands. In general, the agreement between treatment class stratification in the field and from aerial photographs was poor, as only one-third of all cases the class was same. The dominant height was estimated with relative lack of bias for small stands, but systematic underestimation of nearly 2 m existed for high stands.  

The emphasis in this investigation was laid on determination of the volume of growing stock. Stand volumes in the small and medium volume classes were overestimated, against clear under-estimate for high volume stands. The standard error of difference, including bias, was ±43 both in m3 and as a percentage. 

The variance data available provide a basis for the conclusion that under some conditions photo stratification within the forest land seems to improve the efficiency of volume estimation, whereas in some other cases the stratification is hardly an economic proposition. Alternative computations made from the data of an experimental survey indicated the likelihood that no gain was deprived from the use of aerial photographs for volume class estimation. 

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Poso, E-mail: sp@mm.unknown
  • Keil, E-mail: ck@mm.unknown
article id 7176, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1967). Ancient forestry : an historical study. 1. Facts and information on trees. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 82 no. 3 article id 7176. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7176
Keywords: forestry; tree species; forests; history
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper presents a study on the works of ancient writers that deal with trees, forests and the use of forest before the time of actual forest sciences. The work describes the development of knowledge pertaining to the forest and trees and the progress made on utilizing them. This first part of a series of two articles is primarily concerned with biological information in ancient times. The article first describes the most important sources of information and concentrates then on the information on the structure of trees, on the vital functions of trees, on the factors affecting the growth of trees and tree species.

  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7174, category Article
Pentti Alho. (1967). Pohjois-Pohjanmaan rannikkokuntien maanjako-olot metsätalouden kannalta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 82 no. 1 article id 7174. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7174
English title: Influences of partitioning of land in forestry in the municipalities of northern Ostrobothnia in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; kannattavuus; yksityismetsätalous; metsämaa; metsätilat; tilakoko; maanjako
English keywords: forest management; profitability; private forests; forest holdings; partitioning of land; size of woodlots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Farm forestry in northern Ostrobothnia has met different kinds of obstacles that decrease its profitability, some national, some local. One of the later is partitioning of land. The purpose of this investigation was to survey the division of farm land in the coastal municipalities of northern Ostrobothnia in Finland, where the conditions are among the most unfavourable in the country in this respect. The material used in the investigation was collected in a previous study about the structure of the farms in the area. First part of the paper summarises the history of partitioning of land in Finland.

The results show that division of the woodlots of a farm are in the coastal municipalities of northern Ostrobothnia very disadvantageous for forestry. The average distance of a woodlot to the farmhouse is 8.3 km, but there is a great variation between the municipalities, and the distance varies from 30 to 1.9 km. The form of the lots, as the long ribbon-like woodlots in the municipality of Liminka, complicates often practical forestry. In addition, the number of separate woodlots is high, in average 9.2 per farm.

The great distance of the woodlots from the main farms hinders the use of forests and diminishes the financial result of forestry. Unfavourable form of the woodlots posts similar hindrances to harvesting of timber and forest management as the long distances and high number of separate plots. The problem is heightened by the abundance of peatlands in relation to productive forest lands in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7172, category Article
Ilmari Schalin. (1966). Studies on the microfungi in the forest floor of subarctic pine forests. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 81 no. 7 article id 7172. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7172
Keywords: forest soil; decomposition; microgungi; microbes; microfungal populations; organic layer; Mucor; Penicillium; Trichoderma
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Dilution plate method was used in studying the density and composition of the microfungal populations of the organic layer of Scots pine forests, and the soil-plate method in studying the part of these populations decomposing cellulose. The media used were rose bengal agar (Martin’s medium for fungi) and cellulose medium.

The microfungal density depended to a considerable extent on the moisture content and temperature of the organic layer. Only the combination of relatively high moisture content and temperature, but neither of these factors alone, influenced considerably the microfungal population density. The correlation of the populations to the changes in this combined factor was stronger than the correlation to the seasonal variations of spring, summer and autumn.

The microfungal population consisted of only a few species. Mucor, Mortierella and Penicillium were the most common genera isolated from the rose bengal agar. The first and the last of these comprised almost 90% of the total population. For the Mucor fungi, increases in the moisture content up to the maximum values found (75%) were favourable; the Penicillium fungi, on the contrary, were intolerant of high moisture content.

Among the cellulose decomposing microfungi grown on cellulose medium, Trichoderma sp. was the most common; also, it formed the most colonies, tolerated the lowest temperatures, and was most efficient. The others were of the genera Pullularia, Verticillium, Scopulariopsis and Penicillium. In addition, there were some unidentified Phycomycetes fungi. Only the two first-mentioned caused observable changes in cellulose.

  • Schalin, E-mail: is@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7170, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1967). Luonnonnormaalien metsiköiden kehityksestä Kainuussa ja sen lähiympäristössä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 81 no. 5 article id 7170. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7170
English title: The development of natural normal forest stands in southeastern Northern Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsätyypit; mänty; kasvu; tuotos; luonnonnormaalit metsät; Kainuu
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; yield; Scots pine; northern Finland; growth; forest types; natural stands; natural normal stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Examination of stands developed under natural conditions can be used to provide basis for comparison for study of the development and yield of stands treated with intermediate fellings. In Finland, the first investigation and the yield and the structure of natural normal stands were published in 1920. This investigation on development and yield of the natural forests of Kainuu in southeastern Northern Finland is based on 92 sample plots on three forest types; Empetrum-Vaccinium type (EVT), Empetrum-Calluna type (ECT) and Vaccinium-Myrtillus type (VMT).

The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sample plots represented variation of age classes for construction of mean development series. The Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) of the region are so old that development series could be obtained only for dominant trees based on stem analysis.

The average development of Scots pine stand on EMT type within the region is on average more rapid and the yield in cubic volume quantitatively larger and structurally better than that on ECT type. Self-thinning during the early decades of EVT is slower. The pine stands are denser in the age of 70 in Kainuu compared to Central Northern Finland, but the development and yield are similar.

The development, yield and structure of natural Norway spruce stand on VMT proved considerably inferior to the average level of pine stands on EVT, and to a major part on ECT. The mixed pines on spruce sample plots have developed better than spruces of equal age. Spruce stands on VMT in the area developed markedly better than Geranium-Dryopteris-Myrtillus (GDMT) in Central Northern Finland.

It seems that a spruce stand seems to require more fertile site type in north than in the southern part of Finland. These fertile types are relative rare in the north. In the region, the best results are received with pine. As a rule, also the yield of birch (Betula sp.) is poor in the region.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7169, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Pekka Kilkki, Erkki Mikkola. (1967). Eräiden metsänarvioimismenetelmien tarkkuudesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 81 no. 4 article id 7169. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7169
English title: On the precision of some methods of forest inventory.
Keywords: forest inventory; stratified sampling; sampling; methods; sampling methods; systematic sampling; random sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper reports on tests made for the study of alternative methods in forest survey. Data were acquired by measurements in five areas in Finland and in Mexico, varying in size from 20 to 900 ha. The principal characteristics used in the analysis was the entire volume. By the combination of neighbouring plots, the variation could be studied for different plot sizes and survey strips. Variable (relascope) plots could be compared.

A starting point for the comparison of different sampling methods, calculations were made of the coefficients of variation for each plot type; total and within the strata. The amount of decrease of variation with an increasing plot size could be established. Comparisons have been made of the following sampling methods: simple random, stratified random, simple systematic, and stratified systematic sampling.

On comparisons of the standard error of sample mean it was found that in both stratified sampling and different types of systematic sampling there is, with increasing size and diminishing interval of sample plots, an increase in the relative improvement of the result against simple random sampling. Only in exceptional cases did systematic surveys give results which were less precise than those derived by other methods.

In discussion of some methods for determination of the precision of systematic sampling, possibilities of theoretical determination of the degree of precision was considered. An empirical study was made of the behaviour of some equations based on the sample itself. The larger the plot size and the shorter the plot interval, the more the equations overestimated in general the variance of sample mean.

As none of the equations studied gave reliable results, regression equations were calculated for the relative standard error on the basis of the data measured. The independent variables were plot size, plot or strip interval, area of survey unit and mean volume. The results arrived at are based mainly on the complete measurement of one area only. To enable extension of the scope of application, more material is needed with a complete enumeration of trees.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown
  • Mikkola, E-mail: em@mm.unknown
article id 7168, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Pekka Kilkki. (1966). Estimation of strata areas in forest survey. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 81 no. 3 article id 7168. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7168
Keywords: forest inventory; stratified sampling; sampling; methods; forest survey; strata
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Highest degree of precision in determining the areas of different strata in forest survey is achieved when the areas are measured from a map. However, in practice the stratum-areas usually need to be determined on the basis of samples taken in the field or from aerial photographs. The goal of the present investigation was to determine the precision in stratum-area estimation on the application of different sampling methods.

Three sampling methods were used: 1. sampling with random plots, 2. uniform systematic plot sampling, and 3. sampling with equidistant lines.

The dependence of the standard error of stratum-areas in systematic line and plot sampling was examined by regression analysis. The models for regression equations were derived from random sampling formulae. It appears that the characteristics of these formulae were applicable as variables in the regression equations for systematic samples. Also, some characteristics of the distribution of the stratum was found, which seem to influence the error in sampling with equidistant lines.

The results as regards uniform systematic plot sampling indicate that the use of random sampling formulae leads to considerable over-estimation of the standard error. Nonetheless, unless relatively short intervals between sample plots are used in the forest survey made on the ground, it is of advantage to study the division of the area into strata by measuring the distribution of the survey lines in these strata.

The results can be used in two ways: for estimation of the precision in a survey already made, or to predetermine the sample size in a survey to be made. The results may be applicable to areas ranging from 100 to 1,000 ha in size, as well as to larger areas.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown
article id 7162, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Pekka Kilkki. (1965). Sampling a stand in forest survey. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 79 no. 4 article id 7162. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7162
Keywords: forest inventory; sampling; methods; sample plots; forest survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this paper is to review tests made on the basis of Finnish material with regard to the efficiency of the 10-point cluster in sampling a stand in forest inventory. Currently, this system is applied in field work in the national forest surveys in the United States of America. The paper reports on tests, made on the basis of Finnish material, for comparison of the 10-point cluster of variable plots with 13 other designs in sampling a stand in forest survey. The research material consists of 12 stands, with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) as the main species.

The main results are concerned with the ability of different designs to provide gross volume estimates. As a measure of efficiency, three alternative series of variances were used, adjusted by three alternatives of time. The results are applicable, for instance, in double-sampling with photo and field classifications. In the comparisons, no attention was paid to the possibility of systematic errors in various designs.

For inventory volume, the 10-point cluster proved to be about 10 per cent less efficient than the best design of each alternative. The use of a single circular plot of 1,000 m2 can be recommended under the conditions of this test; furthermore, one or two 500 m2 plots were more efficient than any combination of variable plots.

The reason for the use of the 10-point cluster in forest surveying has been the ability of the design to provide simultaneous information on area condition classes. Among the designs tested, the 10-point cluster seems to be the only one capable of application in the estimation of condition classes.

Most of the information obtained by means of the 10-point cluster can be gained through ocular estimation, and from the sample trees to be measured in any design, but a cluster of several points appears to offer good means of estimation, for instance, of the presence of clumps and gasps in a stand.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown
article id 7159, category Article
Seppo E. Mustonen. (1965). Ilmasto- ja maastotekijöiden vaikutuksesta lumen vesiarvoon ja roudan syvyyteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 79 no. 1 article id 7159. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7159
English title: Effect of meteorological and terrain factors in water equivalent of snow cover and frost depth.
Original keywords: metsät; maasto; lumi; lumen syvyys; routa; ilmasto; lumen vesipitoisuus
English keywords: snow; forests; snow cover; depth of snow; ground frost; water content of snow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the investigation was to obtain by snow and soil frost observations sufficient material for determination of regional springtime snow and soil frost values, because the water equivalent of snow and the frost depth affect runoff. The present paper elaborates a method by which the observations along a survey line can be corrected to be valid for a basin. Along the line 50 measurement points were arranged at specific intervals. Snow depth was recorded at each point, and snow density and frost depth at every fifth point. The terrain was studied along the line and the terrain of the survey points were classified in eight classes depending on the vegetation. The classes ranged from cultivated lands and open bogs to wooded areas according to volume of the growing stock and tree species composition.

The mean snow depth was 51.9 cm and mean snow density 0.235 g/m2. Water equivalent of snow in class 4 terrain (forest with small growing stock) was 30% higher than in class 8 (forest with high growing stock). An ample stand increases evaporation in wintertime. The difference can be partly caused by the different accumulation of snow in the different types of stands.

Soil type was not found to have any distinct influence on the frost depth in the present material. On cultivated lands the soil frost clearly penetrates to greater depth than in the forest. The growing stock of wooded areas influences the snow depth

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Mustonen, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7158, category Article
Olavi Huuri. (1965). Männyn- ja kuusenkäpyjen varastoinnin vaikutus niistä saatavan siemenen itävyyteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 78 no. 5 article id 7158. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7158
English title: The effects of storage in cones on the viability of pine and spruce seeds.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; itävyys; kävyt; siemenkeräys; käpyjen varastointi; metsäpuiden siemenet; siementen varastointi; karistus; itämiskyky
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; cones; seeds of forest trees; seed extraction; storage of cones; storage of seeds; germinative capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Seed storing experiments with cones of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) were conducted in Oitti seed extracting plant in Southern Finland from February to December 1955. The pine cones were stores for 267 and the spruce coned for 304 days. In four of the storage methods the cones were packed in sacks and another four in wooden boxes. Sample of cones were taken once a month, seeds were extracted and the germinative capacity was tested. The remaining extracted seeds were placed in storage, and in January 1956 moved to cold seed cellar until 1962, when the viability of the seeds was tested.

According to the results, cleaned pine cones can be stores for at least nine months using almost all methods of storage which are commonly used at our seed traction plants, without hazarding the usability of the seeds. The seeds in spruce cones, however, seemed to be more sensitive to conditions during the storage. The germinative capacity of the spruce seeds began to decrease after the beginning of May. Later the seeds were infected with mould, which increased towards the end of the experiment.

Thus, preservation of the germinative capacity of the seeds of pine and spruce requires storage in different conditions. The results suggest that extraction of spruce seeds should be finished during the cold winter months. It seems that seed in the cones of pine and spruce endure storage in piles of paper or cloth sacks at least as well as in wooden boxes. Occasional warming of the storage, snow and foreign material among the cones and an over meter thick cone layer decreased the germinative capacity of spruce seeds during spring and summer. Spruce seeds that had been extracted immediately after collecting of the cones preserved their germinative capacity well during an eight years storage period.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Huuri, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7155, category Article
Bo Högnäs. (1966). Investigations on forest types and stand development in Åland in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 78 no. 2 article id 7155. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7155
Keywords: Finland; volume growth; coniferous forests; vegetation analysis; forest type; Åland; Ahvenanmaa
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study is to clarify the forest types in pure coniferous stands in Åland in Finland, to study them in a biological light and account for the production of the stands on respective sites. The flora of the forest types in Åland has been described in an earlier study, but as the plant associations have not been described it has often been difficult to determine the correct types in field work. Sample plots were chosen in coniferous forests with maximum 20% of other species. The vegetation analysis was limited to determine composition of species, projected coverage and the frequency of species. In addition, cubic volume and growth of the growing stock was calculated for the stands.

The results of the study showed that site type and fertility correspond to each other nearly without exception only on normal moraines, if only the ground vegetation is used as a criterion for the type. The general occurense of soils of different qualities makes it necessary to determine, besides forest type, other characteristics in the stands, preferably the dominant height. The total production of coniferous forests with great probability is smaller in Åland than in mainland Finland. The results can be applied also to Åboland’s archipelago, where the milieu of the coniferous forests is similar.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Högnäs, E-mail: bh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7152, category Article
Jouko Einola. (1964). Yksityismetsätaloudelliset vaihtoehtolaskelmat. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 77 no. 4 article id 7152. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7152
English title: Alternative calculations in private forestry.
Original keywords: kannattavuus; yksityismetsät; vaihtoehtolaskelmat
English keywords: profitability; private forests; alternative calculations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this theoretical study was to define the factors related to wood production that affect the financial result of private forestry in Finland on the viewpoint of alternative calculation. The paper introduces the main concepts, analyses the outturn factors and discusses feasibility of some calculation methods, and finally draws up a business plan for a forest holding based on the chosen method.

In forestry, the quantitative and sustainability objectives for yield, the difference between annual proceeds and costs, and the capital value of the costs affect which factors are included in the calculation of profitability of forestry. The base-line situation for the alternative calculations is defined by an inventory. The future proceeds and costs are valuated and procedural models are formulated for the most advantageous alternatives. The main goal in private forestry is profit.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Einola, E-mail: je@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7147, category Article
S. A. Wilde, J. G. Iyer. (1963). Effect of natural subirrigation on the uptake of nutrients by forest plantations. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 76 no. 7 article id 7147. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7147
Keywords: Pinus radiata; growth; fertility; forest site; ground water table; United States
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Result of a survey of soils supporting forest plantations in Wisconsin in the United States indicated a close correlation between the levels of fertility of non-phreatic, coarse-textured soils and the growth of red pine (Pinus resinosa Roezl) stands aged from 15 to 32. This relationship, however was not observed in plantations established on deep-gley soils, underlain at a depth of 3–9 fl by ground water.

The survey encountered 20 red pine plantations on soils underlain by a deep ground water table accessible to tree roots thorough their contact with gley horizon or with extended capillary fringe. The average growth of the stands was 80 cubic feet/acre (5.6 m3/ha) at the age of 22 years. Thus, mensuration analysis suggested that the soils are the choice grounds for forestry enterprise. However, the analysis of soil samples showed that in many instances the soils are extremely low in mineral colloids, organic matter and nutrients. Many of the sites would be regarded as critically deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

The following hypothesis are suggested to explain this discrepancy:

a) The moisture content of coarse-textured non-phreatic soils remain near the wilting point during a large apart of the growing season with subsequent reduction of transpiration and uptake of nutrients. If a capillary fringe provides a supply of water for the root system, trees may derive an adequate supply of salts and exchangeable ions from comparatively infertile substrata.

b) The suitably located ground water provides adequate aeration of the surface soil layers which is not impeded by capillary fringe, increasing activity of mycorrhiza, and a mycotrophic uptake of nutrients from unweathered minerals.

c) The above effects of natural subirrigation should change the concept of soil fertility based on mere chemical analysis. The time during which the roots are engaged in active absorption appears to be of equal importance as the concentration of nutrients in available form.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Wilde, E-mail: sw@mm.unknown (email)
  • Iyer, E-mail: ji@mm.unknown
article id 7146, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1963). Analysis of two alternative methods for national forest inventories in northern Europe. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 76 no. 6 article id 7146. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7146
Keywords: forest inventory; National Forest Inventory; costs; accuracy; methods; continuous inventory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A comparison was made between two alternative methods of continuous national forest inventory. In method 1, samples measured annually are taken throughout the country, in method 2 samples are confined to one section of the country each year. The figures are derived from national forest inventories carried out in the North-European countries Finland, Norway and Sweden. Systematic sampling on the ground has been employed without remeasured sample plots. Field work consisted of survey tracts.

For the whole country, method 1 gives results, which are continuously up-to-date, although detailed information requires observation over a period of several years. On an average, the results obtained from method 2 area at least n/2 years old (survey cycle n years). For a specific section of the country, method 1 gives preliminary results already in 1-2 years, but more accurate results are at least n/2 years old. Method 2 gives accurate results every nth year. Thus, method 2 is not always to be recommended, even if the emphasis is laid on regional information and planning.

To gain knowledge of annual timber removals, often necessary in assessing the forest resource situation, stump measurements can be used, either exclusively or by way of control. The corresponding sampling must be affected throughout the whole country, and this can be done only when method 1 is used. Other information required annually, such as estimates of seed crops, occurrence of pests or annual variation of growth due to the climate, favour method 1.

It can be concluded that method 1 has important advantages, although these must be bought at higher costs. A comparison of inventory costs shows, assuming the same degree of accuracy, that the total expenditure for method 2 is 7-8% lower than that for method 1, owing to the difference in transport requirements. Also, other aspects may affect the choice of method, for example, the use of aerial photographs may be arranged more efficiently in method 2.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7140, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1963). Metsänhoidon tason vaihtelu Suomen maatilametsälöillä : tutkimus metsänhoitolautakunnittaisten erojen taloudellisista ja sosiaalisista tekijöistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 75 no. 6 article id 7140. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7140
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsäpolitiikka; yksityismetsätalous; alueelliset erot; harsintahakkuut
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; private forestry; regional differences; selection cuttings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest management practices in Finland are closely related to the industrial history in the country. The selection cutting method used previously has now been gradually disappearing, and differences in the quality of forest management can still be observed between different owner groups. The national forest inventories indicate that farm woodlots show the poorest silvicultural state among the ownership categories. This study analyses social and economic causes responsible for variation in the silvicultural state of farm woodlots managed jointly with a cultivated land holding. The study is based on the data of third national forest inventory in Finland, and a factor analysis was calculated using the data.

Although the model developed explains more than a half of the total variance of the level of silviculture, only less than third of this is clearly explained by economic and social factors. The remaining two thirds are explained by the ’nature factor’, which includes both economic and site factors. This affects the effect of different kinds of forest policy measures. Of the variables in the model, the strongest influence in the level of silviculture have income, size of woodlot, size of land area under cultivation and distribution of forest types. The differences in the level of silviculture between different woodlots and different districts, may be explained by the theory of cumulative process. Regional differences in economic phenomena cannot be explained without taking into consideration the social value hierarchy in each region, which determines the range of variation of economic variables.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7139, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1963). Economic models underlying forest policy programs : an evaluation of ends and means. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 75 no. 5 article id 7139. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7139
Keywords: forest policy; economic models; economic theories; marketing models; policy models; static models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to analyse economic models used in certain studies and to evaluate whether the economic theory envisaged by a model is consistent with its aims in forest policy. Second, the paper will point out assumed improvements for models that can be used as a basis for forest policy.

There are two types of economic models according to their purpose. One type, the marketing models, can be used for explaining or forecasting the consumer’s behaviour with no intension to affect the economies to be gained from the alternative patterns of behaviour explained. Others, the policy models, are meant to serve as guideposts which by means of normative forecasts point out the programme to be followed in order to attain certain aims. The majority of the policy models are static. The paper assesses the static models, and evaluates how well they fit their purpose. Special attention is given to dynamic economic models. A dynamic model can, at least in principle, be used to explain the course of events during the adjustment period required to achieve a production goal.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7136, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Yrjö Vuokila. (1963). The effect of stratification on the number of sample plots of different sizes. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 75 no. 2 article id 7136. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7136
Keywords: forest inventory; inventory; methods; sample plots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It is necessary to study the problems related to the size, number and location of sample plots as well as to the effect of stratification. This paper, mainly concerned with the volume of the growing stock based on measurements, comprises a part of the research in progress related to the issue.

The study contains a discussion of certain problems relevant to the planning of a forest inventory on the basis of variation in the volume of the growing stock. In particular, the aim has been to give data for selection of the size and number of sample plots, and to illustrate the importance of stratification, here based principally on dominant height.

The research material comprised two forest areas of 10 ha each; measurement of the growing stock was made in units of 49 m2. Based on the data was constructed a model area embracing 4 forested strata and one non-forested stratum. The mean and standard deviations of the volumes was calculated for the forest area as a whole and for the different strata. On studying stratification, two approaches were employed to distribute the sample plots among the strata: optimum allocation and proportional allocation. The latter is simple in application, and gave for forested areas number of sample plots which did not exceed by more than 10% those obtained by optimum allocation. It is obvious that the application of stratification is worthy of consideration within forest areas which comprise parts with distinct differences. The decrease in number of plots with increasing plot size is considerably more marked within a stratified area. Thus, larger sample plots should be used in the former case than in the later. The investigations give hints on how forest inventories should be carried out. However, it has some limitations, which are discussed in the paper.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Vuokila, E-mail: yv@mm.unknown
article id 7135, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1961). Kokeellisia tutkimuksia taimien syntymisestä ja ensi kehityksestä kuusikoissa ja männiköissä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 75 no. 1 article id 7135. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7135
English title: Experimental studies on the emergence and development of tree seedlings in spruce and pine stands.
Original keywords: kuusi; kylvö; mänty; taimettuminen; uudistuminen; uudistaminen; itäminen
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; germination; regeneration; Scots pine; seedlings; sowing; seeding; restocking with seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper aims at studying regeneration of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) by sowing and natural regeneration of birch (Betula sp.) in Western Finland.

Germination of spruce and pine seeds may be prevented by dryness and temperatures below the optimum for germination. In natural conditions, when temperature and moisture is insufficient for germination, the type of seedbed generally has en effect on germination result. Trenching of the seeding spots showed that root competition during the early stage of regeneration was not of decissive importance. It seemed to, however, improve the preservation of the seedlings later. It is common that it can take long before the seeds germinate, and during that time the number of viable seeds decrease strongly.

Also, the seedling stock quickly began to decrease in number after germination, especially during the first growing season and the following winter. The decrease was larger in intact vegetation than on mineral soil or in the humus layer. The emerging seedlings were destroyed by drought very easily, but their tolerance to drought improved later on.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7131, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1961). Valtion metsien hakkuusuunnite ja sen toteutumisen edellytykset. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 74 no. 4 article id 7131. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7131
English title: The allowable cut in the State Forests of Finland and the condition for its realization.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; valtion metsät; Suomi; hakkuusuunite; kestävä hakkuusuunnite
English keywords: allowable cut; Forest Service; state forests; management planning; cutting budget
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two lines can be defined in the management planning for the State Forests of Finland: 1) general planning for regions and inspectional sub-regions based on forest inventory, and 2) management plans for individual districts based on the revision of each district after 10–15 years. Long-term planning is has recently been alleviated by several new methods, such as stock-development forecast and yield tables.

A stock-development forecast and cutting budget were prepared separately for each State Forest region. The present growing stock was based on the data collected in the inventory in 1951–1955. Desirable stock for each region was calculated. The methods to calculate total cut during near future, allowable cut, allowable cut by timber products, the long-term development of the allowable cut, and conditions for realizing the allowable cut are presented in the paper.

The development of the growing stock towards a desirable condition requires also realization of a silvicultural program. Because the Finnish forest industry is expanding vigorously, the amount of the allowable cut on a sustained basis must be estimated carefully. Otherwise the demand for wood may exceed the supply. Though there are many sources of error in preparing a long-term cutting budget, it was considered necessary for State Forestry. An approximate estimate of the largest cut on a sustained basis and a program of silvicultural measures necessary to increase the yield gradually has been worked out.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7122, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1960). Pinotavaraleimikon taksatoriset tunnukset ja niiden vaikutus leimikkoarvioinnin tarkkuuteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 72 no. 5 article id 7122. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7122
English title: Mensurational characteristics of cordwood stock market for felling and their effect on the precision of stock estimation.
Original keywords: kuitupuu; metsänarviointi; kuutiomäärä; koeala; kuitupuuleimikko
English keywords: pulpwood; forest mensuration; methods; sample plots; pulpwood marked for felling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The annual fellings and sales of pulpwood from the State Forests of Finland comprised 4.0–4.6 million m3 in 1955–1959. In order to improve the accuracy of the methods used in estimating the pulpwood stocks marked for felling, a pilot survey of 18 marked stocks was carried out in 1959. The stock area, average plot volume, variation of the plot volumes, size and shape of the plot and the distribution of the trees by diameter classes as factors affecting the precision have been studied in this paper.

The greater the mean volume of a plot the more homogenous is the structure of the marked stock. The same number of plots gives a better relative precision for the south Finnish marked stock than for the north Finnish ones, which are heterogenous and less valuable. Stocks smaller than 50 ha can often be estimated more advantageously by the strip method or visually than by the plot method. The proper size of plot in Southern Finland is 0.02–0.03 ha. In Northern Finland the plots should be larger due to the heterogenous stocks, about 0.05 ha. The shape can be either circular or rectangular. The former may be more practical and reliable in the field. The minimum number of sample trees is considered to be about 200 per 100 sample plots 0.03 ha in size.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7121, category Article
Viljo Holopainen. (1960). Marketing roundwood in Finland and the Scandinavian Countries. With special regard to marketing channels and trade customs. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 72 no. 4 article id 7121. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7121
Keywords: forest owners; roundwood; private forests; wood sales; timber sales; marketing of wood
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present investigation set out to find out the structures of supply and demand, channels and methods of marketing, developments in marketing methods, trade customs, similarities and differences in marketing of the private forest owners and the State, local features of the market of domestic roundwood trade in Finland, and compares marketing of unprocessed wood between Finland and Scandinavian countries. The study is based on statistics of various sections of trade and from the State Boards of Forestry.

The channels of marketing from private forests in Finland and the Scandinavian countries are different. In Norway the wood is primarily marketed through the forest owners’ associations, in Finland direct individual selling is applied, while in Sweden both channels are common. In Norway and in Sweden the forest owners’ marketing organizations were probably formed mainly to protect the forest owners’ interest in price formation. The price is determined on the organizational level, while in Finland the price formation mechanism has retained a competitive nature. In Sweden the creation of demand for roundwood has been one reason for establishment of the associations, which have established new forest industry particularly in areas of low demand.

The institutions affect also the trade customs in Norway and Sweden. For instance, measuring of roundwood is performed in Scandinavia according to detailed public regulations and often carried out by the officials of special measuring boards. The Forms Committee has also since 1950 brought significant unification in the trade customs of Finland. Greatest differences in trade customs between the State and private forestry is observed in Finland.

The producer’s role in marketing has increased since 1930s, which is demonstrated by the increasing activity in marketing by the forest owners’ associations in Norway and Sweden. Also, the relative importance of sales with contract for delivery has been growing. A second line of development appears in the more detailed norms in trade customs.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7120, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1960). Maan kuvioiden ja puuston vaihtelu sekä sen vaikutus metsän inventoinnin tarkkuuteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 72 no. 3 article id 7120. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7120
English title: Variation of the site patterns and growing stock and its effect on the precision of forest inventory.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsien inventointi; metsänarviointi; Suomi; inventointi; menetelmä
English keywords: forest inventory; inventory; Finland; forest mensuration; state forests; methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the investigation was to study the characteristics of the site and the growing stock and the effect of their variation on the precision of forest inventory. The total area of the forest tract is considered to be already known or it can be measured with surveying. The sub-areas or strata and the mean timber volume of each wooded stratum are estimated by sampling. Thus, the total volume of each stratum is the product of the estimates of the area and mean volume. Only line method of sampling the areas will be examined. Field material was measured in the inventory of the Finnish State Forests with the method used in the third National Forest Inventory. The circular plots and the sample trees were measured in the forests of Inari district. In this systematic line-plot method the distance between the lines was 5 km.

The results show that the total area should be broken down into suitable strata, such as the full-stocked productive forest land and regeneration areas with mother trees. The mean volume for each stratum is estimated with the plot method. An advanced estimation of the approximate mean volume and the coefficient of variation in the strata are needed for calculating the optimum allocation of plots.

If the volume calculation is done with the diameter as variable the variation of the plot volumes is decreased. If the local volume table is used and the site and stock characteristics differ from the characteristics of the volume table stock, a significant systematic error is possible. Planning of efficient and economical forest inventories requires data concerning site and stock variation. It should be calculated and published systematically by geographical region.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7113, category Article
L. Runeberg. (1959). Möjligheterna att med hjälp av bidragsmetoden bedöma skogsbrukets resultat och räntabilitet. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 71 no. 4 article id 7113. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7113
English title: Possibility of calculating results and profitability in forestry with the help of margin costing.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsänomistus; metsätalouden kannattavuus; rajakustannus; marginaalikustannus; metsätalouden tulos
English keywords: forestry; profitability; profitability of forestry; result; marginal cost
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It is impossible to survey the results and profitability of forestry a hundred years hence of measures taken today. Financial reports in forestry should be kept as separate as possible from stocktaking. Under sustained forest management it is the task of silviculture to supervise the care of growing stock. As long a sufficient money is being used for forest improvement, the situation can be considered satisfactory. To ascertain just what is sufficient, in the analysis of the costs of forestry the investigators should concentrate on establishing which costs are fixed and which are direct (marginal).

Short-time changes of capital can also best be considered by means of a cost analysis of silvicultural measures and other operations. On the other hand, classification of the cost must be correct if the operational statistics are to be of any value. The calculations become much easier if fixed costs do not need to be distributed per production unit. Therefore, there may be good reason to try out marginal costing in forest enterprises. The fixed costs are increasing steadily.

This paper aims at giving ideas in determining the profitability of a forest enterprise. A marginal costing balance sheet mainly illustrates the structure of an enterprise, which gives a general picture of its profitability. If profitability is to be expressed by comparing yield with capital, yield can be treated as interest and capitalized. None the less, this is certain to result in different capital values depending on whether we take the yield to represent 3, 4, or 5% of the capital. A marginal balance is no substitute for the long-term planning which will be needed in a forest enterprise.

The PDF includes a summary in Swedish.

  • Runeberg, E-mail: lr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7110, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1959). Suurin kestävä hakkuusuunnite ja sen metsätaloudellinen merkitys. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 71 no. 1 article id 7110. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7110
English title: Largest permanent allowable cut and a method for its calculation.
Original keywords: mänty; hakkuusuunnitelma; metsänarviointi; kasvu; hakkuusuunnite; suurin kestävä hakkuusuunnite; kasvuennuste
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Scots pine; allowable cut; forest mensuration; increment; largest allowable cut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the investigation was to study the factors which determine the amount of the largest permanent allowable cut and to work out a method to estimate it. There is a need to have a ’short cut’ formula for rough preliminary estimates. The preliminary estimates will be checked by stock development forecasts. The largest allowable cut and its sustained basis are only guaranteed by a forecast through a period during which all the present tree stands have reached maturity and exploited.

Estimations of the largest permanent allowable cut are based on the data of the present and desirable growing stock. The present stock was a growing stock of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated stands on Vaccinium type forests in Southern Finland. The connected Austrian formula is a simple way for preliminary estimation of the largest cut but its sustained basis must be checked by a stock development forecast.

In a stock development forecast the future increment and cut are calculated. For this purpose, the average site quality, tree species, age class and average volume in each class seem to be sufficient variables. The forecast is carried out within the limiting data of the present and desirable stock.

If there is an abundance of mature and over-mature stands, the largest permanent allowable cut is greater than the present increment, provided, however, that bulk of the cut is drawn by determined generation measures. Measured in solid cubic meters, the sustained cut from the Southern Finnish pine stock exceeds the present increment by 11%. With regard to the sustained saw timber production the cut can exceed the present increment by 5–7%.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7502, category Article
Eric Appelroth. (1959). Practice and science of forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 12 article id 7502. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7502
Keywords: Finland; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a discusses development of forest research to its present stage. The writer points out that of all different branches of industry, forestry is probably the one most based on practical experience, as it is not until recently implied in discriminate exploitation of available natural resources. In addition, until recently job performances in forestry were essentially based on the muscular strength and acquired skills of the individual worker. Until the eighteenth century the tenor of scientific thought was alien to a domain like forestry. Prior to that time, science meant jurisprudence, theology and philosophy. After Linnaeus science experienced a time of expansion. Since then, the contact between science and forestry has developed along two different lines. First, forest has attracted the interest of biologists. Second, where forestry has been unsuccessful in solving its own problems, the need has arisen for theoretical investigations.

The article is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 11.

  • Appelroth, E-mail: ea@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7501, category Article
Eric Appelroth. (1959). Käytännön metsämiehen ajatuksia metsätieteestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 11 article id 7501. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7501
English title: Practice and science of forestry.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi
English keywords: Finland; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a discusses development of forest research to its present stage. The writer points out that of all different branches of industry, forestry is probably the one most based on practical experience, as it is not until recently implied in discriminate exploitation of available natural resources. In addition, until recently job performances in forestry were essentially based on the muscular strength and acquired skills of the individual worker. Until the eighteenth century the tenor of scientific thought was alien to a domain like forestry. Prior to that time, science meant jurisprudence, theology and philosophy. After Linnaeus science experienced a time of expansion. Since then, the contact between science and forestry has developed along two different lines. First, forest has attracted the interest of biologists. Second, where forestry has been unsuccessful in solving its own problems, the need has arisen for theoretical investigations.

The article is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 12.

  • Appelroth, E-mail: ea@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7500, category Article
L. Heikinheimo, S. Ervasti, L. Ahonen. (1959). Development of forest economic research in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 10 article id 7500. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7500
Keywords: Finland; forest research; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the field of forest economics in the previous 50 years. Forest economics in Finland is comparatively young as an independent field of forest research. Not until 1922 was the office of Professor of Forest Economics established in the University of Helsinki. The Department of Forest Economics was established within the Forest Research Institute in 1928. The article presents the main fields of investigation, namely Finland’s forest resources and forest balance, forest ownership policy, forest legislation and forest taxation, forest labour, forest geography, forest industries and wood transport, marketing of forest products, and business economics of forestry.

The article is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 9.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ervasti, E-mail: se@mm.unknown
  • Ahonen, E-mail: la@mm.unknown
article id 7499, category Article
L. Heikinheimo, S. Ervasti, L. Ahonen. (1959). Suomen metsätaloustieteellisen tutkimuksen kehitys. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 9 article id 7499. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7499
English title: Development of forest economic research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; metsätaloustiede
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the field of forest economics in the previous 50 years. Forest economics in Finland is comparatively young as an independent field of forest research. Not until 1922 was the office of Professor of Forest Economics established in the University of Helsinki. The Department of Forest Economics was established within the Forest Research Institute in 1928. The article presents the main fields of investigation, namely Finland’s forest resources and forest balance, forest ownership policy, forest legislation and forest taxation, forest labour, forest geography, forest industries and wood transport, marketing of forest products, and business economics of forestry.

The article is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 10.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ervasti, E-mail: se@mm.unknown
  • Ahonen, E-mail: la@mm.unknown
article id 7498, category Article
Theodor Wegelius. (1959). Survey of forest technology research in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 8 article id 7498. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7498
Keywords: Finland; forest technology; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the field of forest technology in the previous 50 years. The field of research is relatively new among the forest sciences. In the beginning and still during the last century forest technology as an individual field of science was directed entirely towards the anatomical properties of wood and their uses, and to the chemical composition of wood. Later the attention was given to the actual forest work, mainly felling, logging and transportation of timber. The invention of production of wood pulp and cellulose opened new fields of work within the processing and use of wood.

The review indicates that the forest technological research is finally going ahead at full speed. It has proved right that logging technics have received attention in research. The technical questions are by nature such that they require a rapid solution in order that the production machinery would not stop.

The article is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 7.

  • Wegelius, E-mail: tw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7497, category Article
Theodor Wegelius. (1959). Metsäteknologinen tutkimustoiminta Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 7 article id 7497. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7497
English title: Survey of forest technology research in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; metsäteknologia
English keywords: Finland; forest technology; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the field of forest technology in the previous 50 years. The field of research is relatively new among the forest sciences. In the beginning and still during the last century forest technology as an individual field of science was directed entirely towards the anatomical properties of wood and their uses, and to the chemical composition of wood. Later the attention was given to the actual forest work, mainly felling, logging and transportation of timber. The invention of production of wood pulp and cellulose opened new fields of work within the processing and use of wood.

The review indicates that the forest technological research is finally going ahead at full speed. It has proved right that logging technics have received attention in research. The technical questions are by nature such that they require a rapid solution in order that the production machinery would not stop.

The article is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 8.

  • Wegelius, E-mail: tw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7496, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1959). Finnish research in the fields of forest mensuration and management in 1909-1959. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 6 article id 7496. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7496
Keywords: forest management; Finland; forest mensuration; forest reseach
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the fields of forest mensuration and management during the previous 50 years. Of the studies special attention deserves the development, structure and growth of growing stock and forest survey. The development during the past half century has led to the differentiation of forest mensuration into a few independent fields of knowledge. Fields closely connected with forest mensuration are photogrammetry and statistical methods.

The article is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 5.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7495, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen. (1959). Metsänarvioimistieteellinen tutkimus Suomessa vuosina 1909-1959. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 5 article id 7495. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7495
English title: Finnish research in the fields of forest mensuration and management in 1909-1959.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; metsänarvioimistiede
English keywords: forest management; Finland; forest mensuration; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This article is a review of Finnish forest research in the fields of forest mensuration and management during the previous 50 years. Of the studies special attention deserves the development, structure and growth of growing stock and forest survey. The development during the past half century has led to the differentiation of forest mensuration into a few independent fields of knowledge. Fields closely connected with forest mensuration are photogrammetry and statistical methods.

The article is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 6.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7494, category Article
Peitsa Mikola, Esko Kangas, Leo Heikurainen. (1959). Silvicultural research in Finland from 1909 to 1959. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 4 article id 7494. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7494
Keywords: forest management; Finland; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a review on the silvicultural research in Finland, researchers and the main subject of the research within the previous 50 years. The task of silvicultural research is to serve forest management work and create a foundation for the practical operations, on one hand, and to answer to the constantly arising questions in the practice of forest management, on the other.

It can be said that the forestry as an independent branch of science began in 1909. At first the research was primarily biological, dealing with both the foundations and practices of silviculture. The main subjects are divided to forest sites and vegetation, biology of trees and stand, and methods of forest management.

The article is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 3.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kangas, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown
  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
article id 7493, category Article
Peitsa Mikola, Esko Kangas, Leo Heikurainen. (1959). Metsänhoitotieteellinen tutkimus Suomessa vuosina 1901-1959. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 3 article id 7493. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7493
English title: Silvicultural research in Finland from 1901 to 1959 .
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänhoito; Suomi
English keywords: forest management; Finland; forest research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a review on the silvicultural research in Finland, researchers and the main subject of the research within the previous 50 years. The task of silvicultural research is to serve forest management work and create a foundation for the practical operations, on one hand, and to answer to the constantly arising questions in the practice of forest management, on the other.  

Forestry as an independent branch of science began in 1909. At first the research was primarily biological, dealing with both the foundations and practices of silviculture. The main subjects are divided to forest sites and vegetation, biology of trees and stand, and methods of forest management. 

The article is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 4. 

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kangas, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown
  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
article id 7492, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1959). The first half century of the Society of Forestry in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 2 article id 7492. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7492
Keywords: Finland; forest research; The Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) published a special issue of Acta Forestalia Fennica on the occasion of its 50th anniversary on April 29th 1959. It comprises as series of articles surveying the evolution of different branches of forest research in Finland. It also has a brief history of the Society.

The Society was founded in April 1909 at a time when the highest education of forestry was moved from the Forestry Institute at Evo to the University of Helsinki. The intention was to get the teaching onto a scientific basis and to enable graduate study leading to an advanced degree. The Society was founded in a meeting called together by professor A.K. Cajader, who stated that domestic forestry must be supported by domestic research. The first publications of the society were published in the same year, the first issues of the series Acta Forestalia Fennica in 1914 and a new series Silva Fennica in 1926. A third series, Communicationes Forestales appeared in 1928–1933. During the 50 years, the Society has given research grants to scientist worth 4,687,900 marks.

The history of the Society of Forestry is published in Finnish in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 1.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7491, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1959). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran ensimmäinen puolivuosisata. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 70 no. 1 article id 7491. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7491
English title: The first half century of the Society of Forestry in Finland .
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; Metsätieteellinen seura
English keywords: Finland; forest research; Finnish Society of Forest Science
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Society of Forestry (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) published a special issue of Acta Forestalia Fennica on the occasion of its 50th anniversary on April 29th 1959. It comprises as series of articles surveying the evolution of different branches of forest research in Finland. It also has a brief history of the Society.  

The Society was founded in April 1909 at a time when the highest education of forestry was moved from the Forestry Institute at Evo to the University of Helsinki. The intention was to get the teaching onto a scientific basis and to enable graduate study leading to an advanced degree. The Society was founded in a meeting called together by professor A.K. Cajader, who stated that domestic forestry must be supported by domestic research. The first publications of the society were published in the same year, the first issues of the series Acta Forestalia Fennica in 1914 and a new series Silva Fennica in 1926. A third series, Communicationes Forestales appeared in 1928–1933. During the 50 years, the Society has given research grants to scientist worth 4,687,900 Finnish marks. 

The history of the the Finnish Society of Forest Science is published in English in separate PDF Acta Forestalia Fennica vol 70 no 2.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7487, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1959). Valtion metsät sekä niiden hoidon ja käytön yleissuunnitelma. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 68 no. 5 article id 7487. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7487
English title: The state forests of Finland and a general management plan for them based on an inventory made in 1951-1955.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsävarat; metsäsuunnitelma; hoitosuunnitelma; VMI; valtakunnan metsien inventointi
English keywords: forest management; National Forest Inventory; Finland; forest resources; state forests; forest management plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The distances between the lines in the line survey in the first two National Inventories of Finland were too long to supply data for every State Forest district. Consequently, the Third National Forest Inventory offered an opportunity to supplement the inventory for State Forests in 1954 and 1955, and to gather data on forest resources of the State Fforests. On the basis of the results, a management plan for the State Forests was drafted. The first part of the paper describes the inventory procedure and results of the inventory, the second deduces future cuttings and a forest management programme.
In 1955 the total land area of the State Forests was 9.49 million ha. Drained peatlands cover 126,000 ha, drainable peatlands 798,000 ha and undrainable peatlands 2,621,000 ha. The average volume of growing stock in all State Forests was 55.2 m3/ha, including productive and unproductive forest land. The average increment in all State Forests was 1,39 m3/ha on productive land and in all lands in average 1,14 m3/ha.
Cutting budgets for the progressive yield were prepared by checking the silvicultural cut and estimating the allowable cut. They were made by age classes, developmental stages and for each region. The stock development was forecasted for a period of 40 years. In average the allowable cut was larger during the first decade than during the second. Allowable cut was estimated by the tree species and by timber assortments. The management plan included future forest management work, such as intermediate fellings, regeneration fellings, site preparation, artificial regenereation, tending of seedling stands, and draining of peatland.
The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7486, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1959). Siemensiipien hankaajista ja niiden vaikutuksesta siemenen itävyyteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 68 no. 4 article id 7486. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7486
English title: On machines for abrading seed wings and their influence on the germinative capacity of the seed.
Original keywords: kuusi; mänty; laitteet; metsäpuiden siemenet; karistamot; siemensiivet; siemensiipien hankaajat
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Socts pine; seeds of forest trees; seed extraction; seed wings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper deals with two machines designed for abrading seed wings, and their influence on the germinative capacity of seed of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Both machines are commonly used in Finland.

The results of the study indicate that the act of abrading may cause slight or even serious injuries to the seed. Slight injuries of about 3% are probably not easily avoided if mechanical abrading is resorted to. It must be noted, however, that even this reduction in germinative capacity causes significant yearly loss. If the reduction in germinative capacity is greater, which seems to be possible, it is advisable to test the mechanism of the machine and its method of abrading. As the clearance of the machines can affect the extent of injuries, all machines should be tested. If possible, a continual operation control should be arranged. It could, at the same time, to supply material for improving the abrading method and equipment.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7482, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1959). Management and cutting budget problems in the Himalayan conifer forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 67 no. 8 article id 7482. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7482
Keywords: inventory; forest industry; forest resources; coniferous forests; raw material; India
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An investigation was carried out in the area of Beas River in India in the conifer forests of the region to study the possible supply of raw material for forest industries. The investigation based on an agreement between the Government of Finland and the Government of India about techcnical assistance to India.

The results of the survey suggest that though the Himalayan conifer forests are scattered and they lie on high altitude and in difficult terrain, their potential value is very important to the Indian national economy. Their extraction is feasible in much larger scale than now. The present yield coming to the markets is 30-10%, or even less, of the obtainable yield under intensive management and integrated utilization of wood. The obtainable yield could support comparatively large saw milling as well as pulp and paper industries.

The problems in developing the Himalayan conifer forestry cover the field of forest management, silviculture, re-forestation, logging, relations between forestry and the local population, forest administration, sales policy and industrial planning. Estimating the actual possibilities requires reliable resource inventories. Cultivation of trees for primitive sleeper production should be abandoned, management systems modified in accordance with the principle of progressive yield. The future management should be based on the exploitation of the existing over-mature stock and on the growth of the new stands.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7479, category Article
Matti Franssila. (1958). Kulovaaran ja säätekijöiden välisestä riippuvuudesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 67 no. 5 article id 7479. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7479
English title: The dependence of forest fire danger on meteorological factors.
Original keywords: metsäpalot; ilmasto; kuivuus; maan kuivuus
English keywords: Finland; climate; forest fire; drought; methods; humidity of the soil
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The investigation is divided into statistical and experimental sections, the latter of which were conducted in a Vaccinium type Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand with the aim of elucidating the interdependence of soil humidity and meteorological factors. The moisture content of pine needles and moss and wooden cylinders placed on the soil or slightly over the ground was determined by weighing. The results showed that there is correlation between the moisture content of the wooden cylinders and the relative humidity of air during the days without rain. Correlation between moisture content of pine needles and moss with the air was slightly poorer.

In the statistical section, based on meteorological observations made in the geophysical observatory at Sodankylä in Northern Finland in 1920-1943, and forest fire statistics of the area, forest fire days and days without forest fires were divided into 40 temperature-humidity groups. Of the 391 forest fires observed in the area, the cause of the fire was known in 353 cases, and 69% of these were caused by lightning. A forest fire danger index was calculated using the data. A sharp increase in the burned area when the index exceeded the limit k=0.3 seem to be explained by thunderstorms, which are the most notable cause of forest fires in the Sodankylä area.

The forest fire index was calculated also at four meteorological stations in different parts of the country using weather observations in 1927-1936. It appears that the number of days in which the k>0.1 decreases when proceeding northwards, obviously because of the shortening of the summer. On the other hand, the number of days in which k>0.3 increases towards the north.

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  • Franssila, E-mail: mf@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7476, category Article
Leo Heikurainen. (1958). Sekametsiköiden juuristoista ojitetulla suolla. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 67 no. 2 article id 7476. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7476
English title: Root systems of mixed forest in drained peatlands.
Original keywords: kuusi; ojitus; mänty; juuristo; koivu; turvekangas; mykorritsa; sekametsikkö
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; birch; Picea abies; drained peatlands; Scots pine; peatlands; mixed forests; mycorrhiza; Betula sp.; draining; root system; roots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Draining transforms root systems of trees growing in peatlands towards the ones growing on mineral soil. However, even after efficient draining the root systems differ from the root systems of trees growing on mineral soil. This investigation concentrates on root systems of forests of similar mire types growing in similar draining conditions but having different tree species compositions. The peatland, situated in Pieksämäki in Southern Finland, was drained in 1937. Sample plots, measured in 1956, consisted of mixed forest of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and birch (Betula sp.) in different compositions, and were in natural condition.

The sedge pine bog studied in this investigation was shown to have larger total amount of roots and mycorrhiza than in previously studied dwarf shrub pine bogs. This reflects better growth conditions of the better site. The depth of root system was, however, similar. Root systems of birch were deeper than those of the coniferous tree species. Differences between Scots pine and Norway spruce were small. Corresponding differences between the species were found in the density and total number of mycorrhizas. The abundance of mycorrhizas in the roots of birch increased in deeper layers of peat, but decreased especially in spruce roots. In earlier studies the abundance of mycorrhizas decreased in the roots growing in deeper layers in pure Scots pine stands, but no such variation was seen in this study. The result suggest that the deep root system of birch may affect also the root systems of the coniferous trees. On the other hand, birch roots can have advantage over the coniferous trees.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Heikurainen, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7473, category Article
Kustaa Kallio. (1957). Käenkaali-mustikkatyypin kuusikoiden kehityksestä Suomen lounaisosassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 66 no. 3 article id 7473. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7473
English title: On the development of spruce forests of the Oxalis-Myrtillus site type in the south-west of Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; kuusikko; kasvu; hakkuuarvo; tilavuuskasvu; arvokasvu; kiertoaika; metsän puhdas tuotto
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; growth; volume growth; rotation; value growth; annual forest rent; net forest income
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this investigation was studied 1) Volume growth and yield of timber in managed Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests under different rotations. 2) Value growth, net forest income and soil expectation value of managed forests under different rotations, and 3) The rotations of spruce forests managed on different rotation principles. The data was collected from Oxalis-Myrtillus type forests in South-West Finland.

Two developmental series of stands were constructed for the research, one of which were of better sites than the other. Sample plots were pure, even-aged spruce stands in well-managed forests. The stands had been thinned from below. The age varied from 25-30 years to the age of final cutting.

According to the study, in the artificially regenerated spruce stands the highest mean annual volume growth, 9.7 m3/ha, and also the highest net annual income of 14,50 Finnish marks/ha (calculated from average stumpages) was reached in rotation of 70 years. In the other managed spruce forests a mean annual volume growth of 6.6-8.8 m3/ha and the net annual income of 10,500-14,500 Finnish marks/ha were reached in the rotation of 70-100 years. The rotation for the maximum mean annual volume growth varied in the different series between 67-92 years. The maximum mean annual forest rent was only achieved in series B in a rotation of about 100 years, and in a naturally normal stand in a rotation of about 120 years. The intensity of thinnings and silviculture had a greater effect on value growth and on net income than on volume growth.

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  • Kallio, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7471, category Article
Kalle Putkisto. (1956). Tutkimuksia pyörätraktoreiden käytöstä puutavaran metsäkuljetuksessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 66 no. 1 article id 7471. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7471
English title: Investigations of the use of wheel tractors for the forest transport of timber.
Original keywords: hakkuut; koneellistuminen; metsäkuljetus; maataloustraktori; hevoskuljetus; puutavaran kuljetus; traktori
English keywords: mechanization; timber harvesting; fellings; timber transport; horse haulage; forest transport of wood; tractor
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest transport of timber in Finland has been arranged as horse haulage during winter time using horses vacant from farm work. Tractors have now begun to replace horses in agriculture, which will lead to shortage of horses for timber harvesting in future. The aim of this investigation was to find a method of mechanized forest transport suitable for Finnish conditions. The method should be provided by an agricultural wheel tractor that is shared with agriculture. It should also be applicable to timber transport of relatively small forest holdings.

A method for time studies of tractor driven timber harvesting was developed. The competitivity of tractor transport of timber against the traditional method was studied in four pulpwood harvesting sites. The results suggest that if the tractor forest transport method in question is to be applied in practice, conditions should first be chosen which favour it most. A tractor forest transport method evolved on the basis of experiments presupposes certain conditions to be successful. These include snow for the construction of the packed-snow driveway, frost to harden the driveway, the location of strip roads in relatively easy topography, and of the main haulage road that is gently sloping in the haulage-loaded direction. The optimal transport distance for this method are about 3-10 km.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Putkisto, E-mail: kp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7470, category Article
Juhani Sarasto. (1957). Metsän kasvattamiseksi ojitettujen soiden aluskasvillisuudenrakenteesta ja kehityksestä Suomen eteläpuoliskossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 7 article id 7470. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7470
English title: Understorey vegetation and its development in drained peatlands in the southern half of Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; sukkessio; suotyyppi; aluskasvillisuus; turvekangas; kasvillisuustyyppi
English keywords: succession; vegetation; drained peatlands; peatlands; ground vegetation; peatland type; forest type; plant communities; understorey; mire type; transformed peatlands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to studies following the development of vegetation of drained peatlands, it seems that they have transformed to a relatively stable plant communities during the succession. In earlier studies it was assumed that after drainage a mire type would develop to a corresponding forest site. This investigation studies what kinds of plant communities are formed during succession of different mire types on peatlands drained for forestry in the southern half of Finland. Understorey vegetation was studied in 18 sample plots established by Forest Research Institute on drained peatlands. In addition, sample plots were studied on peatlands in natural state.

The results suggest that understorey vegetation on peatlands drained for forestry have developed into plant communities, the most advanced of which are the so-called dry plant communities. They represent transformed site types, which are the following: drained peatlands with upland herb-rich vegetation, drained peatlands with upland grass-herb vegetation, drained peatlands with upland Myrtillus site type vegetation, drained peatlands with upland Vaccinium site type vegetation, and drained peatlands with upland Calluna site type vegetation. Drained peatlands with upland Cladonia site type vegetation seem to be a temporary type caused by incomplete drainage. The transition between Myrtillus and Vaccinium dominated dry plant communities is not clear, but especially the pure Vaccinium vitis-ideae communities justify its place as an independent plant community. The dry drwarf shrub plant communities are also stable.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarasto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7469, category Article
Antero Piha. (1957). Metsätulot ja maatilan pääoman muodostus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 6 article id 7469. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7469
English title: Forest income and capital formation of a farm.
Original keywords: maatila; metsätulot; pääoma; maatilatalous; investoinnit; hakkuutulot
English keywords: farm; forest income; farm economy; forest holding; investments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This investigation studies the significance of forest income to the economy of a farm in Finland. It concentrates on the relationship between monetary income from forestry and the capital of the farm, especially from the viewpoint of investments made in the agriculture. The material is based on results of the accounting holdings of the National Board of Agriculture between the financial years 1925-1926 and 1936-1937.

The study shows that there is a high correlation between farm’s monetary investments and changes of deposits, and changes in the monetary income of forestry. The changes in depts seem not to be as closely related to forest income as could be expected. The most important role of forestry income in farm economy is financing the investments, i.e. operations that aim at developing and rationalizing farming and making it more profitable. In many parts of the country, the investments would have remained low without income from forestry. Income from cuttings provides usually a relatively large sum on a single occasion, which is easier to use to finance a large investment compared to a smaller regular income. The needs of agriculture may, however, lead to overcutting of the forests.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7467, category Article
Matti Nuorteva. (1956). Hakkuiden vaikutuksesta kaarnakuoriaisten esiintymiseen eräällä metsäalueella Etelä-Hämeessä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 65 no. 4 article id 7467. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7467
English title: Effect of fellings on bark beetle population in a forest area in Southern Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; kuusi; metsänhoito; hyönteistuhot; kaarnakuoriaiset
English keywords: forest management; bark beetles; Norway spruce; Picea abies; fellings; insect damage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Bark beetle populations live usually in a balance in natural forests, and outbreaks occur seldom. The populations have been found to increase in managed forests. Fellings affect the structure of the forests, which influence the living conditions of the insects, and produce material for reproduction. In this study the occurrence of bark beetles was studied in a forest area in Etelä-Häme in Southern Finland using line plot survey.

The forests in the area were Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) dominated. Over third of the 140 sample plots studied were in forests which had never been cut or it was over ten years to the last logging. Bark beetles of 26 different species were found in 66 of the sample plots. The most common species was six-toothed spruce bark beetle (Pityogenes chalcographus L.), which was due to the abundance of growth material suitable for the species in the area. New species in the area were common double-eyed spruce bark beetle (Polygraphus polygraphus L.), Pityophthorus micrographus L., and Dryocetes-beetle (either Dryocetes autographus or D. hectographus). The fellings increased the occurrence of beetles. The amount and quality of logging residue affected the abundance of the insects.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Nuorteva, E-mail: mn@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7461, category Article
Matti Halmekoski. (1955). Tutkimuksia metsäteollisuuden metsäosastojen henkilöorganisaation rakenteesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 64 no. 1 article id 7461. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7461
English title: Studied concerning the structure of personnel organization in the forestry department of the forest industry.
Original keywords: metsäteollisuus; organisaatiot; metsäyritykset; hallinto; henkilöorganisaatiot; henkilöstö
English keywords: organization; forest industry; administration; personnell
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper aims at creating a picture of the tasks of forestry departments of those enterprises engaged in the wood working industry in Southern Finland, to analyse tasks performed by them and to discover the details from which the tasks have been built. In the first part of the work a general theory of organization study is dealt with from the point of view of structural research, and in the second part the results obtained are applied to the forestry departments.

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  • Halmekoski, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7460, category Article
Lauri Heikinheimo, Toini Ristimäki. (1956). Metsä- ja uittotyövoiman määrä ja rakenne. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 7 article id 7460. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7460
English title: Size and structure of forest and log-floating labour force in Finland.
Original keywords: uitto; metsätyö; työvoima; maataloustyö
English keywords: floating; workforce; forestry work; labour force; farm work; rural labour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The investigation is based mainly on the material collected for Finnish rural labour force study in connection with the 1950 Population Census. A total of 44,667 men, aged 15-64, were interviewed in connection of the census, and a sub-group consisting of a sample of the forest and floating labour, 28,850 men, was formed for this study. Finnish rural population typically cultivates the land, tends cattle, works in the forest, builds roads and houses and floats timber without specializing in any of these jobs. The work done in the own farms is called unpaid work in this study in contrast to paid work outside the farm.

The paid forest and floating labour force (308,600 men) includes all forest and floating workers who reported that they have worked for a minimum of one day. Forest work is heavily winter-dominated. Only in the floating work there was a declining trend in the time series of 1933-1934 and 1942-1955. The average forest and floating labour input per man was small, 40-70 days depending on the occupational group. Only 13,000 workers worked over 200 days, and 32,000 worked 150 days. 44% of the paid forest and floating workers were members of families cultivating small farms, 26% had larger farms, and the remaining 30% were farmless or members of a family holding a building lot.

The main difficulty in finding manpower for summertime forest work seems not to be the lack of time for paid work because of the men’s unpaid work. They seem to prefer other, more attractive paid work.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ristimäki, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown
article id 7459, category Article
Toini Ristimäki, Sulo Väänänen, Lauri Heikinheimo. (1956). Maaseudun elinkeino- ja työttömyysalueet miestyövoiman ajankäytön perusteella. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 6 article id 7459. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7459
English title: Distribution by industry and unemployment of the manpower in rural districts in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työvoima; maaseutu; maataloustyö; elinkeinoalueet
English keywords: workforce; forestry work; labour force; farm work; rural areas; rural districts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland the workers engaged in forestry and, in the rural districts, also in construction are seldom occupied with the work throughout the year or even for greater part of the year. Due to this, these industries seem disproportionally small in the statistics of census. The aim of this study was to gain figures that describe better the significance of these industries. Therefore, data was collected by replacing the man unit by a time unit, a day. The results are raised estimates of the activity by the men interviewed in 1950 Census of Finland, aged 15-64, living in rural communes.

In four areas of Finland, namely South-West Finland, Ostrobothnia, South Savo and Savo-Karelia, the male labour input to agriculture as a proportion of the total activity of the male labour was greater than in other parts of the country. In the western part of the country, the conditions of agriculture are favourable and the farms larger than in average in the country and the intensity of farming is greater. In South Savo and Savo-Karelia the conditions are poorer, consequently, the male labour input to agriculture per hectare under plough is greater than in the western areas.

In Finland, forest work is an occupation supplementary to work in agriculture, but the agriculture, based on predominantly small farms, is unable to utilize the entire work potential of the farming population. In Central and Eastern Finland, the forestry districts often coincide with the agricultural districts. In the coastal areas, where agriculture was relatively intense, the labour input to forestry remained small. The best forests are situated in Southern, Central and Eastern Finland, and the labour demand is, therefore, larger. Unemployment was heaviest in Southern Finland in certain densely populated districts with high proportion of urban occupations. It concerned mainly building workers, general labourers and harbour workers. In Northern Finland there was structural unemployment independent of business cycles.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ristimäki, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown (email)
  • Väänänen, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown
  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown
article id 7458, category Article
Sulo Väänänen. (1955). Ammattimaisten metsätyömiesten asunto-olot. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 5 article id 7458. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7458
English title: Housing conditions of professional forest workers in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työvoima; asuminen; metsäammattilaiset; asuinolosuhteet; asumistiheys
English keywords: workforce; forestry work; labour force; forest labour; housing; housing conditions; housing density
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data on housing conditions presented in this study derives from the general population census of Finland of 1950. The sub-sample of professional forest workers was taken from the sample collected for the larger investigation of rural labour force. The housing density of professional forest workers was considerably higher than the average for the population in general. The total population of the country, according to the 1950 Census, showed a ratio of 154 persons to 100 rooms, while the average weighted with the number of rooms for forest workers was 237:100, and the unweighted 340:100. If three per room is taken as the limit of crowded housing, nearly half of the professional forest workers lived in crowded conditions. Over two-thirds of them owned their dwellings, and only 2% of them lived in dwellings owned by the employer. Three quarters of all the men belonged to the holder-family of small farms. About three quarters of them lived in dwellings of one or two rooms. Also, the size of the family and household affected the housing density. The housing density exceeds the average in the youngest age classes. This is probably because the sons of families with poor economic standing must start work young in forestry, and those families have a high housing density. A quarter of the families had electricity in their dwellings. Few had running water or sewage in their houses.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Väänänen, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7457, category Article
Toini Ristimäki. (1955). Kääpiöviljelmien miestyövoiman käyttö. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 4 article id 7457. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7457
English title: Use of workforce of small farms.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työvoima; pientilat; maataloustyö
English keywords: Finland; workforce; small farms; forestry work; labour force; farm work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The investigation into the manpower of small farms is a part of the 1950 rural labour force survey. The purpose of this work was to study the use of manpower of small farms, that have 0.25-0.499 ha under plough. The manpower of the farms refers to men of 15-64 years of age, members of the family, whose input of unpaid labour to farming was not less than 21 days in 1950. The aim was to find out the extent to which the labour input was to farming and to what extent to paid work outside the farm. The data was collected in connection to the census of Finland as a sample.

The men of small farms are primarily temporal workers in the different occupations. Their labour input in the own farms per hectare under plough increased as the size of the farms decreased. This seemingly contradictory result is due to a low decree of mechanization, the organization of work, the quality of the labour force and the great relative importance of maintenance work in small farms. Also, especially in the remote areas there is not available enough paid work for the men living in small farms. Farms in Lapland and the county of Oulu had most forest land, which increased the unpaid work on forestry. Forestry in small farms tends to require more unpaid work, because they use less hired labour and make less sales of standing timber.

This is the workforce in forest and construction industry, that are sensitive to business cycles, and draw additional manpower during boom of trends without affecting unemployment figures. Agricultural income of the men of small farms was estimated by comparing it with wages of a worker. Their income per day for unpaid labour was lower than the daily wage of a farm worker. High number of small farms is a result of agricultural policy in Finland. The aim has been to keep the proportion of agricultural population high since it is considered to be best able to provide work and a decent living. The farms, established in connection with the abolition of tenant farming and through colonization, were mostly small.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ristimäki, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7456, category Article
Toini Ristimäki. (1955). Nuorukaisten ja täysi-ikäisten miesten arkiajan käyttö. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 3 article id 7456. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7456
English title: Annual round of activity of youths and adult men.
Original keywords: maatalous; metsätyö; työvoima; työntutkimus; maataloustyö; nuoret
English keywords: workforce; work studies; forestry work; labour force; farm work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is a part of the investigation of the rural labour force in Finland in 1950. The data was collected in the form of a sample in connection with the census of Finland, and covers the rural male population of the age of 15-64. In this study the men in the age group of 15-19 are classified as youths and the 20-64 as adult men.

Youths in rural districts participated in production, calculated in man-days, to almost at the same extent as adult men. The total labour input of the youths was 78% of the total activity, and that of adult men 85%. About 75% of the men or their families owned a farm. The main activity, 151 days a year, of 47% of the youths and 51% of the adult men was in work on their own family farms. The input of paid labour of youths was smaller than that of adult men.

In rural districts 37% of the youths and 47% of the adult men spent the main part of the annual round of activity in paid work. However, in Lapland only quarter of the youths and half of the adult men was in paid work. Forest and agricultural work seem to have a greater meaning for youths, and construction of houses and industrial work for adult men. Only 12% of the youths and 13% of the men were employed principally as professional workers in forestry, agriculture or construction of houses. Jobs in industry, commerce, transport and communication had little significance.

About 36% of the youths had no permanent occupation. This figure includes, however, also those who were studying, or were at home at least for the greater part of the year. About 12% of the total activity of the youths was studying.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ristimäki, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7455, category Article
Lauri Heikinheimo. (1955). Maaseudun miestyövoiman arkiajan käyttö. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 2 article id 7455. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7455
English title: Use of rural workforce in Finland.
Original keywords: uitto; metsätyö; työttömyys; työvoima; työllisyys; maaseutu; työntutkimus
English keywords: employment; floating; workforce; unemployment; work studies; forestry work; labour force
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article comprises some of the principal results of the labour force material collected in connection with the 1950 census of Finland. It includes the basic tables in which are listed the calculated estimates of total number of rural male forest and floating labour force, their labour input to agriculture, forestry and floating in 1950. In addition, division of the labour force into farmers and not-farmers and by districts are presented. The unemployment time and relief work input of the rural population was also calculated.

Finland’s economic situation in 1950 was characterized by a slow recovery from depression of the previous year. The situation had not yet improved in such measure that would have relieved appreciably the rural unemployment that arose from shortage of work available in the forest.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7454, category Article
Lauri Heikinheimo. (1954). Metsätyövoiman tutkimusmenetelmä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 63 no. 1 article id 7454. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7454
English title: Method of surveying forest labour.
Original keywords: metsätyö; työntutkimus; menetelmät; tutkimusmenetelmät
English keywords: work study; employment; workforce; forestry work; methodos; labour force; labou; forest labour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland the general shortage of labour during the Second World War called attention to employment problems in forestry. After the war the scope widened to include sociological and human maters. The Finnish Rural Labour Force Study deals with the whole rural labour force, not only forest work. Due to the scale of the subject, pilot studies were started by the Institute of Forest Economics at the University of Helsinki and the Central Statistical Office and the Board of Agriculture in 1950. This article describes in detail the methods used in the pilot studies the and main survey.

The aim of the survey was to obtain a reliable picture of three subjects. 1) The labour input of the male rural population during the observation year, its distribution and the seasonal fluctuations in the structure of labour input. 2) The unemployment time of the rural population, the periods underemployment and its seasonal variation. 3) The number of male workers engaged for a shorter or longer period during the year in certain occupation. The paper discusses the different data sources and ways to collect the data either from enterprises or workers. One of the obstacles is the large number of enterprises in agriculture and forestry. Consequently, the total number of people employed in a particular industry, its distribution and the duration of the working season can be estimated only from a sample selected from the population.

The data of the survey is based on a systematic sample, collected by interviews, of the annual round of activity in 1950 of 44,667 men of 15-64 years of age living in Finnish rural communes. The interviews were made in connection with the 1950 census of Finland. The results of the survey are presented in the other articles of Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 63.

The PDF includes a comprehensive summary in English.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: lh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7451, category Article
Helge Gyllenberg, Pauli Hanioja, Unto Vartiovaara. (1954). Havaintoja eräiden viljelemättömien maatyyppien mikrobiston koostumuksesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 62 no. 2 article id 7451. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7451
English title: Observations on the composition of the microbial population in some virgin soils.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; metsämaa; bakteerit; mikrobit; sienet; mykobakteerit; hajottajat; typensitojabakteeri
English keywords: forest soil; decomposition; fungi; forest type; bacteria; microbes; nitrogen fixing bacteria
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this investigation was to obtain a preliminary picture of the composition of the microbial population in some virgin soils on forest land in Finland. Four different forest types were studied, Oxalis-Myrtillus type birch (Betula sp.) stand, Oxalis-Myrtillus type Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stand, Vaccinium type Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand, and drained pine bog. In addition, a flood meadow was selected as a comparison.

The methods used captured only part of the fungi growing in the soil. Rapidly growing types, especially Mucor and Penicillium species, were mainly isolated. In addition, fungi showing activity of decomposition, such as Fusarium, Monosporium and Spicaria, as well as an ascomycete of the genius Ascobolus, were isolated. Autochthonous bacteria were most abundant in the soils of Oxalis-Myrtillus type forests and in the flood meadow. In the birch stand 90% of the autochthonous bacterial flora were gram-negative bacteria, in the Oxallis-Myrtillus spruce and Vaccinium type pine stand 60% were gram-negative, while the share was only 25% in the pine bog. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the type Clostridium pasteurianum were found in all soils. Actinomycetes were found in all sites. The numbers of protozoa were highest in the soils of Oxalis-Myrtillus type forests.

There were no big differences between the forest soils and the flood meadow. Some groups of micro-organisms seem to be absent from the forest soils, which is probably due to the more favourable pH in the meadow. The occurrence of myxobacteria is interesting since no earlier data exist of this organism in Finnish soils.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Gyllenberg, E-mail: hg@mm.unknown (email)
  • Hanioja, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown
  • Vartiovaara, E-mail: uv@mm.unknown
article id 7412, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1954). Professori Eino Saari 60-vuotias. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. I article id 7412. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7412
English title: Commemorative publication to celebrate the 60th anniversary of professor Eino Saari.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Eino Saari; taloustiede; metsätaloustiede
English keywords: forest sciences; forest economics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article summarises the career of Eino Saari, professor of forest economics at the University of Helsinki on his 60th anniversary. He is the founder of forest economics research in Finland, and has developed the theory of forest balance. He abandoned the traditional static view of the forest balance and developed a new dynamic conception.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday. 

The PDF includes a summary in English and Swedish.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: info@metsatiede.org (email)
article id 7449, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1954). Metsäpalstan pinta-alan vaikutuksesta sen kauppahintaan. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 37 article id 7449. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7449
English title: The effect of area upon the value of a forest holding.
Original keywords: metsämaa; metsän arvo; metsätilat; summa-arvomenetelmä; tilakauppa; summa; summaamismenetelmä; metsän markkina-arvo
English keywords: forest land; value of land; forest holdings; selling of farms; selling of forest holdings; marketable price; summing-up method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forests have been priced by assessing separately the value of the land, small timber and heavy timber, and adding them together. This method of summing up gives a small woodlot the same price per hectare as a large forest area. In real estate sales the actual prices paid per hectare, however, are higher for small woodlots. The summing-up method thus over-values big forest holdings.

The figures obtained by the summing-up method should be corrected by using a reduction percentage. This value should increase with the growth of the forest area and should be higher for fully-stocked areas than those with small growing stock. A table of reduction percentages is presented, where an effort is made to eliminate the effect upon the statistics of the potential value of the land as building site and field. The results clearly indicate that the effect of area upon the price of a woodlot is fairly marked, even with very small parcels.

On the other hand, determination of the reduction percentages has some theoretical weaknesses. The author recommends a method of price evaluation which takes the factor of area directly into account, excluding arbitrary correction percentages. In this method the marketable part of the growing stock is evaluated at its felling value and its relative role decreases with the growth of the area. The rest of the growing stock together with the ground is priced as rental value. This method of professor Eino Saari does justice both to the area and to the fact that forest land and the growing tied to it form an inseparable whole.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7447, category Article
A. Jänterä. (1954). "Metsälehti" metsätaloudellisen valistustyön välineenä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 35 article id 7447. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7447
English title: “Metsälehti” as a means of forest information in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsänomistajat; valistus; Metsälehti; tiedotus
English keywords: forestry; forest owners; communication; awareness education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Periodicals connected with forestry profession have been published in Finland since 1888. The earliest paper, Suomen Metsänhoitolehti, ceased to appear in 1893, and was succeeded in 1895-1907 by Metsänystävät, published by the Finnish Forestry Association. In 1908-32 the Finnish Forest Association Tapio published a monthly periodical called Tapio, which was succeeded in 1933 by Metsälehti, dealing with forest management.

The paper Tapio focused particularly on the improvement of private forestry, and increasing interest in rational forestry and forest utilization. Its predecessor Metsälehti has even published official notices and specialist articles for the whole branch. The circulation of the paper has increased from about 8,000 copies in 1933 to 38,700 copies in 1953. Almost 90% of the subscribers are forest owners, and the rest forest professionals.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Jänterä, E-mail: aj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7446, category Article
K. Mantel. (1954). Farm forest holding as an object of agriculture and forestry related research. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 34 article id 7446. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7446
Keywords: research; Germany; small-scale forestry; forest holding; farm forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Small-scale forest holdings are a specific research interest of forest research as they have many special questions in the sense of forest management. The article presents the characters of small-scale forest holdings in Germany. In connection to agricultural activities three different forms of forest use can be distinguished. They are forest-agriculture holdings, where forestry has an equal meaning with the agriculture; agricultural holdings with small areas of forest used only for fire wood or other household purposes; and thirdly farms with very small parcels of forest with no economic meaning and also minor household use.   

Forest research disciplines concerning these small-scale forest holdings and the policy instruments to enhance the sustainable management of these forests are discussed.

 

  • Mantel, E-mail: km@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7445, category Article
Jaakko Vöry. (1954). Puutavaran valmistuksen keskityötulosten määrittäminen tilastoteitse. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 33 article id 7445. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7445
English title: Statistical determination of the average work performance in the preparation of timber.
Original keywords: tilastot; metsätyö; aikatutkimus; hakkuutyö; työtutkimus; työtulos; puutavaran valmistus; keskityötulos
English keywords: time studies; fellings; statistics; forest work; work studies; preparation of timber; average work performance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Work studies conducted in Finland and Sweden on forest work have shown that the performance of different workers or even of a same worker vary greatly, although external conditions such as the size and other properties of the trees, weather etc. are similar. It has been decided in the Northern Countries that as it is impossible to assess the working speed of a man, it is not possible to find out the average work performances, not even from long term time studies. The only way is to collect performance statistics.

Metsäteho (Forest Work Studies Section of the Central Association of Finnish Woodworking Industries) has collected since 1946 statistics on the working sites of forest industry companies in different parts of Finland on the preparation on timber. To make it comparable the material has been converted to uniform values by using the ratios given by the work time studies of various forest jobs conducted by Metsäteho. The ratios are necessary in trying to determine average performances by statistical means. The actual length of time each man is at work on different days and the actual number of days is needed, because in Finland the workers can themselves decide fairly freely the length of a working day. In forest work, wages are paid for the quantity prepared, not for time. The statistics collected by Metsäteho include information on the length of the working days, and conditions in each forest, such as the size of the trees, form of stem, branchiness, bark thickness, terrain, density of the forest, weather conditions etc.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vöry, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7444, category Article
Lauri Selin. (1954). Metsätaloutemme verotetut tulot vuosina 1950-53 erään laskelman valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 32 article id 7444. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7444
English title: Forestry income taxed in Finland in 1950-1953 in the light of a calculation.
Original keywords: metsätalous; yksityismetsät; metsäverotus; verotus; verotettavat tulot
English keywords: forestry; forest taxation; private forests; taxation; income; taxable income
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Due to the nature of forest taxation in Finland, there has been no information available on the amount of tax paid by forestry or of taxable forestry income. The main reason for this is the close connection of taxation of forestry and agriculture, which has made it difficult and expensive to separate the information of the sectors. This study determined the amount of taxable forestry mathematically based on statistics on the taxable forest areas in each tax zone on a county level.

The article concludes that the stumpage has been considerably higher than the taxable income in 1950-1953. In 1951 only 18.5% of the income received as stumpage was taxed, but in 1953 the proportion was 82.8%. In average 45% of the stumpage amount had become subject to taxation.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Selin, E-mail: ls@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7443, category Article
Antero Piha. (1954). Työpanos maatilametsätaloudessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 31 article id 7443. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7443
English title: Taxation of state woodlands.
Original keywords: metsätalous; valtion metsät; metsäverotus; verotus; ylijäämä
English keywords: forestry; forest taxation; state forests; taxation; surplus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland the state has to pay local government taxes and certain connected smaller taxes, such as church and land taxes and forest management fees, on its forest property. On the other hand, the state tax on income and property is not collected, as the corresponding amount goes to the state in the form of a state forestry surplus.

It has been stated that if the state should pay similar taxes as companies do, the income of state forests would be small. The author has calculated the different taxes if the state forests would be a company or an individual tax-payer. As a company the income and property taxes would amount to 1,251 million marks and as a company to 730 million mark when the year 1952 is used as a reference. In drawing up the balance sheet for state forestry, local government taxes and other similar charges have been taken into account as expenses. By comparing the surplus with the calculated state tax payable, the state forestry would give a surplus, after deduction of taxes, of 1,846 million marks as an individual and 2,367 million marks as a company. State forestry would thus have been able to pay state income and property taxes from its surplus.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in Engilsh.

  • Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7442, category Article
Esko Hellén. (1954). Sosiaaliministeriön tilasto metsätyöntekijäin ansioista ja palkoista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 30 article id 7442. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7442
English title: Statistics of the wages and earnings of forest workers prepared by the Ministry of Social Affairs.
Original keywords: metsätyö; palkat; palkkataso; palkkasääntely; uittotyö; sosiaaliministeriö; metsätyöntekijä
English keywords: floating; forest worker; forest work; wages; pay rate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The wage problems of forest workers were first studied in 1931-1932, when the depression compelled the enforcement of a wage control system in forestry, and thus produced statistics on the earnings of forest workers. When the wage controls were introduced in 1934, it was necessary to determine wage norms on which to base the assessment on working results.

Three different norms were defined. The norm of daily earnings means the amount an adult, able-bodied, skilled forest worker should be able to earn in an 8-hour day at piece work. The norm of daily salary is the amount of a forest worker should be able to earn in an 8-hour day at time rates, and the wage norm per hour for floating workers is the amount a floating worker should receive per hour. The wages are controlled by special inspectors, and statistics on wages are collected by reports of the inspectors.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Hellén, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7441, category Article
N. A. Osara. (1954). Valtion metsämaiden verotus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 29 article id 7441. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7441
English title: Taxation of state woodlands.
Original keywords: metsätalous; valtion metsät; verotus; valtion tulovero; ylijäämä
English keywords: forestry; Finland; forest taxation; state forests; taxation; income; state forestry; surplus; property and income taxes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland the state has to pay local government taxes and certain connected smaller taxes, such as church and land taxes and forest management fees, on its forest property. On the other hand, the state tax on income and property is not collected, as the corresponding amount goes to the state in the form of a state forestry surplus.

It has been stated that if the state should pay similar taxes as companies do, the income of state forests would be small. The author has calculated the different taxes as if the state forestry would be a company or an individual tax-payer. As a company the income and property taxes would amount to 1,251 million marks and as a company 730 million marks using the data of 1952. In drawing up the balance sheet for state forestry, local government taxes and other similar charges have been taken into account as expenses. By comparing the surplus with the calculated state tax payable, the state forestry would give a surplus, after deduction of taxes, of 1,846 million marks as an individual and 2,367 million marks as a company. State forestry would thus have been able to pay state income and property taxes from its surplus.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in Engilsh.

  • Osara, E-mail: no@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7437, category Article
Kustaa Kallio. (1954). Asutustoiminnassa muodostettujen viljelystilojen metsämaa-alojen suuruussuhteista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 25 article id 7437. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7437
English title: Area of wood lots of the farms established in connection with settlement in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; yksityismetsät; metsämaa; asutus; kotitarvepuu; asutustilat; viljelytilat; tilat; metsäpinta-ala
English keywords: forestry; forest area; private forests; state-owned lands; settlement; farms; household timber; forest holdings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Finland a large land reform has been accomplished which has increased the number of small farms and forest holdings by over 100,000. It is estimated that 4-5 million ha of forest land has been transferred to these smallholdings. The aim of this investigation was to study the areas of the wood lots of the farms established in connection to settlement activities during the time Finland has been independent.

The study shows that the farms established on the state-owned lands have been given forest areas big enough to enable them timber sales, provided that the forests were in a moderately good silvicultural condition. Relatively largest forest areas have been given to farms established from tenant farms. The farms established on private lands have got in average forest areas that are smaller than would be required for growing of household timber. In Southern Finland the area has been adequate, but in Northern Finland too small in part of the farms. Also, variation in the size of the farms has been larger. The farms established under the Land Acquisition Act have been given in average more than the principle of according to which half of the forests should be suitable for cultivation of household timber and half for timber sales.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kallio, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7433, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1954). Nationwide surveys of forest resources and wood utilization in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 21 article id 7433. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7433
Keywords: forestry; National Forest Inventory; Finland; forest resources; wood utilization; forest balance; National Forest Survey; growth balance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first estimates on the forest resources of Finland were presented in the middle of the 1900th century. The first line survey was conducted in 1912 in Central Finland. In 1921-1923 a survey of the forests of the whole country was commenced. The method consisted in measurement of sample plots in conjunction with ocular estimation of all the stands within the range of the lines. The methods were further developed in the second National Forest Survey in 1936-1938, which payed special attention to the silvicultural condition of the forests, and the growth in the light of climatic variation. When 3.3 million ha of forests were ceded to the Soviet Union in the peace treaty of 1944, the results of the survey had to be recalculated. The next survey was conducted 1951-1953. In this survey, the recovery of stands on drained peatlands was studied. The results of the inventories show that forest resources of Finland had icreased since the 1936-1938 survey.

The first investigation of wood utilization in Finland was carried out in 1927, after the first National Forest Survey had provided information on the forest resources, and knowledge of the other side of the forest balance was desired. The most difficult part was to determine the domestic wood consumption of the rural population. This was accomplished by studying 1,337 sample farms. The second investigation was commenced in 1938, and third in 1954.

These two investigations have made it possible to determine the annual removal and annual growth, and by comparing these results, growth balance. A forest balance is an essential condition for judicious forestry.

The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7429, category Article
Br. Suviranta. (1954). The way to war indemnities in kind. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 17 article id 7429. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7429
Keywords: forest industry; world war II; Second World War; reparations; reparations in kind; indemnifications
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Finland was the first country, in connection with World War II, from which reparations were demanded. In September 1944 Soviet Union demanded indemnifications of 300 million dollars, payable in commodities (timber products, paper, wood pulp, sea-going and river craft, sundry machinery). Later similar obligations of deliveries in kind were applied to Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy. Germany were to pay in kind for the losses caused by her to the Allied nations in the course of the war.

The article discusses the principle of war indemnities to be paid exclusively in kind, which was a new one, and compares it to the situation after World War I. One reason for the principle was a negative lesson drawn from the experiences after the previous war. A reparation system of payment in kind is the most suitable system for a country like the Soviet-Union, as it requires, at least some degree of economic planning by a centralized system.
The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

  • Suviranta, E-mail: bs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7428, category Article
J. J. MacGregor. (1954). The British forest economy and policy. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 16 article id 7428. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7428
Keywords: forestry; forest land; reforestation; Brittain; Great Brittain; expansion of forests; Forestry Act
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Britain has the smaller proportion of woodland than almost any other country in Europe. During the two World Wars strategic considerations led to an examination of the adequacy of the national forest resources. A Forestry Commision was set up and the state started to promote the expansion of forestry. In the second war-time examination of the national forest policy, the Forestry Commision set an aim that after 50 years there would be about 5 million acres of productive woodland. However, the aim was not reached. During the Second World War there was large inroads into the remaining growing stock. The post-war policy recognized a need to new emphasis to reforestation, and two Forestry Acts were enacted in 1945 and 1947 to speed up the planting program.

In 1947 there was 3,448,362 acres of forests in blocks of five acres or over, and 184,000 acres in smaller woods. 82% of these were owned by private forest owners. The area of high forests was 1,788,799, coppice 349,994, scrub 496,994, devastated land 151,064 and felled 665,554 acres. The objective is that forestry in Britain should eventually supply about a third of the annual requirement. The 1947 act introduced the Dedication Scheme, which for instance provides grants and loans for the forest owners for forest management work, and states some obligations concerning forestry.

The expansion of forestry was shaped by ideas of national safety in time of war rather than buy achieving profit. Presently, the main economic task is to build up the national forest industry.
The Acta Forestalia Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari’s 60th birthday.

  • MacGregor, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7427, category Article
Toivo J. Komsi. (1954). Metsänhoitolain kaavailua sotatalvena 1944. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 15 article id 7427. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7427
English title: Draft proposals for a forest management act in Finland drawn up in the wartime winter of 1944.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; lainsäädäntö; metsänhoitolaki; yksityismetsälaki
English keywords: Finland; legislation; private forests; Private Forest Act; forest management act; forest managment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A state committee report proposing the enactment of a Forest Management Act has recently been published in Finland. The act is intended to be considerably more binding on forest owners than the present law concerning private forests which it would replace. The author assumes that the publication will raise a keen discussion that will ensue pro and contra the proposed law. The article includes a review of the first draft for a Forest Management Act prepared in the wartime winter of 1944. At that time the then minister of forestry N.A. Osara and professor Eino Saari had studied the draft. The former commented the act to the author by saying that after the return of peace the forests would have to be prepared to be restored to good condition, using radical measures if necessary. He foresaw that a proposal for the forest management law might meet with some resistance, but thought it was important enough to be forced through nevertheless. Professor Saari pointed out that bearing in mind that hardly any other country in the world is dependent upon her forests to such a decree as Finland, the requirement expressed in the draft (forests must be managed with a view to the most advantageous return as regards tree species, quality and quantity) must be considered justified. The author hopes that despite the prevailing resistance foreseen by Osara, a law will be enacted to correct the situation under the present law which tends to leave the management of our forests to the mercy of arbitrary decisions.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Komsi, E-mail: tk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7426, category Article
Olli Makkonen. (1954). Metsätöiden vertailevan aikatutkimuksen periaate. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 14 article id 7426. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7426
English title: The principle of comparative time studies in forest work.
Original keywords: metsätyö; hakkuutyö; työaika; aikatutkimukset
English keywords: time studies; forest work; industrial work; work time
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The origins of time study has been in the need to streamline industrial work. One of the differences between industrial and forest work is that in forest work the working conditions are subject to continuous changes. The work is also strenuous, and physical strength may come into its own in addition to skill. For these reasons, the product of a worker per time unit varies in forest work much more than in industrial work.

In industrial time studies, determination of working tempo is, besides measurement of working time, vital when calculating the normal work performance. In the Northern Countries, it has been concluded that it is impossible to determine the working tempo of a forest worker. A so-called comparative time study in which a study is made of the work performances of the same workers at different jobs and in different conditions so that the measured working times are directly comparative. Also, the requirements made for the extension of time study material are considerably greater than in Central European time studies. It is believed that the workers subjected to time studies must be observed for at least a week in each kind of work studied if the results are to be considered reliable.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Makkonen, E-mail: om@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7425, category Article
Emil Vesterinen. (1954). Metsämainostuksen rakenteesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 13 article id 7425. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7425
English title: The structure of promotion of forestry.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; valistus; metsänhoidon edistäminen
English keywords: forest management; forestry; promotion; propaganda
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The goal of improving forest management and doubling the yield of forests in Finland is a great task that requires law, encouragement, written propaganda, practical advice and purposeful work in the forests. In addition, it requires idealistic promotion and education of the citizens. The article discusses the nature and scope of forest propaganda. Different means of forest propaganda and promotion, such as lectures, films, newspapers, magazines, forest literature, stamps, placards and posters, excursions, exhibitions, fairs, forests along the main roads, competitions, education of youth etc are discussed, and their usefulness assessed.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vesterinen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7424, category Article
P. A. Ennevaara. (1954). Metsäpalot vuosina 1952-1953. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 12 article id 7424. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7424
English title: Forest fires in 1952-1953 in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; valtion metsät; yksityismetsät; metsäpalot; vakuutetut metsät; vakuuttamattomat metsät
English keywords: forest fires; forestry; Finland; state forests; private forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The statistics of forest fires in Finland expanded in 1952 to include uninsured forests, when previously the statistics included only fires in state forests and insured forest holdings. For private forests the material is collected by central forestry associations with the aid of district forestry boards, and for state forests by the Forest Service which also prepares the overall statistics on forest fires in the country. Forest fire statistics for 1952 and 1953 have been prepared on the basis of regional grouping by counties.

In 1952 a total of 299 forest fires were discovered, affecting a burnt area of 764 ha. Of these 20 were in state forests, burning 139 ha, and 279 in private forests, burning 625 ha. The average devastated area was 2.6 ha (in state forests 6.9 ha). This year was the easiest from the point of view of forest fires in the period between 1946-1953. The year 1953, on the other hand, was the worst of the period. The number of fires was only 216, but the burnt area was 8,955 ha. In state forests 87 fires devastated 8,624 ha. In private forests 129 fires burned 331 ha. The average area destroyed was 4.2 ha (in state forests 99.1 ha, and in private forests 2.6 ha). The largest fires on state forests were in the northernmost districts of the country.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

  • Ennevaara, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7423, category Article
Hardy L. Shirley. (1954). Education of foresters in America. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 11 article id 7423. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7423
Keywords: forest education; United States; America; forestry schools
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forestry has developed at an extremely rapid pace in the United States during the past eight years. This has created job opportunities for foresters educated in the schools of forestry. From 1946 to 1953 American schools of forestry graduated 9,719 foresters.

The schools of forestry are gradually being emancipated from the control by colleges of agriculture and mechanical art. Professional demands are growing at a rapid pace, and the schools are expanding their programs to meet these changes. Faculties have responded to these new needs by adding new courses and curriculums. Colleges can perform their task best through improving the faculty and organizing courses in which the student becomes an active learner rather than a passive recipient of information.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

  • Shirley, E-mail: hs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7422, category Article
A. Howard Grøn. (1954). Progressive forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 10 article id 7422. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7422
Keywords: sustainable forestry; forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday. In this article A. Howard Grøn discusses the use and meaning of term progressive forestry, introduced by professor Eino Saari, and its transformation to progressive yield in forest policy.

  • Grøn, E-mail: ag@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7420, category Article
Thorsten Streyffert. (1954). Forest policy in Sweden. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 8 article id 7420. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7420
Keywords: forest policy; sustainable forestry; Sweden; legislation; forest law
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest policy can be traced several hundred years back in Sweden. One of the early restrictions was related to iron industry, which was dependent on supply of charcoal. This led in the 17th century to the regulation of the industry in order to fit its capacity to the sustained yield of the forests. Also the early sawmill industry was kept under supervision in the mining districts in order not to compete with the iron industry of the forests resources.

In 1903 the fears of shortage of wood, caused by a few decades of unrestricted use of forests and the rise of pulp and paper industries, resulted in the first forest law (enacted in 1905). The leading principle of the law was that the owner of the forest had to secure reforestation after felling. When previously the regulation had limited the fellings within the sustainable yield of the forests, the new law aimed at promoting the productive capacity of the forests. New felling methods were developed and the new practices were spread to the forest owners with help of education, propaganda and giving advice. One important factor in the success of the forest law was founding of County forestry boards, which are the main agencies to materialize the constructive ideas of the new forest policy.

The First National Forest Survey was conducted in 1923-29, followed by the second in 1938, and third in 1954. A new forest law came into force in 1923, which prohibited the cutting of immature forests in other ways than by thinning. In 1948, new amendments of the law were introduced, which, for instance allowed the forest owner to put part of the income derived from the timber sales into a bank account to be later used in reforestation.

The Silva Fennica issue 61 was published in honour of professor Eino Saari‘s 60th birthday.

  • Streyffert, E-mail: ts@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7418, category Article
Paavo Yli-Vakkuri. (1954). Neuvontajärjestöjen ammattimiesten suorittamista leimauksista varsinaisissa yksityismetsissä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 6 article id 7418. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7418
English title: Marking trees for cutting by professionals of advisory organizations in private forest in Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; yksityismetsät; metsänhoitoyhdistys; leimaus; metsänhoitolautakunnat
English keywords: fellings; private forests; crop marked for cutting; Forest Management Associatios; Regional Forestry Boards
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The archives of the advisory organizations for private forest owners in Finland, Regional Forestry Boards and Forest Management Associations, include statistics of fellings in private forests. This investigation assesses felling areas and proportion of different kinds of fellings in 1945-1952 based on the statistics. The statistics does not include fellings where the trees have been marked by a forest owner.

The total area marked annually for cutting was in average 498,300 ha. As there is 1,24 million ha of private forests in Finland, the marking gives opportunity to improve the silvicultural state of private forest relatively quickly. The share of regeneration fellings has increased after the Second World War in many parts of the country. The result indicates that the annual cuttings in private forests have corresponded the amount of fellings that has been estimated necessary according to the National Forest Inventory. There are, however, big differences between different parts of the country.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Yli-Vakkuri, E-mail: py@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7416, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1954). Nuori Hannikainen metsäpoliitikkona. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 61 no. 4 article id 7416. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7416
English title: The young Hannikainen as a forest politician.
Original keywords: metsätalous; muistelmat; P.W. Hannikainen; Peter Woldemar Hannikainen
English keywords: forestry; biography
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article revises the accomplishments of professor Peter Woldemar Hannikainen, the former director of Forest Service of Finland, in the development of forest sector in the end of 1800s and beginning of 1900s.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7408, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela. (1953). On theory of forest increment calculation based on periodic measurements. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 60 no. 1 article id 7408. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7408
Keywords: forest stand; methodology; tree; normal forest; increment calculation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents the background of increment calculations and periodic measurements of forests, as well the historical development of increment calculations in North-America, Middle-Europe, Scandinavia and Finland. The measurements and calculations are presented for individual trees, for a forest stand and for the total resource of a normal forest stand.   

The practice of increment calculations has still some problems regarding the measurements of standing and harvested trees. The article discusses some ways to overcome the problems. 

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7400, category Article
P. S. Tikka. (1949). Perä-Pohjolan koivikoiden laadusta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 57 no. 4 article id 7400. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7400
English title: Quality of birch (Betula sp.) stands in the northernmost Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; koivu; Betula sp.; laho; laatu; koivikko
English keywords: forest management; birch; quality; decay; defects; stand quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The quality of birch (Betula sp.) stands in Perä-Pohjola in Northern Finland is low due to the harsh environment, unsuitable sites for the species and unsatisfactory silvicultural state. A total of 236 sample trees were felled and measured in 8 sample plots. The trees were over 80 years old.

Only third of the stand volume of birch in the stands had adequate quality for merchantable timber. This is due to birch growing often in sites unsuitable for the species, the low density of the stands, the small average size of stems, and the low amount of large sized trees. These problems may contribute to the fact that birch seem to be susceptible to decay. The trees have often grown from sprouts, which leads often to poor stem form and decay. The volume and quality of both pure and mixed birch stands was sufficient only in the most fertile sites. Also, decay was more common in poor sites.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7399, category Article
Paavo Aro. (1949). Studies on saws used for forest work in Nordic and middle-European countries. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 7399. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7399
Keywords: forest work; middle-Europe; saw; saw machine; Nordic; repair
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents the development of the saw-alike tools from the Stone Age to Iron Age and to modern times. The most common forms of saws are described and the history of studies on the theme as well.

Repairing of a saw after work is described in detail. The seven phases of the work are: fastening and tightening the saw to the frame, evening the row of the saw tooth, determining the depth of the gullet area, sharpening the teeth, setting of the saw, and check-up of the repair.  

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7397, category Article
Erkki K. Kalela. (1949). Ecological character of tree species and its relation to silviculture. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 57 no. 1 article id 7397. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7397
Keywords: forest management; succession; tree species; pioneer species; ecological succession; climax species; development of stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The tendency of successional development from young vegetation, rich in species and exposed to chance factors, towards regular plant communities, is found all around the world. Thee ecological groups of trees seem to be present in all forest regions in the world, namely the pioneer and the climax species, and a group of pre-climax species that can be ecologically either near the pioneer or the climax species. The succession of tree species in forest always leads to a climax stand, determined by climate, quality of soil and the mutual biotical strengths of the tree species in the region.

This division into ecological groups greatly facilitates choosing among different methods of treating stands and understanding the silvicultural methods of foreign regions. Stands formed by species of the same group must follow the same lines in their silvicultural treatment. For instance, mixed stand consisting of both pioneer and climax species represents a transition stage, in which the climax species strive for dominating position, and preservation of pioneer species is difficult. This indicates the broad lines for management of the stand. Also, regeneration methods of pioneer and climax species must be different. Studying the succession of natural forests can be used as a means to reach the highest possible silvicultural level. This is one reason why the preservation and study of virgin forests still in existence is indispensable.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7396, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1949). Forest types and their significance. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 56 no. 5 article id 7396. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7396
Keywords: forestry; forest types; A.K. Cajander; forest type theory; site classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This special volume of Acta Forestalia Fennica is published in memory of professor A.K. Cajander (1879-1943), who was one of the founders of the Finnish Society of Forest Science. It contains a short biography, a complete list of his literary works and one of the papers on forest types he has written.

This article contains professor A.K. Cajander’s paper on the theory of forest types in English. The article can be found in Finnish in separate PDF (article id 7695).

The idea of forest types was developed by professor Cajander first in 1904-1909, when he was working as a student in the Evo Forestry Institute. The first publication in 1909 was followed by intensive research and the findings of the investigations were published in 1929 in Acta Forestalia Fennica 29 (Metsätyyppiteoria, The theory of forest types).

When classifying forest growing sites, the purpose is to combine those having the same or approximately same yield capacity, and to separate into different classes those whose yield capacity is widely different. The article states that site quality classification is a necessity in organized forest management as it gives a basis for all forest calculations concerning with yield and profit. The principles of site classification and its meaning in forest management is discussed.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7395, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1949). Metsätyypit ja niiden merkitys. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 7395. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7395
English title: Forest types and their significance.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsätyypit; kasvupaikka; metsätyyppiteoria; A.K. Cajander
English keywords: forestry; forest types; site class; forest type theory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This special volume of Acta Forestalia Fennica is published in memory of professor A.K. Cajander (1879-1943), who was one of the founders of the Finnish Society of Forest Science. It contains a short biography, a complete list of his literary works and one of the papers on forest types he has written.

This PDF includes his article on forest types in Finnish. The translation of the text in English can be found in a separate PDF (article id 7396).

The idea of forest types was developed by professor Cajander first in 1904-1909, when he was working as a student in the Evo Forestry Institute. The first publication in 1909 was followed by intensive research and the findings of the investigations were published in 1929 in Acta Forestalia Fennica 29 (Metsätyyppiteoria, The theory of forest types).

When classifying forest growing sites, the purpose is to combine those having the same or approximately same yield capacity, and to separate into different classes those whose yield capacity is widely different. The article states that site quality classification is a necessity in organized forest management as it gives a basis for all forest calculations concerning with yield and profit. The principles of site classification and its meaning in forest management is discussed.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7391, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1948). Tutkimuksia hakkuutoiminnan voimaperäisyyden tekijöistä ja tunnuksista pääasiallisesti valtion metsätaloudesta saadun aineiston valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 7391. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7391
English title: Investigations of factors and characteristics influencing the intensity of fellings in Finland.
Original keywords: hakkuut; kannattavuus; valtion metsät; metsätalouden tulos; valtion metsätalous
English keywords: Finland; profitability; Forest Service; state forests; annual cut; financial result
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The investigation studied the conditions on which business economics of large-scale forestry, mainly in the state forests, operates. It gives an overview on the economic geography of the state forestry in Finland, including the location of forest industry units and purchase of raw materials in relation to the state forests. The calculations are based on the of the financial performance of the districts of Forest Service in Finland.

The state forests are situated mainly in Northern Finland. Only 6% of the forests were situated nearer that 10 km from the nearest railroad, floating channel or business center. The size of forest districts decreases from north to south and from east to west, which affects the intensity of felling and the economic result of the districts. On the account of the remote situation of the forests of the state the amount of timber felled has been considerably below the growth of the forests. 

During the period of 1924-1943 annual cut in state forests decreased in Northern Finland, stayed in the same level in the east and increased in the west. Proportion of large-sized timber of the sales decreased, while the sales of piled pine wood, mining timber and sulphate wood increased. The economic result of state forests was in average modest, reflecting the economic result in the northern districts were the most state forests are located. However, the financial results of the state forests were not less good than those of other forests under similar conditions of economic geography. Proximity to floating channels and especially railways increased the effectivity of fellings. Railways made it possible to harvest also small timber that is difficult to transport by floating, thus increasing the felling volume. Finally, means to improve profitability of state forests are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7389, category Article
P. S. Tikka. (1947). Perä-Pohjolan kuusikoiden laadusta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 7389. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7389
English title: Quality of Norway spruce stands in Peräpohjola in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsänhoito; kuusikko; Peräpohjola; vikaisuus; laho; laatu
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; northern Finland; quality; decay
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The different kinds of injuries in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands was studied in 52 sample plots in Peräpohjola in the northernmost Finland. The age classes of the stands varied from 100 years to over 220 years. Most of the stands were unevenaged, as is usual in the area.

In the younger age classes (121-160 years) majority of the trees were of normal quality or had smaller injuries in all forest types. In age classes over 160 years the trees of merchantable quality decreased markedly in all forest types. The quality of the trees decreases with the age especially because of butt rot, braking of trees and crooks, forks and heart and top decay caused by the injuries. To ensure future quality it would be important that the stand is healthy from the beginning. When old spruce stands of the area are in large extent diseased by the root rot, it is questionable if they can be regenerated using natural regeneration. The spruce stands of the area are also relatively branchy. This could be prevented by growing the young stands dense. Changing the dominant tree species to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the dry upland forest sites could be a way to improve the quality of the forests in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7388, category Article
P. A. Ennevaara. (1946). Yksityismetsälain vastaiset hakkuut ja tämän lain valvonnan tehokkuus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 7388. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7388
English title: Fellings not meeting the requirements of the Private Forest Act and of supervision of the law.
Original keywords: hakkuut; yksityismetsät; metsänhoitolautakunta; yksityismetsälaki; valvonta; rikkomukset; metsän hävitys; hakkuuilmoitus
English keywords: fellings; private forests; forest devastation; supervision; Private Forest Act; District Forestry Board
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Private Forest Act came into force in 1928 in Finland. According to the act, felling of a mature stand should not endanger natural regeneration of the site, and an intermediate felling should not conflict with justifiable thinnings. 18 District Forestry Boards were appointed to enforce the compliance of the act. The aim of this investigation was to study what kinds of violations against the Private Forest Act were found in the fellings, what were the consequences, and how the fellings were overseen.

The investigation is based on 2,477 felling inspections made by the District Forestry Boards in cases where forest devastation was suspected. The report divides the different kinds of violations by the different District Forestry Boards, years, the size of forest holdings, ownership of the forest holdings and by executor of the felling. Over half of the inspections were held on fellings done by the forest owner, 14% by the forest industry, and 11% by a broker of timber. Neglecting the obligation to give a notification of felling had increased in the period of 1929-1938. Also, the cases of forest devastation increased slightly. The report suggests some improvements in the act that would, for instance, increase activity of the forest owners to give the required notification of fellings before the felling takes place.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ennevaara, E-mail: pe@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7387, category Article
L. Runeberg. (1946). Trade in forest products between Finland and the United States of America. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 7387. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7387
Keywords: Finland; forest industry; exports; markets; demand; USA; pulp; America; import; the United States; paper
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the analysis presented in the article was to form an estimate as to future Finnish-American trade in forest products. The Finnish-American trade, that had its beginning in 1919, has been steadily growing and at the outbreak of the Second World War occupied third place in Finland’s total foreign trade. Over 90% of the Finnish exports consisted of forest industry products, pulp and newsprint being the most important items. The sales associations of the pulp and paper industries made it possible for the industries to gain a footing in the American market.

The production of pulp and most kinds of paper has increased in the USA up to 1942, but production of newsprint has tended to decrease. The timber resources of the country are large, but there is a considerable timber deficit in the northeastern states, therefore, these regions must be the principal aim for a campaign to build up the future market. According to the survey of future need of imports to the USA, more than two million tons of pulp and 2-3 million tons of paper products are needed in the immediate post-war period. The Canadian and Swedish competition will remain at about the same level, but one Finnish advantage, the quality, has disappeared on account of the progress made by research in the USA during the war.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Runeberg, E-mail: lr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7386, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1946). Valtakunnan metsätalouden järjestely metsiemme poistuman ja tuottohakkausmäärän valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 53 no. 3 article id 7386. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7386
English title: Regulation of Finnish forestry in the light of removal and rental cut.
Original keywords: hakkuut; metsänhoito; metsätalous; metsävarat; hakkuukertymä; poistuma; tuottohakkuut
English keywords: forestry; Finland; forest resources; fellings; removals
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This investigation concerns the felling volumes in Finland in 1935-1945 as regards future fellings. The statistics are divided in two time periods: 1935-1939, when there was an upward trend in the trade cycle, and 1940-1945, when the trade was disturbed by the Second World War. Fellings of household timber and for sales are presented separately.

Removal was annually in average 38.1 million cubic meters (cbm) without bark in 1935-1939, and 29.8 million cbm in 1940-1945. According to the statistics, felling volumes decreased by about one quarter after the period of 1935-1945. Reduction was largest in private and company forests, but smaller in the state forests. The increment balance for the 1935-1945 shows an excess of growth that gives an accumulated yield of 24.4 million cbm.

In private forests the cut is about half as large as the growth of the standing stock due to the poor silvicultural condition of the forests. Private forests account for about ¾ of the total forest area in Finland. In the state lands the cut is 130% of the growth. The report introduces also rental cut, a method developed by the writer, which defines the volume to be cut aiming at the same time to optimise the future increase of the yield. The principle is to preserve the young and vigorous stands, while cutting stands that have low growth.

According to the statistics, the felling volume of private forests has followed the variations in demand. It seems likely that in the coming years the fellings will not be kept within the limits calculated by the rental cut. Consequently, the reserve formed during the war will be utilized. To meet the demand of wood, forest management must be improved and preference should be given to regeneration fellings. Improving transportation systems, such as roads, would give access to forest resources that are now difficult to harvest.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7385, category Article
August Jäntti. (1945). Suomen laidunolot. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 7385. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7385
English title: Conditions of pastures in Finland.
Original keywords: laitumet; karjatalous; metsälaitumet; laidunnus; niityt
English keywords: pastures; grazing; animal husbandry; forest pastures; hay meadows; fodder
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to collect the first complete statistics on pastures and grazing of cattle in Finland. The data was collected in connection with an investigation of wood utilization in 1937-1938. Overall trend in grazing is that forest pastures are being replaced with restricted forest pastures and those further with hay meadows. This development is proceeding in the whole country, and it is almost completed in Western Finland. Grazing will probably be transferred completely to cultivated lands in the coming decades. This is important question also for the forestry, because of the damage grazing causes for forest.

Forest pastures are, however, still very important in animal husbandry. They produce over 500 million forage units. It would require 400,000 ha of hay meadows to produce corresponding amount of fodder. To sustain the present number of cattle, a third of all arable land in Finland should be hay meadows. The main goal for development of pastural agriculture is improving the effectivity of grazing and productivity of the pastures.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Jäntti, E-mail: aj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7384, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1945). Ojitettujen soitten viljavuus eli puuntuottokyky metsätyyppiteorian valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 7384. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7384
English title: Fertility of drained bogs and their production capacity in relation to the theory of forest types.
Original keywords: ojitus; ojituskelpoisuus; metsätyyppi; suot; suotyyppi; ojitetut suot; turvekangas; ravinteikkuus; kuivatuksen tehokkuus
English keywords: peatlands; fertility; draining of peatlands; peatland type; forest type; economical drainage value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the theory of peatland types, particular peatland types, after sufficient drainage, change into certain forest types. It has been found, that the range of forest types in peatlands in different stages of draining is as large as on mineral soil; and comprise Cladina, Calluna, Vaccinium, Myrtillus Oxalis-myrtillus and grove types. Poor peatland types change into poor forest types, better for better types. However, a Swedish scientist Mellin suggested that after effective drainage especially oligotrophic bogs, when well drained, change usually into Myrtillus type.

The different conclusions are due to the fact that the same bog type may develop into different forest types according to the effectiveness and duration of the drainage. Greater the decay of the peat bog layer, the more exacting is the type of vegetation which appears. Bog types of classes V, IV and III (Finnish classification of site quality) change into a Myrtillus type, as do the poorer peatland types of class II. The types vary, however, in their economical drainage value. The fact that bogs which in their natural stage are clearly different in their site quality change after through drainage into the same forest type, is explained by the chemical quality of the peat. However, class I and the best types of class II bogs change into better forest types because they as eutropchic bogs are richer in nitrogen and lime. This difference persists despite of effective draining.

It has been shown that the development of eutrophic peatland types at the forest type stage also differs clearly from the development of oligotrophic peatland types. The Finnish classification of drainage value shows correctly the relative drainability when using normal spacing of ditches. The notes on forest types on mineral soil should, however, be replaced by corresponding notes on the transitive types between bog and forest types.

The PDF includes a summary in Swedish and English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7383, category Article
Esko Kangas. (1946). Kuusikoiden kuivumisesta metsätuho- ja metsänhoidollisena kysymyksenä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 52 no. 5 article id 7383. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7383
English title: Drying of Norway spruce stands as forest damage and forest management issues in Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; metsänhoito; metsätuhot; hyönteistuhot; kuusikko; sienitaudit; juurikääpä; laho; kuivuminen; maannousema
English keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Picea abies; root rot; forest damage; insect damage; fungal diseases
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Observatons of drying of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands increased in 1930s in Southern Finland. The aim of the study was to analyse the advance and causes of drying. The work was begun in 1930s before the Second World War, and the damages caused to the forests by the war was used as supplemental observations in the study. A special method, drying analysis, was developed to study the process. It was used both in cases of insect and fungal diseases in the four research areas in Raivola and Ruotsinkylä. In addition, 7 observation areas were studied.

Several causes for drying of the trees were observed in the Norway spruce stands. These included European spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus micans), root rot (Heterobasidion annosum), pine weevils (Pissodes sp.), bark beetles and honey fungus (Armillaria mellea).

The role of primary and secondary causes for drying, resistance of the trees and the drying process are discussed. Finally, the influence of forest management in drying process is analysed. Forests in natural state can be considered to be in an ideal balance. On the other hand, forest management can be used to maintain the vitality and resistance of the forests. Drying of Norway spruce stands can be taken into consideration when the stands are managed.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kangas, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7382, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1944). Piirteitä metsätalouden järjestelyn rakennusmuodoista Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 7382. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7382
English title: Review on forest management in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous
English keywords: forest management; forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article gives a detailed review on the history and principles of forest management in Finland from the 19th century to the beginning of 21th century. Organized forest management begun in Finland in the middle of 19th century. The first method applied in Finland was based on annual cutting area and mainly used in state forests. By the beginning of 20th century saw-timber selection became the most usual felling method. Gradually the main principle changed to forest management by stands and revision of forest working plan.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7380, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1944). Eri suuruisten yksityismetsälöiden metsävaroista ja metsien tilasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 52 no. 2 article id 7380. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7380
English title: Forest resources and condition of the forests in forest holdings of various sizes.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; metsätilat; metsälön koko
English keywords: forest management; private forests; forest holdings; size of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the investigation was to study the effect of size of a forest holding to its forest resources or state and quality of the forests. The data was collected in the second national forest inventory in Finland, carried out in 1936-1938. The study focuses on farms in two areas in Southern Finland: provinces of Pohjois-Häme and Satakunta, and provinces of Uusimaa and Kaakkois-Häme.

In 1938 about 53% of forests in Finland were owned by private forest holdings, the sizes of which varied from under 5 ha to over 1,000 ha. About 75 % of the holdings were under 50 ha. After 1918 the number of private forest holdings increased markedly, mainly due to settlement and tenant farmers gaining ownership to their farms.

The smaller the forest holdings were, the poorer was the silvicultural state of the forests and the smaller the standing stock. When the area of the forest holding increases, also the volume of the standing stock per hectare, the number of timber-trees, and average size of the timber trees increases. This is due to larger proportion of older age-classes and somewhat better forest management. Fellings have usually been stronger in the smaller forest holdings. The poor state of the forests originates often from use of the forests before the present ownership, such as slash and burn culture, grazing and cutting wood for household use. To improve the state of the forests, education and forest improvement practices are needed.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7379, category Article
Paavo Harve. (1947). Puunjalostusteollisuutta ja puutavarakauppaa harjoittavien yhtiöiden maan hankinta Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 7379. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7379
English title: Land purchases of wood manufacturing industry and companies operating on timber sales in Finland.
Original keywords: metsämaa; maan hankinta; puunjalostusteollisuus; maakaupat
English keywords: forest land; land purchases; forest manufacturing industry; sale of land
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a report of land purchases of wood manufacturing industry, commissioned by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland in 1935. Second World War postponed publishing of the report. The land purchases of wood manufacturing industry, especially farms with agricultural land, was considered a concern in the end of 19th century, because it caused social problems related to landless people. To solve the problem, the government of Finland enacted in 1915 an act that restricted land purchase of the companies. The aim of this report was to collect statistics on the extent of the land purchases.

According to the investigation, forest manufacturing industry and companies operating on timber sales intensified land purchases in 1890s. After 1894 the companies purchased 80,000-100,000 ha land yearly. When the regulations restricting purchases of land came into act in 1915, the companies evaded the regulations by using private people or other companies to buy the land. Still, the annual purchases decreased to in average 21,000 ha in 1915-1936. The companies were still allowed to buy forest land when it did not affect agriculture in the farm. During and after the war the land purchases were interrupted. The report concludes that the regulations have worked as expected, and suggests some improvements in the legislation.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Harve, E-mail: ph@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7378, category Article
V. Lihtonen. (1943). Tutkimuksia metsän puuston muodostumisesta : tuottohakkauslaskelma. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 51 no. 2 article id 7378. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7378
English title: Studies on development of growing stock: calculation of cutting budget.
Original keywords: hakkuut; hakkuusuunnitelma; hakkuulaskelma; tuottolaskelma; metsäsuunnitelma; metsän tuotto
English keywords: forest planning; fellings; cutting budget
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to develop a method for calculating a cutting budget that is adapted to the present forest management practices. The cutting budget determines the volume of annual cuttings for a forest holding in a certain period of time. Effect of fellings on the cutting budget depends on the cutting methods used. The study aimed at proving that growth of the forest can be estimated based on growing stock and structure of the forests for a certain time period. Accordingly, adequate drain can be defined in advance. The cutting budget is based on age-class distribution of the forest holding, which is most applicable for even-aged forestry. Calculation is based on area of the forest land and estimated volume of the growing stock. Also, the quality of the forest soil can be taken into account when age-class distribution is used. A suitable period for estimating a cutting budget is suggested to be 20 years, which is divided in two 10-year periods. The cutting budget it is included in a forestry plan. An example of a cutting plan based on the method is presented.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lihtonen, E-mail: vl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7377, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1942). Kuusen taimien paleltuminen ja sen vaikutus ojitettujen soiden metsittymiseen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 7377. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7377
English title: Frost injuries of Norway spruce seedlings and their effect on afforestation of drained peatlands .
Original keywords: kuusi; ojitus; uudistuminen; kylmänkestävyys; turvekangas; pakkasvaurio; keväthalla; ojitettu suo; suojametsä
English keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; regeneration; drained peatlands; frost damage; peatlands; frost resistance; spring frost; prorective forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the investigation was to study natural regeneration of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in drained peatlands and frost injuries in seedlings, and to compare microclimates of the regeneration areas. The experiments included peatlands in Satakunta in Western Finland. Restocking of the areas with seedlings and their survival was followed in 1935-40 at sample plots that were mainly 1 are large.

Susceptibility to freezing was shown to be dependent on the stage of development of the shoots. Shoots that have just begun to grow contain little water, and withstand better freezing temperatures than shoots in later stages of growth. Damages to the seedlings were observed when the temperatures decreased to -2.8–-4.3 °C. The most severe damage to a seedling was caused by the death of the leading shoot by spring frost.

Norway spruce regenerates easily on moist peatlands, but peatlands with dry surface tend to have little or no seedlings. The species regenerated better in marshy sites than correspondingly fertile mineral soil sites. However, it needs shelter to avoid frost damage. On clear cut spruce swamp the undergrowth spruce seedlings that were left in the site got severe frost damage. If the site had birch (Betula sp.) coppice or undergrowth, spruce seedlings survived in their shelter depending on the height and density of the birch trees. To be effective, the protective forest should have relatively even crown cover. Young spruce seedlings could grow well even under relatively dense birch stand.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7373, category Article
A. Benj. Helander. (1942). Metsä- ja kielipolitiikkaa puolisen vuosisataa sitten. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 20 article id 7373. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7373
English title: Forest and language policy in Finland in the turn of 1800th and 1900th century .
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäpolitiikka; valtion metsät; asutus; kielikysymys
English keywords: forest policy; forestry; state forests; settlement; language dispute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is an overview of forest policy in the end of 1800s and beginning of 1900s in Finland. This is a period of time, when public opinion towards forest officers and forestry in the state forests was very critical. In 1870-1890 the discussion was also accelerated by language dispute between supporters of Finnish and Swedish in Finland. The root of the problem was in the middle of 1800s when management of state forests were gradually transferred to districts administered by forestry offices. At the same time, landless people had been settling in state-owned lands and establishing farms, mostly without permission. The questions concerning settling in state forests was often addressed to foresters in the forest offices. Several commissions discussed the situation, rights of the settlers and forestry in the state forests. The general opinion supported the settlers, and they were allowed to keep their farms. Towards the end of the century the value of state forests increased, which brought more emphasis on forestry in the state lands and restrictions to settlement. 

  • Helander, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7366, category Article
Emil Vesterinen. (1942). Metsäretkeilystä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 13 article id 7366. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7366
English title: Hiking in forests.
Original keywords: retkeily; virkistysmetsät; metsien terveysvaikutukset; luonnossa liikkuminen; hyvinvointi
English keywords: hiking; recreational forests; health benefits of forests; nature; wellbeing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Walking in forests, hiking, is considered to be necessary for healt in many countries. In United States national parks cover 1.8% of total forest area. In addition, 25% of the forests are so called national forests, which have paths, campsites, wells, beaches, cottages etc. for hikers. In Finland, 20% of the population lives in towns and cities. Also in Finland the people living in cities and towns would need areas that resemble national forests of United states for recreation.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Vesterinen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7365, category Article
Eric Appelroth. (1942). Om behovet av periodiskt återkommande inventering av enskilda skogsbruk. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 12 article id 7365. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7365
English title: Requisite for periodical inventories of private forest holdings in Finland.
Keywords: forest management; forest inventory; inventory; forestry; forest owners; private forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article discusses the state of forest management of private forests and the need to awaken the forest owners for sustainable use of forests. According to the latest national forest inventory in Finland, only 15% of forests had good productivity, 50% had satisfactory and 35% low productivity. This is partly due to the forest owners’ insufficient knowledge on efficient forest management and the actual value of their forest. If the forest owners should have information of the wood resources of their forests in the level production, value and what kind of wood assortments it can in the future produce, there would be a pressure for more efficient forest management. The writer suggests that inventory of private forest holdings larger than, for instance, 25 hectares should be conducted in each municipality. The inventory could be performed in 10% of the forests each year. In this way the forests would be surveyed every 10 years. The information could also be used in taxation of forests. The best method to conduct the survey would be a line survey combined with circular sample plots.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Appelroth, E-mail: ea@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7364, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1942). Suomen metsätalouden ja metsäteollisuuden toimintamahdollisuuksista Manner-Euroopan markkinoiden varassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 11 article id 7364. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7364
English title: Opportunities of Finnish forestry and forest industry in the market of Continental Europe.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäteollisuus; vienti; paperiteollisuus; sahateollisuus; tuonti; selluteollisuus; Eurooppa; vientimarkkinat
English keywords: paper industry; forestry; Europe; forest industry; export; pulp industry; sawmilling industry; import
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article summarizes import and export of timber and manufactured wood products in Europe before the Second World War, and outlines which are the opportunities of import and export after the war. The evaluation is based on statistics of 1936 and 1937. The export balance of Europe was positive; when all the timber assortments were included, Europe exported almost 10 million m3 more timber than it imported. Export and import of round timber were almost in balance, whereas export of paper products was about 12 million m3 larger than import. Consequently, European forest industry reached its magnitude before the war through export overseas. Foreign markets have been important especially for countries like Finland and other Nordic countries.

The war has disturbed the markets. In a scenario where Europe remains a closed sub-area in the global market, there is 10 million m3 excess of timber and wood products. Within Europe, United Kingdom is the greatest importer of timber and manufactured wood products. If UK was excluded from the European market, it would mean a big change in the export and import balance within the area. In 1936 and 1937 the import would have been only 45% and 55%, respectively, of the export if UK is not included in European numbers. If also Russia is excluded from the European sub-area, it would affect especially the export of round wood, sawn timber and plywood. Nordic countries have accounted for about 80% of European paper products export before the war. According to the article, Finnish wood resources do not allow big increase in sawn industry. However, there is potential in increasing demand of pulp in continental Europe in future. In general, Finnish forest industry would have to decrease the production, if the markets would be limited to the European sub-area.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7362, category Article
Olavi Linnamies. (1942). Metsätalouskartaston soveltaminen sotilastarkoituksiin. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 9 article id 7362. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7362
English title: Use of forest maps in military purposes in Finland.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; Suomi; kartastot; sotilaskartat; metsätalouskartat
English keywords: forestry; Finland; Forest Service; maps; cartographic material; military maps; forestry maps
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Second World War revealed some weaknesses that affect also peacetime planning of military defence in Finland. One of the shortages were lack of maps applicable in military purposes in Northern Finland.

The state forests are mainly situated in the north. Consequently, cartographic material of Finnish Forest Service may be modified with little extra work for military purposes. Best suited for the purpose are forestry maps of different forest districts that have scales ranging from 1:20,000 to 1:100,000. In addition, general maps in the scale of 1:100,000 or 1:200,000 are available. The article discusses further the additions that can be made in the maps.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7361, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1942). Siperian lehtikuusen kasvusta sekametsiköissä Evon valtionpuistossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 8 article id 7361. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7361
English title: Growth of Siberian larch in mixed stands in state forests of Evo in Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; tiheys; mänty; sekametsä; siperianlehtikuusi
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; growth; mixed forests; Siberian larch; Larix sibirica
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Of the foreign tree species Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) has the biggest economical potential in Finland. In its natural distribution the species grows mostly in mixed stands in other areas than the core of its range in Siberia, where it grows also in pure stands. However, growth studies have given contradictory results about how Siberian larch can manage competition of different tree species in mixed stands. In this study two-year old Siberian larch seedlings were planted in areas previously sown with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The growth of the trees was measured when the stands were 50 years old.

It appears that the stands, about 3700 larch seedlings per hectare, have originally been too been too dense. In the two thinnings done in the area, larch has probably been favoured, which has resulted in varying mix of pine and spruce. In the 50-year old stands, Siberian larch has developed faster than Scots pine and Norway spruce. Contrary to some previous studies, the results show that Siberian larch can be grown also in mixed stands, but the growth will probably be slower than in pure stands. Best growth is achieved in pure stands that have been planted thinly enough.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7357, category Article
Erkki Rautvuori. (1941). Suomen kauppalakuntien metsät. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 4 article id 7357. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7357
English title: Forests owned by market towns in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kunnat; kuntatalous; metsämaa; Suomi; metsänomistus; kauppala; kauppalakunta
English keywords: forest ownership; forestry; forest land; municipalities; municipal economy; market town
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Finnish municipalities can be classed in towns and cities, market town and rural communes. In 1942 there was 27 market towns in Finland. The aim of this study was to investigate the amount and state of forests in market towns. The data was collected mainly by interviewing the authorities of the market towns in 1936-1938. The statistics about forests were often insufficient.

The total land area owned by market towns was 8,963 ha, 71.7% of which was forest land, 12.0% wasteland and 16.3% arable land. A total of 21 of the 27 market towns own forest. Of all the land owned by the market towns about half is situated within borders of the town, however, 57% of the forest land is situated outside the market town itself. The forest areas are small, only four towns own more than 500 ha of forests, and only six has a forest management plan. The silvicultural state of the forests seems, however to be relatively good.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Rautvuori, E-mail: er@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7355, category Article
Olavi Linnamies, Erkki Rautvuori. (1941). Suomen kaupunkikuntien metsät. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 7355. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7355
English title: Forests owned by urban municipalities in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; kuntatalous; metsämaa; kaupunkikunnat
English keywords: forest management; forestry; forest land; forest resources; urban municipalities; municipal economy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to the 1st national forest inventory of Finland, municipalities owned 178,000 hectares of forests in 1922, about 0.7% of the total forest area of the country. Only 60,000 hectares of these belonged to urban municipalities. The amount had increased to 73,000 hectares by 1938. Although the area was small, forests were important for municipal economy. The aim of this study was to investigate the state and forest management practices of forests in urban municipalities. The data was collected mainly by interviewing the authorities of the municipalities in 1936-1938.

Forests covered 50-80% of the area of the urban municipalities, the total area varying from 111 hectares to 7,791 hectares. Only four municipalities owned more than 5,000 hectares of forests. Annual profit of forestry in all urban municipalities totalled about 4.6 million Finnish marks in 1931-1935. Quality of productive forest lands was relatively good, but the volume and growth of the forests rather low. The silvicultural state of the forests could be improved. The article points out that this requires continuous planning. The basis of this is forest management plan, which has been demanded of municipal forests since 1893. However, some of the urban municipalities still lacked a forest management plan, or it was not fully used in forest management.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Linnamies, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
  • Rautvuori, E-mail: er@mm.unknown
article id 7354, category Article
P. S. Tikka. (1940). Puiden vikanaisuuksien merkitys ja huomioon ottaminen Perä-Pohjolan mäntymetsien hoidossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 7354. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7354
English title: The effect of injuries in trees on forest management of Scots pine stands in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; metsänhoito; mänty; sienitaudit; vikaisuus; latvuskerrokset; tervasroso
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; Scots pine; Cronartium flaccidum; pathogens; crown class; injuries; diseases; Scots pine blister rust
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to find out what are the causes of damage in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands and the frequency of different kinds of injuries, which are then discussed in relation to the silvicultural state and management of the stands in comparison to ideal forests. Sample plots were studied in over 80-year old Scots pine dominated stands in mineral soil sites of different forest types in Northern Finland in the area of Perä-Pohjola. 10–40 trees were chosen as sample trees in each sample plot. The sample trees were felled, and the diameter, height of crown and injuries outside and inside of the stem were recorded.

Length of knot-free part of the stem was higher in the dominant trees and in older age classes of the trees. The form of the stem becomes broader and rounder with the age. The crowns are, however, longer in Northern Finland compared to Southern Finland. In management of Scots pine stands, all trees diseased by Scots pine blister rust (Cronartium flaccidum) should be removed. The disease is common in Northern Finland, and the number of diseased trees increases as the stands get older. Decay was more common in trees that had fire wounds. In general, injuries decreased the length and diameter growth of the trees. From the dominant trees should only injured and diseased trees removed in the thinnigs. Codominant trees can be left to grow when spare trees are needed to replace missing dominant trees. Detailed instruction of selection of the removed trees are given for each age class.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7353, category Article
M. Lappi-Seppälä. (1940). Suomen evankelisluterilaisten seurakuntien kirkollisvirkatalojen metsät ja metsätalous. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 49 no. 6 article id 7353. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7353
English title: Forestry and forest holdings of the residences of Evangelical Lutheran parishes in Finland.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; metsänhoito; metsätalous; kirkollismetsät; virkatalo
English keywords: forest management; forestry; Forest Service; forest income; parish
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Residences of priests in Evangelical Lutheran parishes in Finland, and the forest holdings belonging to them, have been received in different ways. Some have been donated to the church, some belonged originally to the state, and some have been parceled out from the lands of local farmers. The forests holdings were, therefore, not considered to be property of the church. The use of the forests was limited, and they were managed by a forest management plan under supervision of Metsähallitus (Forest Service). The aim of the study was to survey the extent of forests properties of the parishes, how they have been managed, and their incomes to the parishes in 1933-1938.

The 784 residences had 217,600 hectares of forests. The forest holdings of the residences were larger than private forests in general. Also the forest resources, as well as the stocks of standing timber were larger than in private forests. The growing stock has grown further, because increment has exceeded the fellings. The fellings and income of the forestry had been increasing. At the same time, the costs of forestry were increasing. The forest holdings were divided unevenly between the parishes. About 15% of the parishes had no forest income, while the annual income of 10% of them was over 100,000 Finnish marks. In average, the forest income coverd 21.8% of all income of the parishes. Thus, the amount of forest income influenced the height of the church taxes.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lappi-Seppälä, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7352, category Article
Antero Piha. (1941). Maatilametsälöiden liikejäämä ja sen rakenne. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 7352. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7352
English title: Revenue of farm forests in Finland.
Original keywords: maatila; maatilametsä; tulos; liiketulos
English keywords: profitability; private forests; farm economy; forest holding
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Only fifth of the farms in Finland had no forests in 1936. Forests have been important for the economy of the farms by providing household timber and income from timber sales. However, forests have not been taken into account in the profitability studies of agriculture. The article analyses the revenues of forestry in private farms, and the different sources of revenue. The revenue is examined in farms of different sizes, different parts of the country and in different financial years in the period of 1925-26‒1936-37.

Forest holdings smaller than 25 hectares give relatively small financial support to the farm economy. Household timber saves costs, and timber sales can give opportunities to investments. The revenue given by bigger forest holdings are, however, important items in the income statement. Finally, the results are compared to profitability studies in other countries.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Piha, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7348, category Article
E. E. Metsäpelto. (1940). Suomen yhteismetsät. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 49 no. 1 article id 7348. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7348
English title: Jointly owned forests in Finland.
Original keywords: isojako; lahjoitusmaa; asutusyhteismetsät
English keywords: forest management; forest ownership; settlement joined forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The shared forests of the villages were generally parceled out to farms in the general parceling out of land (isojako) in Finland, that begun in 1775. The state established also jointly owned forests, mostly in the beginning of 2000th century when land was donated for landless population. Some have been established voluntarily. Act on Jointly Owned Forests was enacted in 1925 to ensure proper management of the forests. It contains instructions of administration of the forests.

A survey was conducted to study the conditions of the jointly owned forests. The forests, a total of 37,843 ha, are distributed evenly over the country. Average size of settlement jointly owned forests in Southern Finland are 314 ha, initial jointly owned forests in Southern Finland 1,726 ha, settlement joined forests in the county of Oulu in Northern Finland 592 ha, and initial joined forests in Northern Finland 1,268 ha. The forest lands are poorer than in other private forests. The most common age class is 41-80 years in Southern Finland and 61-120 years in the north. The forests resources were larger in the initial joined forests than in the settlement joined forests when the joined forests were established. In settlement joined forests fellings were smaller than the increment, while in initial joined forests fellings were slightly larger than the increment. Joined forests have given the owners rather good and regular income, which has probably been larger than if the forests had been managed as farm forests. Joined forests have, therefore, met their objectives.

The PDF includes a summary in German.
  • Metsäpelto, E-mail: em@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7344, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1939). Maan arvo metsätalouden tuloksenlaskennassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 7344. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7344
English title: Value of forest land in the financial accounting of forestry.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; metsämaan arvo; metsätalouden tuloslaskenta
English keywords: forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The valuation of forest land for financial accounting purposes is usually performed only when using methods that are based on wood resources. In the yield based methods, the book value of forest land and wood resources form one totality. In the first case, forest land in a separate land account usually has same value in the beginning and end of the accounting year. For instance, the costs of forest improvement are considered capital costs. Forest land can be valued either by multiplying the average hectare price of land with the hectares, or using separate unit prices for the different forest site types. Different ways to value forest land are presented, comparing the forest site type classification developed in Finland and the traditional method based on average height of the trees used in Central Europe. The study shows that values of forest land has relative nature.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7343, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1939). Kuusen kylvöstä ja istutuksesta metsitettävillä soilla. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 7343. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7343
English title: Sowing and planting of Norway spruce in drained peatlands in Finland.
Original keywords: kylvö; istutus; suojapuusto; halla; turvekangas; kuusen kasvatus
English keywords: Picea abies; frost damage; protection forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The drained peatlands regenerate usually well, and artificial regeneration by sowing or planting has been rare. Field trials of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) were established in northern Satakunta in Western Finland in three drained peatlands in 1934. Sowing trials of Norway spruce consisted of patch and broadcast sowed sample sites in treeless bogs and under protective forest. The seedlings of spruce were planted either under protective forest or in treeless peatland.

The results show that artificial regeneration of Norway spruce succeeds best under protective forest. The best tree species for upper storey is Betula sp. which grows fast and controls growth of ground vegetation. The peat is relatively decomposed on those peatlands that are suitable for spruce, and breaking of the surface of the peat is not recommended. In the sowing trials, breaking of the upper layer of the peat caused frost heaving, cracking of the dried surface and sticking of mud in the seedlings in the patch sown sample site. The shoot and root growth of seedlings of the broadcast sown site was better than seedlings of the patch sown site. The planted spruce seedlings seemed to be more susceptible for spring frost than the seedlings in the sown site. The plants of seed origin succeeded in general better than the planted seedlings.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7342, category Article
E. A. Martin Hagfors. (1939). Critical views on the economic theory on forestry: with special consideration on Nord-European circumstances. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 7342. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7342
Keywords: forest economics; theory; economy; critical view
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains three parts and a summary. The first part presents the common foundations of forest economics and forest management.  The second part critically discusses the concept of sustainability and the third part takes critical view on the theories on profitability.

The author concludes by stating that the literature shows there are some old principles of forest management that always arise when the forest science progresses. The economics of forest management has been neglected in the sense that it should be acknowledged as self and not as mathematical problem as it has been handled in many theories of national economy, e.g. land rent theory. The science seems the turn back to previous findings as they are proved right again.  

The PDF contains a summary in German.

 

  • Hagfors, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7341, category Article
Paavo Aro. (1938). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta vv. 1934-1937. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 7341. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7341
English title: Activities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1934‒1937.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest sciences; Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes the minutes of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1934‒1937. In the meetings of the society were held 30 presentations which are listed and shortly summarized in the article.

  • Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7337, category Article
Erkki K. Kalela. (1937). Vakuutetuissa metsissä vuosina 1925-34 sattuneista kuloista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 7337. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7337
English title: Forest fires in the insured forests in Finland in 1925-1934.
Original keywords: metsäpalo; kulo; metsäpalovakuutus
English keywords: forest fire insucance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Total of 1,305 forest fires was ignited in 1925-1934 in the forests insured by the Metsänomistajain Keskinäinen Metsäpaloapuyhdistys (The Forest Owners' Mutual Forest Fire Insurance Company and the Keskinäinen Vakuutusyhtiö Sampo (The Sampo Mutual Insurance Company). The variation was large: from 34 fires in 1928 to 362 fires in 1933. The forest fires were most abundant in the county of Oulu and Häme. The average size of the burned areas varied from 2.4 hectares to 30.5 hectares. The area of forests that had forest fire insurance increased steadily from 2.2 million hectares in 1925 to 3,7 million hectares in 1934.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7336, category Article
R. Sarvas. (1937). Kuloalojen luontaisesta metsittymisestä : Pohjois-Suomen kuivilla kankailla suoritettu metsäbiologinen tutkielma. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 7336. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7336
English title: Natural regeneration of burned areas. Forest biological study in dry mineral soil sites in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; Pinus sylvestris; metsäpalo; Betula sp.; taimikonhoito
English keywords: Norway spruce; birch; Picea abies; forest fire; Socts pine; tending of seedling stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Natural regeneration has been common in Northern Finland, where forest fires have been usual, and the large areas make artificial regeneration expensive. The regeneration, and for instance tree species composition and density of the stand, cannot been controlled. In Northern Finland there is little demand for Betula sp. which is often abundant in the burnt areas. The unburned forests are generally Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) or Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) dominated mixed forests with single Betula sp. trees.

The fire destroys birch for the most part in the Vaccinium site type, but the surviving trees produce enough seeds to regenerate the areas. The largest trees of Scots pine usually survive the fires. Pine has good seed years in the north only every 8th or 10th year. Spruce is totally destroyed in the forest fire and the seedlings grow poorly as primary species. The seedling stands are usually dominated by Scots pine and birch, but birch seedlings grow in batches, and do not hinder growth of pine. The drier Calluna site type stands are dominated by Scots pine. Birch seedlings may be abundant in the beginning, but most of them do not survive. Abundant emergent pine trees prevent the growth of seedlings especially in the dry site types, and they should be thinned to guarantee regeneration. Sowing results are better few years after the fire. The birch seedling should be removed from the seedling stands.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7333, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1938). Puutase metsätalouden tuloksenlaskennassa : tulosbilanssioppiin (dynaamiseen bilanssiteoriaan) perustuva tutkimus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 45 no. 1 article id 7333. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7333
English title: Timber balance in the financial accounting of forestry.
Original keywords: tuotto; metsätalouden tuloslaskenta; puutase; tase
English keywords: forest improvement; timber balance; profit; forest land account
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The financial accounting of the forestry needs redefining in Finland due to the effect of forest improvement, especially peatland drainage, on timber balance and valuation of forest land. The aim of the study was to develop methods to determine the timber balance using a separate forest land account. The problems of timber balance are related to the technical methods to assess timber balance and the cost of the work, quantitative determination of the profit, and qualitative determination of the profit. One main problem is to whether to define the quantitative profit as a sustainability of timber resources or difference in the allowable cut and outturn. The article discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the methods, and concludes that regardless of the method that is used to calculate the timber balance, profit or loss accounts have less exact nature in forestry than in other sectors. Replacing reliably calculated revenue surplus with operating result based on timber account would lead to tentative results.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7330, category Article
Erkki K. Kalela. (1936). Tutkimuksia Itä-Suomen kuusi-harmaaleppä-sekametsiköiden kehityksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 44 no. 2 article id 7330. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7330
English title: Studies on the development of mixed forest of Norway spruce and grey alder in Eastern Finland.
Original keywords: Picea abies; metsänhoito; alikasvos; sekametsä; kaskeaminen; juuristokilpailu; Alnus incana
English keywords: forest management; root competition; mixed stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Shifting cultivation, practiced earlier in Finland, was beneficial for grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench). It can produce seeds early and the early growth of the seedlings is fast. Areas where shifting cultivation was intensive, the areas next to the fields were pure alder stands, next circle was Betula sp. dominated, beyond that could be found Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and finally Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). When shifting cultivation ended, Norway spruce became more common. Many young mixed stands had Norway spruce undergrowth and alder overgrowth. The aim of the study was to find out how the stands develop to spruce dominated stands, and how they should be managed.

The density of spruce undergrowth affects the further development of both spruce and alder. The number of alder stems decreases the faster the denser the spruce undergrowth is. Alder overgrowth slow down the early diameter and height growth of spruce compared to pure stands. Also the diameter and height growth of alder remains smaller in mixed stands. The basal area of spruce develops slowly in the beginning, increases significantly by the age of 30, and surpasses the growth of pure spruce stands in Oxalis-Myrtillus site type. Thus, Norway spruce do not suffer from growing in the undergrowth. In the first years, fast growing alder seedlings limits growth of ground vegetation and protects spruce seedlings from frost.  Later thinning or removal of alder benefits spruce growth. The density of spruce undergrowth decides how much alder can be leaved in the stand. If the spruce undergrowth is thin, more alder can be left in the stand.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kalela, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7329, category Article
V. E. Svinhufvud. (1937). Studies on the microbiological differences in soil between the forest types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 7329. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7329
Keywords: bacteria; forest type classification; soil study
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Earlier studies show that different kind of biological processes occur in the soil of different forest types. These differences may be due differences in microbiology of those soils. This article studies these differences.

Soil samples from five different forest types were collected from the Ruotsinkylä research forest in three different seasons: in January, March and September.

The amount of bacteria in the samples is at the lowest in March and highest in September.   During the winter more anaerobic bacteria were found. The amount of denitrifying bacteria is higher in the soil than amount of nitrifying bacteria.

The results indicate that the species composition of soil varies between the forest types in the same manner than the vegetation composition above the soil. However, this study is only a preliminary and more knowledge is needed about the discipline before practical implications can be drawn.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Svinhufvud, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7328, category Article
A. Benj. Helander. (1936). Anton Gabriel Blomqvist ja hänen aikalaisensa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 43 no. 2 article id 7328. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7328
English title: Anton Gabriel Blomqvist and his contemporaries.
Original keywords: metsänhoidon historia; metsäopetus; Evon metsäopisto
English keywords: forest education; Evo Forest Institute; history of forest management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a biography of Dr. Anton Gabriel Blomqvist, who was the head of Evo Forest Institute in Southern Finland in 1874‒1903. He developed higher forest education in Finland, and continued his career as forest scientist alongside his work in the forest institute. His works include growth and yield tables for the main tree species of Finland. His had also big influence in the development of forest management in the country. The article describes also the work of several of his colleague.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Helander, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7327, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1934). Metsähallitus 1859-1934. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 7327. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7327
English title: Forest Sercvice of Finland in 1859‒1934.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; valtion metsät
English keywords: Forest Service; state forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a history of Metsähallitus (Forest Service) compiled on the organizations 75th anniversary. In 1859 a declaration was signed on the founding of a forest management institution in The Grand Duchy of Finland, then an autonomous part of the Russian Empire. The article follows the changes in the organization, administration and policies concerning the state forests. The development of forest resources and the use of state forests is discussed. In the early stages of the organization, the main concern in Finnish forests was forest devastation, and one task of the officers was to prevent unauthorized use of forests. in a decree, Metsähallitus was designated a central agency under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, and was given the task of “managing, monitoring and promoting Finnish forestry”.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7326, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1936). Metsän hakkuun ja ajon sekä puutavaran uiton työn kysynnästä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 42 no. 9 article id 7326. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7326
English title: The demand of forest work and floating work in Finland.
Original keywords: uitto; hakkuu; metsätyö; työvoima; työllisyys; hevoskuljetus
English keywords: employment; fellings; floating; workforce; forest work; horse-haulage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forestry has been almost the sole source of employment during winter in the forested areas of Finland. The aim of this study was to investigate the number of men and horses working in logging and haulage in different times of year in 1933‒1934. The felling and haulage of household timber was not included in the study. The amount of work days was calculated using the statistics of wood consumption. The work days in logging was 10.0 million days in 1933 and 11.9 million days in 1934. Accordingly, approximately 3.6 million work days was done in horse-haulage in 1933 and 4.3 million in 1934. The forest companies and Metsähallitus (Forest Service) employed most employees in wood harvesting in January‒March, in average 14,300‒25,700 men and 3,300‒9,300 horses per month. The number of employees was lowest in August.

In floating, 1 million work days was done in 1934 and 1,1 million in 1934. Most employees were hired in April‒June. Floating is an important source of employment for the landless people when the fellings stop in the spring. The farmers working in wood harvesting can move to work in their farms.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7324, category Article
E. A. Martin Hagfors. (1936). Monographic studies on theory of forestry, part 1: G. König. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 42 no. 7 article id 7324. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7324
Keywords: ; forest economics; profile; G. König
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Studies by G. König are the main source for the profitability theories of forestry. He was one of the first economists developing the forestry practices more towards profitability aspects. His doctrine presented the first steps of current forest related trend of ideas and hence so significant in the later development of the discipline.

The article presents the life of G. König and two of his most important works: “Anleitung” (introduction) from the year 1813 and “Forstmathematik” (Mathematics of forest) from years 1835 and 1854

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Hagfors, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7322, category Article
Ilmari Vuoristo. (1935). Työennätykset tukkien teossa ja ajossa Perä-Pohjolassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 42 no. 5 article id 7322. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7322
English title: Working efficiency in timber cutting and hauling in Northern Ostrobothnia.
Original keywords: metsätyö; hakkuutyö; hevoskuljetus; työteho
English keywords: logging; forest work; horse hauling; hauling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to determine how different factors in the stand influence working efficiency in felling. In the eight cutting areas in Northern Finland was harvested a total of 745,200 cubic feet of timber. The factors recorded from the cutting areas were the number of stems per hectare, volume of the stems, quality of the logs (proportion of decayed trees and knottiness of the trees), topography of the site and efficiency of the workers in a team.

The bigger the stems were, the better the result of the workers was. When the size of the stem increased by one cubic ft., the efficiency of the work increased by 2 cubic ft. When knottiness and defects in the stem changed the class describing the quality of a tree by one class, the efficiency decreased by 4.5 cubic ft. The density of the forest affected the time used for loading the timber for hauling. The hauling distance affected the efficiency of the team, which was usually either 2 men and one horse, or 3 men and one horse. If the hauling distance was long, hauling impaired the efficiency. If the distance was short, logging impaired the efficiency of the work. The result show that efficiency of forest work is greatly influenced by the quality of the forest, the trees and the workers.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vuoristo, E-mail: iv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7318, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1935). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta vv. 1932-1934. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 7318. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7318
English title: Activities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1932‒1934.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest sciences; Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes the minutes of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1932‒1934. In the meetings of the society were held four presentations which are shortly summarized in the article.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7316, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1935). Kuusen juuriston ensi kehityksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 7316. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7316
English title: The early development of Norway spruce root system.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; sirkkataimi; pääjuuri; kasvualusta
English keywords: seedlings; forest site; main root
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The development roots of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) seedlings was studied in sample seedlings grown in different kinds of sites. In the early stage, the seedling roots grow primarily length. The main root is usually long. If the growth of the root is hindered, the tip of the root dies, and the root system growing from the original root collar remains relatively small; in these cases, the secondary root system becomes more important. In unfavourable conditions the root branches can early on replace the main root. The main root of a germling seems to be less able to seek for free growing space than the main and side roots of older seedlings. When the growth of the root is blocked by some kind of obstacle, it does not often hinder the growth of the seedling. The type of soil influences strongly how the root system grows. In good soil and in humus the root system is regular and richly branched, while in clay and coarse sand the root system was small. Spahgnum moss was good substrate for seedlings, Dicranum undulatum moss little less good, while the seedlings grew poorly on Pleurozium Schreberi.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7315, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1934). Koivun juuristo. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 7315. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7315
English title: The root system of birch (Betula pubescens and B. verrucosa).
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; sekametsä; juuristo; koivu; Betula sp
English keywords: forest site type; mixed stand
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About 40% forest in Finland are mixed stands that have birch (Betula pubescens and B. verrucosa) as one of the species. The aim of this research was to study the structure of root system of birch and compare it to the other main tree species in Finland.

The root systems were dug out and measured in 28 sample plots in Southern and Central Finland, representing different forest site types. Birch roots correspond 30‒100% of the volume of the stem, the largest root systems being in the sandy soils or peatlands. Also the longest lateral roots can be found at these sites. The size variation of root system of birch is larger than in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and the vertical root system is in general smaller in birch. Birch seems to be better than pine able to adapt its root system to the existing conditions. The smallest root systems were found in the good forest site types, but the roots grow in the good sites denser than in the poor sites. The lateral roots of the main tree species in Finland, birch, Scots pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) grow in different depths, which decreases the competition between the species. This finding gives support to cultivation of mixed stands.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7314, category Article
P. S. Tikka. (1935). Puiden vikanaisuuksista Pohjois-Suomen metsissä: tilastollis-metsäpatologinen tutkimus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 7314. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7314
English title: Injuries in different tree species in Northern Finland: A statistical-forest pathological study.
Original keywords: metsäpatologia; vikaisuus; mutkaisuus; hyönteistuho; runkovika; lahovika
English keywords: decay; forest pathology; stem injuries; form defect
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to find out what are the causes of damage in different parts of the trees and the frequency of different kinds of injuries. Sample plots were studied in over 80-year old forests in mineral soil sites and peatlands. All the trees over 1.5 m high were felled in the sample plots and the stem injuries were studied. The structure of the stand and the crown classes were recorded. The proportion of undamaged trees was largest in in dominant and codominant trees and increased towards the better forest site types. The typical injuries are listed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L). H. Karst.) and Betula sp. stands. The injuries were divided in inner and outer form defects and injuries, and defined in more detail by the part of the stem and tree species. Defects caused by decay were analyzed separately.

Healing over of injuries was faster in the better sites. Form defects and other injuries were more common in birch stands than in Scots pine and Norway spruce stands. Decay was most common in birch stands. The pine stands were the healthiest, followed by spruce stands. Fire wound were most usual in pine, butt rot for spruce, and crooks and general decay for birch.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7312, category Article
V. R. Toijala. (1934). Yksityismetsätalouden edistäminen ja valvonta Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 35 article id 7312. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7312
English title: Promotion and supervision of private forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; yksityismetsätalous; yksityismetsälaki
English keywords: forest management; private forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The state of Finland controls the private forestry by legislation and by promoting forest management. The initial reason for regulating the private forestry in the 1600s was to prevent forest devastation and the decrease of the forest resources in the country. The Private Forest Act came into effect in 1929. It required that regeneration of the forest is cared for after fellings and that an announcement is given of planned fellings. There are several organizations to promote private forestry and advice the private forest owners, for instance, District Forest Boards, Central Forestry Association Tapio and the Forest Management Associations. It is concluded that the Private Forest Act and the organizations have fulfilled their objectives.

  • Toijala, E-mail: vt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7311, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1934). Metsäojien mittojen ja muodon muuttumisesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 34 article id 7311. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7311
English title: Changing of dimensions and form of forest ditches after the drainage in Finland.
Original keywords: ojitus; metsäoja; turpeen painuminen; ojien eroosio
English keywords: erosion; drainage of peatlands; forest ditch; drying of peatland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to investigate how the drain network and dimensions of ditches change after the drainage. The studied drained peatlands were situated in the municipalities of Parkano and Virrat in Central Finland. The ditches were in average 15 and 17 years old. The depth and width in the surface of the peatland were in average one quarter smaller than after the drainage. The width at the bottom of the ditch has, however, almost doubled. Peat had sunken more in peatlands with thick peat layer and higher humidity. Sinking of peat influenced the depth of the ditches. The volume of the ditches decreased about 30%. The decrease of the ditches by the drying and sinking of the peat was greater than the increase caused by erosion.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7310, category Article
N. A. Hildén. (1934). Havaintoja eräitten yksityistilojen metsätaloudesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 33 article id 7310. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7310
English title: Observations on forestry in private farms in Finland.
Original keywords: yksityismetsätalous; maatila; puukauppa; yksityismetsä
English keywords: private forests; farms; farm economy; agricultural economy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Private forests account for about 2/3 of the growth of the forests in Finland, but little is known about the economy of forestry in private farms. The study analyses the forestry in private farms using accounting data of farms, collected in a survey of profitability in agriculture that was compiled by the Board of Agriculture. The sample of 18 farms represent farms where the use of forests was sustainable. The accounting data was complemented by survey of forest recourses in the farms. The typical forest site type is Myrtillus type, and the average growing stock is 96‒136 m3/ha which is above the average of the private forests. Fellings exceeded the growth of the forests in some farms, but this was compensated by uncommonly large forest resources. In average, growth exceeded the fellings. Timber accounted for most of the sales, while fuel wood sales exceeded the pulpwood sales. The significance of thinning seems not be fully understood in the farms. Especially standing sales of timber was important for the economy of the farms.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hildén, E-mail: nh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7307, category Article
Erik Lönnroth. (1934). On the straight line describing volume of a forest stand. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 30 article id 7307. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7307
Keywords: methodology; Volume line; pine forest; leveling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes the method of improving the leveling line of the volume of sample trees so that the volume figures themselves indicate the best leveling. The original method of leveling line originates from Kopezky. Here the method is illustrated with a data from Finnish pine forest.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Lönnroth, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7306, category Article
Ilmari Vuoristo. (1934). Sahatukkien teko- ja ajopalkat todellista työvaikeutta vastaaviksi. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 29 article id 7306. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7306
English title: Felling and hauling wages that correspond the actual requirements of the work.
Original keywords: hakkuutyö; hevoskuljetus; palkka; palkkajärjestelmä; urakkatyö; työn vaativuus
English keywords: forest work; horse hauling; salary; job demands; wage system; piece work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest work in Finland has generally been paid by the job. The wages in 1930s were based on variable measuring units and principles in different parts of the country. The rates did not often take into account how difficult the individual stands are to harvest. The studies have shown that the productivity of logging depends on size of the stems, density of the stand, branchiness of the trees, terrain and depth of snow cover. The article suggests a wage system which takes into account the differences of the cutting areas.

Wages of felling and hauling logs that are payed per the trunk or cubic meter should be adjusted so that the earnings of an employee depends not on the quality of the stand. The quality of the stand influences the stumpage price of the wood, because of the versatile harvesting costs. If the demands of the job in a challenging stand are not compensated for the workers, the higher harvesting costs are inequitably balanced by lowering the wages of the forest workers.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Vuoristo, E-mail: iv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7305, category Article
P. Kokkonen. (1934). Maanjakotoimituksessa syntyvien palstojen muodosta metsätalouden kannalta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 28 article id 7305. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7305
English title: Conditions of forestry in land plots formed in the parceling of land.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; maanjako; tilajako; metsäpalsta
English keywords: forest management; forest ownership
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The shape of land lots formed in parceling of land has been affected by many variables. It is an important economic factor when the land is used in forestry or agriculture. The report concentrates on the larger farms with relatively large forest holdings. In the general parceling of the land that started in the middle of 1700s, the allotted plots were often long and narrow, and the width of the plot could be 20‒50 meters. Later these farms may have been further parceled.

Narrow plots are difficult to manage from the forestry point of view. For example, it is not possible to build a forest road in the plot, and wood harvesting is difficult. To use natural regeneration for a specific tree species is impossible, because the seed trees in the adjacent plot are so near. When the boundaries are long and the properties narrow, there is bigger risk for felling trees on the land of the neighbour. The optimal form for a plot is rectangle which is 3‒6 times longer than its width. Local examples of parceling and the effects of the shape of the plots are given in the article.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Kokkonen, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7304, category Article
Uunio Saalas. (1934). Suomalaisista hyönteisnimistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 27 article id 7304. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7304
English title: The Finnish nomenclature of insects.
Original keywords: hyönteiset; metsähyönteiset; nimistö; nimistökomitea
English keywords: nomenclature; forest insects
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The need for standard Finnish names for the harmful or beneficial insects in agriculture rose in the 1930s, and a committee was formed in 1932 to work out nomenclature for the insect species. In 1933, a similar committee was formed to compile a nomenclature for forest insects. The old popular names, if such names existed, were used primarily. Some of the insects had been named also in the earlier literature, even if all the names had not been taken in common use. Some names were translated from the scientific names. Emphasis was given to the habits or habitats of the insect. An attempt was made to shorten the former names if needed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saalas, E-mail: us@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7301, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1934). Valtionmetsien työtarjonnasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 24 article id 7301. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7301
English title: Employment in the state forests of Finland.
Original keywords: valtion metsät; metsätyö; työttömyys; metsänprannus
English keywords: forest improvement; forest work; unemployment
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a report of the ways the state forests could be used to improve employment, requested by the State Unemployment Council. Production of the state forests of Finland has been insufficient, because the fellings have not taken account silvicultural needs, and forest management has not previously received proper funding. For instance, the production and wood resources in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated forests in Southern Finland were 2/3 of what they could be if the forests were in natural state. More efficient forest management is necessary to ensure the sustainable wood production of the state forests, and that could consequently offer work opportunities. The tasks needed to improve productivity of the state forests, and the work opportunities they can give are listed. Silviculture, drainage of peatlands, wood harvesting and transport, marking timber for fellings, floating, building forest roads and administrative and planning work could increase the supply of work to 8.6 million man-days and 1.6 horse-days in the state forests, mainly in wood harvesting and transport.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7300, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1934). Metsänviljelysmenetelmiä koskevista tutkimuksista. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 23 article id 7300. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7300
English title: Research on forest regeneration methods.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänviljely; metsän uudistaminen; viljelykoe
English keywords: articifial regeneration; forest researc
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on the research about forest regeneration in Finland, executed in the Forest Research Institute. The climate affects the results of different regeneration methods. Thus, sample plots have been established in different parts of the country. In 1933 there was a total of 386 sample plots around the country. To compare the effect of weather conditions in the regeneration, sample plots have been established in successive years. Other conditions that affect forest regeneration are soil, forest site type, tree species, time from the felling of the stand, and tending of the seedling stand. Of the 386 sample plots 245 were planting experiments and 141 sowing experiments.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7298, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1934). The development of a forest stand and the growth factors. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 21 article id 7298. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7298
Keywords: forest management; light; forest stand; growth factor; water
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Water and amount of light are the most important growth factors and the article discusses their relationship. It is knows that the more space is needed by a tree the worse the site is. The number of stems varies between tree species. Common understanding is that amount of light is decisive to self-thinning and regeneration of a stand. On a good site the adequacy of water may substitute the lack of light. However, the fertility of soil and moisture content is more important than light.

The question of the importance of light, soil fertility and water content, as well as their relationship is important when optimizing the forest management.       

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7296, category Article
T. Rancken. (1934). Erfarenheter om asken som skogsträd i Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 19 article id 7296. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7296
English title: Experiences of cultivation of ash as a forest tree in Finland.
Keywords: forest management; Finland; Fraxinus exelsior; ash; quality timber
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Cultivation of ash (Fraxinus exelsior L.), even though it is a native species in Finland, has been hindered by the belief that it cannot produce quality timber in Finland. However, it can be concluded that the quality of ash timber is as good as that of timber imported to the country, if the trees are grown in a fertile site, the crown density is high, and the stand is tended properly. In these conditions, ash wood may have 3 mm ring width or more. Measurements made in ash stands in Turku region and in Åland show that at the best sites ash trees reach a height of 20–22 m in 70–80 years. According to the field tests made by the author, it can be concluded that ash can be successfully grown in Southern Finland in Åland, Turku region, in the coastal areas of Uusimaa and in Karelian isthmus. The species requires a fertile, moist upland forest site. The early growth is best secured by planting the seedlings under a well thinned broadleaved stand, which is then thinned every fifth year. Open lands growing grass should be avoided.

The PDF includes a Finnish and German summary.

  • Rancken, E-mail: tr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7294, category Article
Martti Hertz. (1934). Tutkimuksia karjan vaikutuksesta hakkausalojen kasvillisuuteen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 17 article id 7294. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7294
English title: Studies on influence of grazing on the vegetation of cutting areas.
Original keywords: luontainen uudistuminen; kuusi; karja; laidunnus; mesälaidun; hakkuualue
English keywords: Picea abies; natural regeneration; spruce; cattle; forest pasture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of grazing of the cutting areas to the ground vegetation and regeneration of spruce. The cutting areas could be divided into two kinds of areas based on the vegetation. Hillocks were drier and poorer than other parts of the cutting areas. Their vegetation did suffer less from grazing than the other parts of the cutting areas. The shade-loving plant species decreased, but as the poorer sites have less edible plants, cattle caused less damage than in the better sites. The even spaces between the hillocks had both positive and negative changes. Cattle transport seeds, tile and fertilize the soil, promote paludification, and decrease competition by the primary species like large grasses. This is beneficial to new species. Grazing is directed to large grass species like Calamagrostis. Those species that cattle reject, become more abundant. Stamping damages especially shallow rooted species and perennial species, like Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Larger tree seedlings may get injuries in the stem.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Hertz, E-mail: mh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7293, category Article
Paavo Aro. (1934). Psykoteknilliset kokeet metsäammattimiesten valinnassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 16 article id 7293. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7293
English title: Planning psychological exams to employ forest professionals.
Original keywords: valintakoe; opiskelijavalinta; psykologinen testi
English keywords: entrance examination; forestry school; psychologifal test
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A psychological and technical test was planned for selecting students to Forestry School of Tuomarniemi in Finland. This was the first attempt to use psychological and technological tests to choose forest professionals in the country. The entrance examination of the forestry school included tests for knowledge about forest work, estimation of distance and dimensions of a tree, dexterity and memory. The article suggests that similar test should be generally used in forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Aro, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7292, category Article
Valter Keltikangas. (1934). Kustannuksista metsätalouden tuloslaskennassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 15 article id 7292. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7292
English title: The placing of expenses in the balance sheet of forest management.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kustannukset; metsätalouden tuloslaskelma
English keywords: costs; result of forestry; balance sheet
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The term ‘expenses’ is in forestry insufficiently defined, and its use in the balance sheet of forest management is unclear. In dynamic balance theory the actual working expenses and capital expenditure are separated. The article discusses what should be considered working expenses and what capital expenditure when dealing with certain costs of the forest management, for example costs of administration, cultivation of forests, log-floating channels, and roads and drainage of peatlands.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7290, category Article
K. J. Valle. (1934). Fennoskandian koivuvyöhykkeen eläinmaantieteellisestä merkityksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 13 article id 7290. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7290
English title: The zoogeographical significance of the birch zone in Fennoscandia.
Original keywords: tunturikoivu; koivuvyöhyke; eläinmaantiede; maaselkärankaiset; suurperhoset
English keywords: Betula pubescens subsp. czerepanovii; vertebrate; subarctic-subalpine birch forest zone; fell area; mountain birch; butterfly
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The subarctic-subalpine mountain birch forest zone discerns Fennoscandia from other northern regions. The zone offers protection against wind to animal life, protects soil from evaporation and increases humidity. The article reviews distribution of vertebrate and butterfly species in the birch forest zone. There are no vertebrates that occur solely in the birch forest zone, and only few live mostly in the zone. Many species live either both on the birch forest zone and the treeless fell area above it, or in the birch forest zone and coniferous zone below it. Similarly, no butterflies occur only in the birch forest zone, but the zone is the main habitat for some species. Consequently, the subarctic-subalpine birch forest zone cannot be considered to be an independent ecozone but a transitional zone between regio silvatica and regio arctica that is nearer to the northern coniferous zone than the fell region

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Valle, E-mail: kv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7289, category Article
P. S. Tikka. (1934). Butt rot in the coniferous forests of northern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 12 article id 7289. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7289
Keywords: coniferous forest; Butt rot; Fomitopsis annosa; Bjerkandera borealis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There are two fungi that cause butt rot: Fomitopsis annosa and Bjerkandera borealis. The losses they cause in pine forests are relatively mild, the share of rotten trees is between 6 and 12 % and the rot is restricted to the butt end of the tree.

In forests dominated with spruce the losses to timber are more notable. The share of trees infected with butt rot is between 10 and 40 % and of the volume at least 12 per cent. The more barren the heath forest site the greater the defect caused by decay. In the forests on peatland the pine swamps and spruce moors are the most affected.

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.  

  • Tikka, E-mail: pt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7285, category Article
Eino Saari. (1934). Piirteitä Yhdysvaltain metsätalouspolitiikasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 8 article id 7285. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7285
English title: Observations on the forest policy of the United States.
Original keywords: metsätalous; metsäpolitiikka; metsävarat; sahateollisuus; Yhdysvallat
English keywords: forestry; forest resources; sawmill industry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on the forest resources, forestry and forest policy in the United States based on the publication A National Plan for American Forestry, published in 1933. The earlier estimates of forest resources of America have been proved to be exaggerated. The annual drain had been estimated to be twice the annual growth of the forests. The author disagrees with the estimates, and argues that the growth, if calculated with the American method, do not give right figures of the sustainable fellings.

The situation is better than estimated. The national plan of forestry suggests that the public ownership of the forests should be increased to 60% from the present 20%. In addition, there are plans to introduce public control of private forests in the American forestry so that fellings do not risk the sustained yield of the forests. Rapid depletion of the saw timber resources in the North-Eastern and Lake States, and the high lumber prices lead to the assumption that the timber resources of the United States are in decline. The following decrease in lumber consumption lead to surplus of sawmill capacity, and to increasing competition in the sector.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7281, category Article
Emil Vesterinen. (1934). Sotilaiden osanotto metsänviljelystyöhön. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 7281. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7281
English title: The participation of troops in silvicultural work.
Original keywords: kylvö; metsätyö; istutus; armeija; sotilas
English keywords: planting; sowing; forest work; army; solder
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Following the example of Norway, which was the first nation to employ regular troops in silvicultural work, sowing and planting courses were organized for the Finnish troops in 1931. The initiative was taken by the Forestry Instruction Bureau, and the work was organized by the forestry committees. During three years, total of 8,189 men was involved in the work.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vesterinen, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7279, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1934). Suomen metsätieteellisen tutkimustyön kehittäminen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 7279. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7279
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus
English keywords: ; forest research; forest sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article outlines the further development of forest research work in Finland. It was realized from the beginning that forest sciences in Finland should be grounded on own work, relying on other sciences that had similar objectives. For instance, silvicultural sciences can benefit from phytogeography, plant ecology and soil sciences.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7278, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1934). Neljännesvuosisata Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toimintaa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 40 no. 1 article id 7278. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7278
English title: A quarter of a century with the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest research; the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Society of Forest Sciences was established in 1908 to promote forest research in the country. It was deemed that the progress of Finnish forestry required forest research adapted to the local conditions. The article describes the establishment, first years of the society and the consolidation of its role and activities. The operation, finances and the society is described.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7275, category Article
Esa Hyyppä. (1933). The climate and forests in the late glacial time in the region of the Karelian Isthmus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 39 no. 4 article id 7275. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7275
Keywords: climate; forest; glacial time; late glacial era; the Karelian Isthmus; Dryas sp.
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on pollen analyses of varves collected from Kivennapa area. The varves contain the plant fossils of Dryas sp., which were the typical plants of the era. Geological samples form the Russia side of the border are also utilized. The study describes the results regarding the late-glacial forests and the vegetation that consist mostly of Dryas sp. and the climate in the area in the late-glacial era.

The late-glacial era in the Karelian Isthmus should be divided into two periods and better named as glacial and subglacial eras, also known as arctic and subarctic eras. 

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.

  • Hyyppä, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7271, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1933). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta vv. 1930-1932. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 38 no. 5 article id 7271. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7271
English title: Activities of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1930‒1932.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest research; the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The article includes the minutes of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1930‒1932. In the meetings of the society were held 32 presentations, which are included in the article. The topics of the presentations are listed by the name of the speakers.
  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7265, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1931). Suomen puunjalostusteollisuuden raaka-aineen käyttö vuosina 1911-29. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 7265. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7265
English title: Wood consumption of wood manufacturing industry in Finland in 1911‒1929.
Original keywords: metsäteollisuus; sahateollisuus; selluteollisuus; puun käyttö; puu raaka-aine; vaneriteollisuus; puuhiomo
English keywords: forest industry; wood consumption; pulp industry; sawmilling industry; plywood industry; mechanical pulp
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The main source of data was the official industrial statistics in 1911‒1929. The data was complemented with information from other sources, and the figures converted to solid volumes under bark. The wood consumption of wood manufacturing industry in the period varied strongly, being lowest in 1918 (2.2 million m3) and highest in 1927 (18.1 million m3). The wood consumption dropped during the World War I.

The wood manufacturing industry in Finland concentrated on sawmilling industry which has used annually 70‒80% of the wood consumed in the whole wood manufacturing industry. Other sectors of industry using wood were plywood industry, wood-wool industry, spool factories, match industry, mechanical pulpwood industry and pulp industry.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7262, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1930). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta vv. 1920-1930. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 7262. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7262
English title: Activities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1920‒1930.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest research; the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes the minutes of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1920‒1930. In the meetings of the society were held 108 presentations, which are included in the article. The topics of the presentations are listed by the name of the speakers and by the topics.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7261, category Article
K. Linkola. (1930). On half-deciduous woodlands in Estonia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 36 no. 3 article id 7261. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7261
Keywords: vegetation; forest type; deciduous forests; heath forests; lime content
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Half-deciduous woodlands are the combination of deciduous forests and heath forests from their vegetation. The article describes three half-deciduous forest types from the commune of Hager, 40 kilometers south form Tallinn.

The occurrence of half-deciduous forests depends on the soil conditions, especially on lime content of the soil, when the occurrence of other forest types is more a question of climate. They are important as an original site for many continental plant species.   

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish. 

  • Linkola, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7260, category Article
I. Lassila. (1930). Työtieteellisiä tutkimuksia metsätyöstä. 1. Pinopuun teko. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 36 no. 2 article id 7260. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7260
English title: Studies on efficiency of labour in forest work.
Original keywords: työtehotutkimus; metsätyö; työntutkimus
English keywords: time and motion study; forestry work; work analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article analyses the efficiency of forest work, and the use of time and motion study methods in forest work. Forest work can be characterized by little use of machinery. It cannot be repeated as orderly as industrial work. This affects also how the efficiency of the work can be measured. Only parts of the work can be timed. The study takes making of piled wood as an example. First are determined the standard times for the work moments. They include the time used to prepare the piled wood, and the waste time. It is concluded that forest work can be standardized with the methods of work analysis.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lassila, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7258, category Article
E. A. Martin Hagfors. (1929). On the economic objectives of the commercial use of forest. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 7258. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7258
Keywords: forestry; profitability; forest economics; forest economy; economic theory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article has two parts: the first are the common principles of forestry and forest economics and the second part presents different theories of forest economics. The aim of the study is to find out how the best possible economic result can be achieved from forest management and use of forest resources.

The first part presents the economic foundations of forestry; the division between following the concept of economic profitability in forestry and forest management; concepts of capital and operating result in forestry; and productivity and profitability. It discusses the idea of economy as a dynamic entity instead of static.

In the second part the different economic theories related to forestry and forest economics are presented. Theory on the highest interest on forest capital, theory of sustained yield management system, land rent theory, theory on forest profitability and dynamic economic theory are discussed.      

The PDF contains a summary in Finnish.
  • Hagfors, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7256, category Article
V. Pöntynen. (1929). Tutkimuksia kuusen esiintymisestä alikasvoksina Raja-Karjalan valtionmailla. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 7256. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7256
English title: Studies on Norway spruce undergrowth in state forests in Karelia.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; valtion metsät; metsätyyppi; alikasvos; Karjala
English keywords: natural regeneration; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The abundance of Norway spruce (Picae abies (L.) H. Karst.) undergrowth is common for the state forests in Karelia near the Russian border, in Finland. In the survey, the occurrence of the undergrowth was studied. The article includes a review on the ownership of the forest, forest soils in the area, and the state of forests in the area. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is the dominative species in 67%, Norway spruce in 27% and Betula sp. 6% of the state forests. Only 2% of the forests are 1‒20 years of age. Stands in the age group of 61‒80 years are the most common (25%). Norway spruce undergrowth is most abundant in the municipality of Salmi. The forests are typically moist forest site types or grass-herb site types. If the stands are allowed to develop naturally, even the Vaccinium sites become Norway spruce dominated. Spruce undergrowth is formed seldom under a spruce forest unless the stand is thin or has openings. Because Norway spruce is often rare in the mineral soil sites, the undergrowth is often regenerated from seeds that spread from spruce swamps. Earlier practiced shifting cultivation and its frequent fires prevented regeneration of spruce undergrowth. Similarly, the common felling method used, clear felling in strips, does not promote spruce undergrowth. Consequently, their occurrence is likely to decrease in the future.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pöntynen, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7213, category Article
Finnish Society of Forest Science. (1929). Aimo Kaarlo Cajander: 50-vuotisjuhlajulkaisu. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. I article id 7213. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7213
English title: Professor A. K. Cajander’s fiftieth birthday.
Keywords: forest research; forest education
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is dedicated to professor Dr. Aimo Kaarlo Cajander, who celebrated his 50th birthday in 1929. The article is an introduction to his work and career. He has been responsible for developing the education in forestry, and planning and developing of forest research in Finland.

The PDF includes the text in Finnish, Swedish, English, German and French.

  • Finnish Society of Forest Science, E-mail: info@metsatiede.org (email)
article id 7254, category Article
I. Lassila. (1929). Metsäteknologisen tutkimuksen lähiaikojen tehtävistä Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 41 article id 7254. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7254
English title: The next tasks of wood-technological research in Finland.
Original keywords: tutkimus; metsäntutkimus; metsäntutkimuslaitos; metsäteknologia
English keywords: forest technology; forest research; research; Forest Research Institute; forest engineering
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article gives a summary of the range of the wood-technological research, and suggests that the research in the subject in Finland should be divided in two parts: research on problems of wood-technology in the strict sense of the word, and those concerning wood refinement and the problems of wood technology, related to the latter. The wood-technology research would be addressed to the Forest Research Institute, and the research on wood refinement to the organization to be founded by the wood manufacturing industry. Finally, main subjects to be studied are listed.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Lassila, E-mail: il@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7253, category Article
K. Linkola. (1929). Knowledge on the forest types in Estonia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 40 article id 7253. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7253
Keywords: heath forest; vegetation analysis; forest type classification; herb-rich-forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article summarizes the observations about forest types from different parts of Estonia. The chosen examples represent the normal forest where age class division is natural and the species composition has not been altered through felling or grazing. These are mainly found in the areas of earlier manors of the nobility. The samples are only from mineral soils. Vegetation analysis and middle-European height-over-age-survey were made.

Because of the great share of herb-rich-forest the forest type classification for Estonia is complex. There are many types that have not been described earlier.

The study describes the characteristics and the vegetation types of the heath forests, fresh forests, half-herb-rich-forests and herb-rich-forests.        

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Linkola, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7249, category Article
E. A. Martin Hagfors. (1929). Paper on essence of forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 36 article id 7249. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7249
Keywords: profitability; economic theory; continuous forest management system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

There are several competing theories about forestry: school on continuous forest management system, school on profitability of forestry and a dynamic view on economics. The article discusses the pros and cons of the different theories or viewpoints and wider the essence of forest as an economic asset.

To serve the needs of the practical forestry and the economics related to forests the forestry needs to seek for standardization in relation to growth potential of the forests and market orientation of the timber. A modern theory of forestry needs to base itself on both.  

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Hagfors, E-mail: eh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7248, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1929). Valtion metsätulot kunnallisverotuksessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 35 article id 7248. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7248
English title: Forestry income in the municipal taxation.
Original keywords: valtion metsät; kuntatalous; metsäverotus; verotus; kunnallisverotus
English keywords: forest taxation; local economy; state forests; taxation; municipal taxation; municipalities
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In 1926 the state of Finland payed taxes to the local municipalities from a half of the net returns the state forest and state owned wood manufacturing industry produced. The taxes payed by the forest administration to the municipalities totaled 4.75 million Finnish marks. The state forests are located mostly in Northern Finland, thus the relative amount of municipalities that get taxes from the state forestry were higher in the north. The municipalities that benefited most from the tax revenues from the state were Savukoski, Pudasjärvi, Suojärvi, Rovaniemi, Taivalkoski, Kuhmoniemi, Turtola, Pielisjärvi, Ilomantsi, Korpiselkä and Suistamo. About half of the municipalities (264) got tax revenues from state forestry. However, if this tax revenue was removed, it would raise local tax rate in relatively few municipalities. it has been proposed that state should pay taxes from the state forests on the same principles as the private forests. To move to area based taxation in the state forests would, however, increase the taxation of the state five-fold. The taxes from the state forests are not appropriate way to support the poorest municipalities. Better suited would be, for instance, state subsidies. Therefore, the taxes payed from the state forestry to municipalities should be abandoned.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7246, category Article
K. Kirstein. (1929). Forest types in Latvia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 33 article id 7246. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7246
Keywords: Latvia; forest type classification; height-over-age-classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article discusses the different methods to classify forest sites and applies the methods to classify forests in Latvia. The three methods are: height-over-age classification, from standpoint of floristic (botanical- plant geographical standpoint), and forest types. A good classification method must: describe the main characters of a site illustratively, the classification units need to relate to each other, and the classification method is easy to use in practice. In contrast to other methods, by forest type classification the stand and the site are considered as whole and hence it is considered as the best of the three.

There is one classification system for the whole Latvia. The forests can be divided into permanent and transition types. In the permanent types the site factors stay rather unchanged and the site characters tally with the requirements of the dominant species. sites where the current tree species produces less than optimum growth are classified as transition types.

The forest types have changed over the time because of leaching of the nutrients from the soil.   

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Kirstein, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7245, category Article
Erik Lönnroth. (1929). Theoretical observations on volume growth and drain of a forest stand. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 32 article id 7245. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7245
Keywords: volume; forest growth; stand; natural drain
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In a natural state growing closed forest the amount of timber grows yearly. However, in the same time the timber volume also decreases when part of the trees die in the competition for light and other growth factors.

There are many interactive functions and characteristic that influence the growth and drain in a stand. These can be illustrated as mathematical models. The article discusses a set of models.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Lönnroth, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7244, category Article
Eino Saari. (1929). Etelä-Suomen yksityistilojen metsätalouden tuotto. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 31 article id 7244. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7244
English title: Return of private forests in the Southern Finland.
Original keywords: kannattavuus; maatalous; yksityismetsätalous; maatila; metsätulot
English keywords: profitability; private forests; agriculture; farms; forest income
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The economy of the forestry in private farms in Southern Finland was studied based on the statistics compiled by the Board of Agriculture, and published in the series Tutkimuksia Suomen maatalouden kannattavaisuudesta (Investigations into the profitability of agriculture in Finland). The results present income, expenditure, assets, gross return, net return of the forests in the farms in 1924‒1926. The annual net return of the smallest farms (<10 ha forest land) was 884 Finnish marks and in the largest (>100 ha forest land) 48,335 Finnish marks. The location of the farm influences greatly the net return. For instance, the transport costs of timber from the forest is higher in the larger farms. To utilize the advantages of management of a large forest area requires knowledge about forestry. In addition, the fellings were higher in the small farms during the period. The net return is greater in the private forests than in the state forests located in the same region. Agriculture gave the farms larger net return than the forestry.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7243, category Article
Franz Heske. (1929). Paper on knowledge on forest zones in West-Himalayan Mountains. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 30 article id 7243. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7243
Keywords: forest zone; Himalayan; tropical; temperate; alpine
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents forests on Tehri Garhwal district (former kingdom, now part of India). Most of the area is middle-mountainous area with valleys and hills. The forests in the area belong to three different forest zones: tropical, temperate and alpine. The article presents the characteristics of the forests and vegetation for every zone. 

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Heske, E-mail: fh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7241, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1929). On the possibility to classify forest sites by means of soil studies. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 28 article id 7241. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7241
Keywords: forest classification; soil properties; forest site type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

After critically reviewing earlier studies on soil properties and their influence on forest growth and yield, it seems that defining the forest yield could be possible by means of soil properties. To be able to do so, the site needs to be defined and delineated in some other way. It is also necessary to decide the right soil properties to study for the purpose.

For the classification of forest sites the results of soil analyses need to be compared with growth and yield data from the site. To further the practice of classification of forest sites by means of soil studies, four aspects need to be taken into account:

1)  the site needs to be delineated beforehand according its vegetation, preferable with Cajander’s forest type classification

2) the experiments about soil needs to be done for as many properties as possible

3) the studied sites need to be as representative as possible in their class

4) there are as many samples for one site as possible studied

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7239, category Article
A. Benj. Helander. (1929). Pekkalan kartanon metsätalous. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 26 article id 7239. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7239
English title: Forestry in the Pekkala estate.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsätalous; maatila; torppari
English keywords: forest management; private forests; history; farmers; tenants
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on the history of forestry in Pekkala estate, a private woodland estate in Ruovesi in Southern Finland. The estate had 7,300 hectares of land in 1929, of which 500 hectares were agricultural lands. It was owned by the Aminoff family since 1822.

The household wood harvesting of the tenants was considered a problem until the farms of the tenants (crofters) became independent in 1921, when the farms of the tenants were parceled out from the main estate. The shifting cultivation of tenants was banned already in 1824. Demand of wood was low until 1870s. in 1865 the freeing of regulation of sawmills increased the demand of wood in Finland, and gave start to significant timber sales in Pekkala estate. The first forest officers were hired in the estate at the time. The first guidelines of forest management for the estate were compiled in 1912, and the first survey of the forests was made in 1916, and repeated in 1922 and 1926. The fellings were planned in consideration of the growth of the forests.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Helander, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7238, category Article
J. Keränen. (1929). Stroke of lightning as the kindler of forest fires in northern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 25 article id 7238. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7238
Keywords: forest fire; lightning; thunder; meteorology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Earlier studies have shown strokes of lightning as the reason for 42% of forest fires in Finland. The frequency in northern Finland has been three times higher than in more southern parts of the country or 1.5 times higher than in Sweden. Taking the climatic factors into account these figures don’t seem to be accurate.

The study is based on the statistics about thunders in northern Finland and the information on the forest fires. We know that though there has been a lightning it is not always that the lighting strikes on land and lights a fire.

From the statistics it can be seen that the most forest fires that are thought to be kindled by lightning, have occurred in the same time when there has been thunder and lighting. Thunders and strokes of lightning striking to the land are the most common reason for forest fires during the warmest summer in northern Finland. The knowledge that a proceeding thunder storm may kindle several forest fires in a row must be acknowledged when planning the fire fighting resources. 

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Keränen, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7237, category Article
A. Oppermann. (1929). De danske skovlove og deres historie. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 24 article id 7237. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7237
English title: Danish forest legislation and its history.
Keywords: forestry; Forest Act; Denmark; legislation; use of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes the history of legislation concerning the use of forests in Denmark. The land area covered by forests has decreased to only 3–4% of the total land area of Denmark already for several hundreds of years ago. Regulations concerning the right to cut forests have been included in the legislation as early as in the 1200s. In 1781 was enacted a decree that stipulated the use of state forests and peatlands. In 1920, a forest act that concerns all the forests in the state was prepared.

  • Oppermann, E-mail: ao@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7236, category Article
K. J. Valle. (1929). Can the seas in southern Finland be classified according the productivity by means of surrounding vegetation and flora. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 23 article id 7236. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7236
Keywords: productivity; sea; forest type classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study is to define to which extent the productivity of seas in south Finland, and especially the production of animals in sea bottom, can be determined according the forest site classification given to the land areas around the sea, meaning that the productivity class is the same for the forest and the sea. The data for the study has been collected in state owned forests in Evo in middle Finland, in Karelia around the Finnish and Russian border and in southern parts of Karelia.

Where the forests are more barren, VT or Ct types, also the seas have lower productivity, they are oligotrophic or mesotrophic. However, the less barren surrounding forests are not a clear sign of the productivity of the sea. As a result the productivity level of a sea can be estimated relatively good by the fertility of the surrounding areas, though not in all cases. 

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

The PDF contains a summary in German.

  • Valle, E-mail: kv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7235, category Article
Andr. Teikmanis. (1929). Forests and timber exports of Latvia. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 22 article id 7235. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7235
Keywords: forest; forest industry; Latvia; timber export
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

After the world war one new states were built and they created their own economies and started foreign trade with different products. Timber is one of the traded articles, and not without meaning. New states, Latvia as one of them, have achieved great interest on international timber market, thanks to its favorable transport conditions.

The article presents the main characters of Latvian forests, ownership structure, and the governance related to felling and timber production. Also the most important branches of forest industry are presented. The most important aspects of the Latvian forestry are summarized in the end of article.       

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Teikmanis, E-mail: at@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7234, category Article
Fr. Jentsch. (1929). Changes. Outlines of forest policy. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 21 article id 7234. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7234
Keywords: history; Forest use
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes in vivid style the development of the forest use and the forest science. The work of prof. Cajander is also praised.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Jentsch, E-mail: fj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7233, category Article
Nils Schager. (1929). Nordsveriges skogspolitiska problem. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 20 article id 7233. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7233
English title: Forest policy problems in northern Sweden.
Keywords: forest management; forest policy; forestry; Lapland; Sweden; legislation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forests and forestry in northern Scandinavia is affected by the climate, as well as economic and demographic questions. In northern Norway the issues of forest management are related to broadleaved forests, in Northern Sweden and Finland, the forests are mainly coniferous. These forests are still mostly primeval forests as the exploitation of the forests have begun slower than in the south. The Finnish forests are mainly owned by the state which makes the challenges of forestry a management problem within the Forest Service. In Sweden, the rational use of forest resources of the north has been lively discussed. Rational management of forests has begun in the southern and central parts of the country, but as the rationalization process reached the northern Sweden, many biological, economic and forest policy problems emerged. This paper outlines the forest resources, forest policy and legislation (so called lappmarkslag, an act that regulate the use of forest in the region) concerning the problems of forest management in northern Sweden.

  • Schager, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7232, category Article
Edvard Wibeck. (1929). Discussions on the choice of cultivation method in coniferous forests in Sweden. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 19 article id 7232. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7232
Keywords: regeneration; afforestation; cultivation; Sweden; forest type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In Sweden lot of state owned forests or earlier mining districts or districts of ironworks have been afforested during the last decade. The amount of afforested areas sinks from south to north. Afforestation has taken place also in privately owned forests.

The article discusses the common economic questions related to afforestation work and the biological viewpoints related to it. The best cultivation methods are presented for several common forest types, such as herb-rich forest types, moss-grown forests types, swampy forests with heavy raw humus and barren pine forest sites (lichen type).

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Wibeck, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7229, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1929). The thickness of peat bed and gradients of peatland surface on different peatland types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 16 article id 7229. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7229
Keywords: peatland; afforestation; drainage; forest cultivation; peat bed; gradient
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The type of the peatland and its classification as forest site (height-over-age-classification) are important information when the drainage potential of a peatland is defined. The gradient and thickness of peat bed are also significant.

The observations for the study have been collected in state owned forests in middle-Finland. The thickness and gradient variations have no clear differences between different types of peatlands. The results show that from the view of drainage for afforestation, the peatlands that are good or suitable for afforestation are flatter and more even that those less suitable. The more suitable peatlands also have thinner peat bed and bigger gradient.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

 

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7227, category Article
D. Fehér. (1929). Biology of forest soil and its physiological meaning in the life of forest. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 14 article id 7227. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7227
Keywords: forest management; regeneration; forest soil; soil physiology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents three studies about different aspects of the bio-chemical functions of forest soil. The three studies are i) research on microflora and microfauna of forest soils; ii) study on carbon nutrition of forests in relation to microbial functions of soil and effecting site factors and iii) study on nitrogen metabolism of forest soil. The results of the studies are summarized by every study.

The article discusses the meaning of the results for forest management in practice. The good biological and physiological condition of forest soil is important for the forest growth and it needs to be taken care in regeneration and other forest management. The natural regeneration seems to be better for soil functions. Favoring broadleaved trees as undergrowth enhances the biological processes of forest soil.   

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Fehér, E-mail: df@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7225, category Article
A. E. Osmaston. (1929). On the forest types in India. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 12 article id 7225. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7225
Keywords: tree species; indicator species; forest site type; indicator plants; India
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest site type classification based on the vegetation has not been developed in India. The classifications made by forest officers have been based on the upper storeys of trees. Shrubs have been used to class such sites where grasses are the dominant species. However, some observers in India have used grass and bamboo species to identify sites suitable on unsuitable for certain valuable tree species. In Burma, some bamboo species have been noticed to be good indicators for sites suitable or unsuitable for teak (Tectona grandis L. f.). Studies in the western sub-Himalayan area suggest that certain grasses could be used as indicators for sites suitable for sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.). Grasses have also been identified as indicators for certain kinds of forests and soils in the area between Ganges and the Jumna.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Osmaston, E-mail: ao@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7224, category Article
C. H. Bornebusch. (1929). Danmarks skovtyper. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 11 article id 7224. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7224
English title: Forest types in Denmark.
Keywords: beech; ground vegetation; Denmark; forest types; Fraxinus exelsior; ash; Fagus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper describes plant species characteristic for ash (Fraxinus exelsior L.) forests in Denmark, and compares the vegetation to beech (Fagus ssp.) forests, the dominating tree species in Danish forests, which have notably simpler ground vegetation. The writer concludes that ground vegetation can be divided into distinct types. Beech grows in several types of soil differing in their fertility (bonitet). The writer has divided the different soil types by their flora (tilstandstyper). The flora is influenced by three factors: climate, fertility of the soil and soil moisture. The paper defines the types of vegetation which describe fertility of the sites (bonitet), and discusses how age, silvicultural condition and tree species affect the vegetation.

  • Bornebusch, E-mail: cb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7223, category Article
L. Wappes. (1929). Trend of forest management of the day. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 10 article id 7223. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7223
Keywords: forest site classification; letter
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a congratulatory letter to professor Cajander. The author describes the work of Cajander about forest site classification and its importance to the development of forest sciences not only in Finland but worldwide.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Wappes, E-mail: lw@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7221, category Article
Konrad Rubner. (1929). Objectives of middle-European forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 8 article id 7221. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7221
Keywords: mixed forests; middle-Europe; coniferous; natural
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents middle-European forests and their characteristics, development and use. The main question is whether the current practice of planted coniferous tree forests should be kept or whether more natural mixed forests should be introduced instead. The article discusses the pros and cons of these and the possible felling and management practices.      

 The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Rubner, E-mail: kr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7220, category Article
T. Heikkilä. (1929). The interest rate of forest. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 7 article id 7220. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7220
Keywords: forest valuation; land expectation value; interest rate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The result of forest valuation depends heavily on the interest rate and hence determining the rate of interest for forest is the one of the most important tasks of forest valuation.

When defining the interest rate for forests, we need to take into account not only the common interest rate in the country, but also other factors. Those are for example the increase in timber price. By calculating the land expectation value we assume that costs for felling, regeneration and other management will rise by same percent.

The article presents the common formula of land expectation value and discusses its pros and cons. Because of the bad condition of Finnish forests, the forest valuation has not been used widely in practice and hence also the research on theme has been minor. The development of the forests in future will make the theme more relevant. 

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Heikkilä, E-mail: th@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7218, category Article
John W. Harshberger. (1929). The forests of the Pacific coasts of British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 5 article id 7218. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7218
Keywords: forest site types; dominant species; coniferous tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation in the Pacific coasts of British Columbia and Southeastern Alaska resemble the vegetation in the northern Fennoscandia. The national forests have been divided in two parts: Tongass and Chugach national forests. Both of the forests are fairly uniform in their vegetation. The forests have few coniferous tree species as the dominant species from south to north, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carrière) and western hemloch (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.). It is difficult to distinguish forest site types, but it is probable that the forest lands in Alaska and British Columbia could be delimited to similar forest site types as professor Cajander established in Finland.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Harshberger, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7217, category Article
Bunzo Hayata. (1929). Succession in the vegetation of Mt. Fuji. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 7217. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7217
Keywords: tree species; altitude; natural selection; Japan; succession of forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

­In different altitudes of the Mount Fuji in Japan occur succession of different tree species. For instance, at an altitude of 2,000 meters are pure stands of Tsuga diversifolia (Maxim.), under which is generally found young trees of Abies veitchii (Lindl.), but not of Tsuga. Abies veitchii is in its turn replaced perhaps with Larix sp. The succession of the forests of the volcano have reached maturity, which is not the case in the east–north-east flank of the mountain, where the Hōei eruption destroyed all vegetation in 1707. The vegetation had not revived even by the 1920s. The Hōei eruption site is compared to the much faster return of vegetation in mount Krakatau in the warmer tropical region. The succession of forests in the other parts of the mountain is described in detail. Finally, a succession theory is proposed that is opposed to the natural selection theory. The theory suggests that there is an Innermost Factor that controls the plant succession. According to the theory, every species, every formation, should die its natural death owing to the Innermost Factor.

The volume 34 of Acta Forestalia Fennica is a jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Hayata, E-mail: bh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7215, category Article
Mark L. Anderson. (1929). Forest types in Scotland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 7215. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7215
Keywords: afforestation; silviculture; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The primeval forests of Scotland were deforested in the Lowlands by the end of 1500th century, and in the end of the 1800th century also the best forests of the more inaccessible Highlands were exploited. The 1800th century witnessed an outburst of afforestation among the private land owners. With help of nursery work and use of exotic species, the work was successful. Silviculture of Scotland would benefit of a reliable method of site classification. The complexity of the geology and topography, and the lack of mature natural stands complicate the establish a forest type classification similar to the one Prof. Cajander has evolved in Finland. The aim is to establish forest site types which include similar types as in Finland, with possibly additional types in the grass-herb series.

Jubileum publication of professor Aimo Kaarlo Cajander.

  • Anderson, E-mail: ma@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7211, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1929). Research on roots on their relationship to practical forestry. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 33 no. 2 article id 7211. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7211
Keywords: root; forestry; root system; literature review
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The growth of a tree or a forest stand can be only fully understood when the form, encroachment and development of the root s in different environments are known. Research on roots has already yielded in practical silvicultural improvements and the purpose of this study is to discuss different factors about the roots.  

The literature review deals with the depth of root system, extent of it, the relation between root system and the soil structure, the form and volume of roots and the phenomenon where roots from several tree individuals grow together.

The PDF contains the article also in Finnish.   

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7210, category Article
Erkki Laitakari. (1927). Männyn juuristo: morfologinen tutkimus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 7210. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7210
English title: Morphological study of Scots pine root system.
Original keywords: mänty; Pinus sylvestris; kasvupaikka; paalujuuri
English keywords: forest site type; taproot; vertical root system
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The root systems of 192 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sample trees were dug out and measured in Säyneinen, Rautavaara and Pielijsäjvi in the Central Finland and Orivesi, Teisko and Hämeenkyrö in the Southern Finland. The volume of root system of Scots pine was always smaller than the stem, varying from 15% to 94% of the stem volume. The ratio is smaller in dense stands. The type of soil of the site affects how the central root system (tap root and the inner vertical roots) develop. This reflect the adaptability of the root system to different growth conditions. The root system may, for instance, substitute the tap root with stronger inner roots.

PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Laitakari, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7206, category Article
Erik Lönnroth. (1927). On regulation of forest holdings with special consideration of forest conditions in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 32 no. 1 article id 7206. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7206
Keywords: normal forest; regulated forest; forest holding; sustainable yield; economic
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To achieve a continuous and constant timber flow over a longer time period, the forest holding structure should be close to normal forest or regulated forest. Concept of normal forest is presented as the model of achieving the highest possible sustainable yield and hence also the best economic return. The article discusses the regulations on the management of a forest holding with the view on regulating the forest yield.   

Felling need to be planned according to the forest site and tree species. The main tree species for silvicultural purposes are pine, spruce and birch. After the widely used controlled burning of forests the state of Finnish forests is mostly weak and far from the “normal forest”. Majority of forests are of young and there are lots of broadleaved forests.  Because of the great variation of the forest sites and their productivity as well as the small size of holdings in Finland, the selection of forest management regime, mainly the felling style (clear cut or light selection) is also important. The idea of management plans is represented.  

  • Lönnroth, E-mail: el@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7201, category Article
Lauri Ilvessalo. (1926). Forest research work in Finland : the origins and development of forest research work and a review of the investigations carried out up to date. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 31 no. 2 article id 7201. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7201
Keywords: forest management; silviculture; forest technology; forest mensuration; forest research; history; The Finnish Society of Forest Science; Forest Research Institute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review of forest research carried out in Finland. The article includes a short review of the origins of forest research in the country and the research institutions in the country. It describes the main studies in different fields of forest research, divided on biological and silvicultural research, forest mensuration and forest policy research, and research on forest utilization.  English translation of the article was published at the same time with an Finnish article. A need for an English summary of the forest research was realized, because the publications have mainly been written in Finnish or German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: li@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7200, category Article
Lauri Ilvessalo. (1926). Metsätieteellinen tutkimustoiminta Suomessa : metsätieteellisen tutkimustoiminnan synty ja kehitys sekä yleiskatsaus toimitettuihin tutkimuksiin. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 31 no. 1 article id 7200. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7200
English title: Forest research in Finland: the origins and development of forest research and a review of the investigations carried out up to date.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; metsänhoito; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; metsäntutkimuslaitos; metsäteknologia; metsien arviointi
English keywords: forest management; silviculture; forest technology; forest mensuration; forest research; history; The Finnish Society of Forest Science; Forest Research Institute
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review of forest research carried out in Finland. The article includes a short review of the origins of forest research in the country and the research institutions in the country. It describes the main studies in different fields of forest research, divided on biological and silvicultural research, forest mensuration and forest policy research, and research on forest utilization. An English translation of the article was published at the same time. A need for an English summary of the forest research was realized, because the publications have mainly been written in Finnish or German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: li@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7193, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1926). The theory of forest types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 29 no. 3 article id 7193. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7193
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; quality class; forest type; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest sites have typically been classified by two principles, either as stand quality classes or as locality (site) classes. This article describes the principles of Finnish forest site types (forest quality classes) which are based on classification of localities according to their forest plant associations. All the stands that belong to the same forest site type are characterized by a distinct, more or less identical plant species composition. The forest site types are independent of the tree species. The forest site types in a larger area are relatively numerous, but can be grouped according to their normal form. The Finnish forests are separated to dry moss forest class, the moist moss-forest forest class and grass-herb forest class. The different forest site types belonging to the classes are described in detail. Growth of the trees is different for the different forest site types, but varies little within a same site type. The forest site types suit therefore well for the purposes of forest mensuration and for yield tables. The forest site types reflect also the properties of the soil.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7192, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1925). Metsätyyppiteoria. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 29 no. 2 article id 7192. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7192
English title: The theory of forest types.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; pintakasvillisuus; hyvyysluokka; boniteetti
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; quality class; forest type; forest vegetation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest sites have typically been classified by two principles, either as stand quality classes or as locality (site) classes. This article describes the principles of Finnish forest site types (forest quality classes) which are based on classification of localities according to their forest plant associations. All the stands that belong to the same forest site type are characterized by a distinct, more or less identical plant species composition. The forest site types are independent of the tree species. The forest site types in a larger area are relatively numerous, but can be grouped according to their normal form. The Finnish forests are separated to dry moss forest class, the moist moss-forest forest class and grass-herb forest class. The different forest site types belonging to the classes are described in detail. Growth of the trees is different for the different forest site types, but varies little within a same site type. The forest site types suit therefore well for the purposes of forest mensuration and for yield tables. The forest site types reflect also the properties of the soil.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7098, category Article
K. T. Jutila. (1926). Tutkimuksia Perä-Pohjolan ja Lapin talous- ja asutusoloista III. Maanviljelyksestä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 28 no. 3 article id 7098. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7098
English title: Studies on the economic conditions and colonization of Perä-Pohjola and Lapland III. Plant culture.
Original keywords: viljelymenetelmät; historia; maatalous; Perä-Pohjola; maanviljely; Lappi; karjanhoito
English keywords: forestry; Lapland; agriculture; farms; cattle
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Only 0.1% of the land area of Perä-Pohjola and Lapland is arable land. The study includes a detailed survey of 154 farms in the area. Part of the results are presented in the second part of the article series about Perä-Pohjola and Lapland (Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18). The farms had in average 1.87 hectares of arable land and 16.1 hectares of meadows. Cattle-manure was the most important dressing. The main crops were barley, hay, potatoes and rye. The article includes a detailed description about the cultivation methods.

The PDF includes a summary in English. This is a third part of four-article series on the natural resources in the area of Perä-Pohjola and Lappi. The article includes a detailed survey of the farms in the area.

  • Jutila, E-mail: kj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7097, category Article
K. T. Jutila. (1926). Tutkimuksia Perä-Pohjolan ja Lapin talous- ja asutusoloista I. Luonnontieteellis-taloudellinen yleiskatsaus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 28 no. 1 article id 7097. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7097
English title: Studies on the economic conditions and colonization of Perä-Pohjola and Lapland I. Natural scientific and economic survey.
Original keywords: metsätalous; maatalous; karjatalous; valtion maat
English keywords: forestry; northern Finland; state lands; agriculture; animal husbandry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Perä-Pohjola and Lappi are situated almost entirely north of the Arctic Circle, being one of the northernmost areas, where agriculture and forestry are practiced. The state owns 87% of the land, of which 42% are productive forests. Only 0.8% of the land is agricultural land, mostly meadows. Agriculture is mainly dependent on animal husbandry. The most important agricultural crops were barley and potato. From the economic point of view, forestry is the most important industry in the area. Forestry also gives the agricultural population extra income, especially in the winter. The total population of the area was 31,488 in 1917. Development of the connections to the area is important for both agriculture and forestry.

The PDF includes a summary in English. This is a first part of four-article series on the natural resources in the area of Perä-Pohjola and Lappi.

  • Jutila, E-mail: kj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7093, category Article
Eino Saari. (1923). Kuloista etupäässä Suomen vationmetsiä silmällä pitäen. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 26 no. 5 article id 7093. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7093
English title: Forest fires in Finland with special reference to the state forests.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; Pohjois-Suomi; valtionmaat; metsäpalo; kulo
English keywords: northern Finland; Southern Finland; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based chiefly on statistics of forest fires in the state forests in 1911-1921, published in the annual reports of Board of Forests (now Metsähallitus, Forest Service). Forest fires burned 37,200 hectares of forests in the state forests in 1911-1921. In Southern Finland the number of fires was 795 and in the Northern Finland 610. The frequency of forest fires is higher in south because of the denser population in the area. The average forest fire ranged 118 hectares in Southern Finland and 39 hectares in the north. Fires broke out most often because of careless use of fire. Weather conditions and the type of the forests influenced the risk of fire. In the north, risk for forest fire is lower because of the high proportion of peatlands. Only 14% of the fires burn the trees of the stand. In Southern Finland 50% of the fires and in Northern Finland 42% of the fires damage only part of the stand. Rest of the fires were surface fires that do not burn the trees. The value of damages by forest fires in the state forests in 1901-1922 was annually in average 139,400 Finnish marks.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7090, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1923). Tutkimuksia yksityismetsien tilasta Hämeen läänin keskiosissa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 26 no. 2 article id 7090. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7090
English title: Studies on the condition of private forests in the central part of the Häme province.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; yksityismetsät; linja-arviointi; inventointi
English keywords: forest management; inventory; private forests; strip-survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A strip survey was performed in the counties of Sahalahti and Kuhmalahti in Häme, situated in Central Finland, to study the condition of the private forests. The forests cover 78% of the total land area of 37,420 hectares. The forest site types were relatively fertile. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated forest covered 43%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) 30% and Betula sp. 23% of the forest land. The productivity of the forests could be improved by changing the species so that they suit the site. The volume of the standing crop is 67.2 m3 per hectare. The volume of the growing stock in the area could be 1 million m3 larger if the forests were nearer to the natural state. The annual growth of the forests is low, and could be much improved by correct forest management.

One of the aims of the survey was to study how the distance between survey lines should be adjusted to give acceptably accurate results, in a way that the strip-survey method can be adapted to large areas. The largest distance between the lines that gave results that differed less than 10% from the correct results, varied between 10 and 1.5 kilometres depending on the variables. For instance, to get accurate results for the rarest forest site types required line distance of 1.5 kilometres, but accurate results for the most common forest site types could be achieves with line distance of 10 kilometres.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7089, category Article
A. Benj. Helander. (1923). Metsätalouden tarjoamasta ansiotyöstä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 26 no. 1 article id 7089. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7089
English title: Employment in the forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; valtion metsät; metsätyö; työvoima; metsäkuljetus; hakkuutyö; hevosajo
English keywords: logging; forest haulage; employment; Forest Service; state forests; forest work; horse hauling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Work in the forestry, for instance, in logging operation during winter, has been important source of employment for the rural population in Finland. The study is based on statistics of forest work, felling, felled timber, workforce and horses used in the forest work in the state forests, published in the annual reports of Metsähallitus (Forest Service) in 1911-1913. The administrative and silvicultural work, for instance, sowing and planting, clearing of the felling area, building forest roads or work in the nurseries, range from 20% to 22% of all work done in the forestry. Major part of the work time is used in felling. To harvest one cubic meter of timber requires 0.3 man-days and 0.2 horse-days. The work is seasonal; felling work is available for about 90-100 days a year. Forest haulage is possible only in the winter, and for instance sowing and planting in the summer. The employees have secondary jobs in agriculture and in other sectors.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Helander, E-mail: ah@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7085, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1923). Paper on the correlation between the characteristics of the soil and the growth of forest stand. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 10 article id 7085. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7085
Keywords: site quality; nitrogen; soil; correlation; lime; forest stand; calcium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on the results of the soil studies by Valmari (1921) and the growth inventories of respective areas. The aim is to show the connection of soil fertility (nutrient content) and forest growth with means of correlation calculations. The examined nutrients were nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus, also the electrolyte content was studied.

The results show that with increase of nitrogen content of the soil the growth of pine stand increases as well. The correlation is clearly identified. The number of birch and spruce stands is too small for systematic review. For calcium there is a similar kind of relation. With phosphorus content or amount of electrolytes the correlation with doesn’t exist. Also the loss on ignition test was conducted. The relation found is somewhat weak.
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7084, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1924). On newer forest management regimes in Germany. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 9 article id 7084. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7084
Keywords: forest management; continuous cover forestry; felling methods; practice; clear cut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest management practices have deployed during the centuries very differently in different regions. The geographical as well as other nature related factors influence them heavily. During the first half of 19th century was shelterwood felling much used practice especially in Prussia. Meanwhile the clearcutting with planting the seedlings became also more popular. The method is still widely used in many countries. Becoming more popular the clear cut and planting practice changed the modus operandi of forestry from close-to-nature to economically-oriented.

The article discusses based on literature the most important developments of the forest management practices, especially regarding felling and regeneration methods. The article concludes with the view that usage of boarder selection felling as well as continuous forest management system are not suitable for small-scale forestry (on small private estates) on in Finland common barren sites. On more fertile soils the boarder selection felling would give good results and could be recommended also for more use. However, the bad market conditions make the more intensive forest management impossible in most parts of Finland. More research is needed in order to find best felling methods for fertile small-scale private forests.
  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7081, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1923). On the spatial order of plants on fields and in forests. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 6 article id 7081. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7081
Keywords: soil; forest types; roots; field experiment; corn
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains a literature review about the spatial order of plants and a description of the small-scale experiments with corn. The literature is primarily of German origin. The question of the spatial conditions of trees in forest is important for practice of silviculture. The first part of the article illustrates based on the literature the importance of roots and root concurrence for the development of plants or forest stands. The second and third part deepens the methodological knowledge on root research. Fourth part is the field experiments with corn. There are no clear relation to be found between yield and the number of plants.  

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7079, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1923). What do the forest types stand for? Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 4 article id 7079. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7079
Keywords: forest type; concept; purpose
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article aims to clarify the terminology and concepts related to forest type classification. The silvicultural meaning of forest type classification is to create classes so that the forests in one class have proximately same growth and yield conditions. The article describes the meaning of silvicultural forest type classification with seven objectives: to create a common height over age -site classification for all tree species; to achieve a common site classification practice for different countries; to achieve the natural height over age –site classifications that are easy to take into account by map drawing; to be able to treat the data for every class separately; to achieve a simple but illustrative description of the site characteristics; to have a foundation for special (applied) silviculture; to create as uniform classification of forests as possible for silvicultural, forest planning or forest policy purposes.     

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7078, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1923). On the division of fertile soils in Finland and its influence on the economic conditions. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 3 article id 7078. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7078
Keywords: soil; forest type; economic conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a presentation given by the author on occasion of visit from Austrian timber industry and foresters (August 17th 1923) in Punkaharju, Finland.

The article presents the classification of soils as forest types to describe their fertility and their occurrence in different parts of Finland. The economic conditions are only shortly mentioned: the more fertile areas in southern and western Finland have been taken for agriculture and the less fertile soils have stayed forested.   

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7077, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1923). On the relation between forest growth and timber consumption in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 2 article id 7077. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7077
Keywords: forest growth; presentation; speech; timber consumption
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a presentation given by the author on occasion of visit from Austrian timber industry and foresters (August 17th 1923), and again for the German visitors (August 20th 1923) in Punkaharju, Finland. The speech deals with the question of the overuse of Finnish forest compared to their growth. The developments of slash-and-burn-culture and forest inventories are described. The results of the inventories show, though still in preliminary state, that there is no nationwide overuse in total, though there are some locations where the felling are bigger than growth. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7076, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1923). Overview of Finland’s forests and geography. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 25 no. 1 article id 7076. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7076
Keywords: forest resources; presentation; speech; overview
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a presentation given by the author on occasion of visit from Austrian timber industry and foresters (August 17th 1923), and again for the German visitors (August 20th 1923) in Punkaharju, Finland. The speech gives an overview of Finland’s forest resources region by region starting from far north. Also the most important uses and changes of forest as well as forest industry locations are mentioned. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7072, category Article
K. Linkola. (1922). Distribution of the agricultural settlements on different forest soils in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 22 no. 3 article id 7072. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7072
Keywords: forest soil; forest types; grove; agriculture; settlements; herb-rich forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper studies the relationship of settlements to the forest types and forest soil. The observations have been done and data collected in southern Finland, around lakes Päijänne and Saimaa during summer 1917. Because of the shortcomings in the data, the results in the paper can be seen only as indicative.

The settlements have spread out firstly to areas of grove alike soils and herb-rich forests. The human settlements are still on these days concentrated on those areas. When more land is needed for agricultural purposes, the more fertile areas were introduced first. With forest type classification this means moving from herb-rich Oxalis-Myrtillus-type to Pyrola-type and to some extent Myrtillus-type. The more barren types are used as fields only very seldom. The differences in the fertility of the soils affects strongly the welfare and development of the people and the communes. 

The study shows that when considering the soil and vegetation, preconditions for agriculture are very different in different part of Finland. Also the climate and the geographical characters vary. To win more agricultural land, the fertile peatlands should be considered.  

  • Linkola, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7071, category Article
Alvar Palmgren. (1922). Studies on vegetation characters of coniferous forests. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 22 no. 2 article id 7071. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7071
Keywords: native species; vegetation; diversity; coniferous forests; Åland Islands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the ground vegetation of the barren coniferous forests of Åland Islands and seeks to describe its special vegetation characters with general features. The study is based on data collected during summers from 1918-1922 on Åland Islands.  Work presents the forest types of Åland Islands classified according Cajander (1909) with their typical species.

The Ålandian coniferous forests seem to have a low number of species. This is because they are mostly old and closed, and have been developing for a long time without human induced disturbances from outside. Some changes have occurred due to forest fires. There is very few traces of non-native species in the forests. If some are found, they have not been able to regenerate or distribute widely.   

  • Palmgren, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7069, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1921). Verollepano- ja jakotoimituksista Kuusamon, Kemijärven ja Kuolajärven knihtikontrahtipitäjissä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 21 no. 5 article id 7069. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7069
English title: Taxation and partitioning of land in counties of Kuusamo, Kemijärvi and Kuolajärvi.
Original keywords: yhteismetsä; maanluovutus; isojako; knihtikontrahti; maanjako
English keywords: forest policy; land reform; parceling out of land; military tenure; community forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a detailed review on the problems in the general parceling out of land (isojako) in Kuusamo, Kemijärvi and Kuolanjärvi counties from the context of forest policy. The disputes about division of the land originate from military tenure contracts (knihtikohtrahti) made with the local tenants in 1700s. Later some counties got alleviations in the contracts concerning taxation and partition of land. These alleviations delayed the parceling out of land in the area. According to the article, from the forest policy point of view, the inhabitants in Kuusamo, Kemijärvi and Kuolanjärvi were conveyed disproportionately large forest properties from the state due to the military tenure contracts. This gave them undue benefits from the state compared to the neighbouring counties.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7068, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1921). Tilastoa Pohjois-Suomen metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 21 no. 4 article id 7068. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7068
English title: Statistics of forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; suotyyppi
English keywords: forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation of the forest and peatland site types in Northern Finland differ markedly from those in Southern Finland, also the vegetation of the subtypes in the north is distinctive. A line survey was conducted to study the distribution of forest and peatland site subtypes in Northern Finland.

The vegetation of rich grass-herb forest types differs little from the poorer grass-herb forest types in Northern Finland. They abundance decrease towards north. The main fresh mineral soil sites are Myrtillus site type, Hylocomnium-Myrtillus site type and their paludified forms. The abundance of the fresh mineral soil sites decreased towards north so that in Kemi the proportion was 20.5 and in Lapland 12.0%. A transition from the fresh to the drier site types is gradual. The Vaccinium site type that is dominant in the south, is rare in the north, where it is replaced by Empetrum-Vaccinium type. The proportion of dry forest sites increase towards north, in average their distribution is 25% of the lands. There are numerous subtypes, which can be merged in to four main site types: Calluna, Cladina-Calluna, Myrtillus-Cladina and Cladina site type. The peatlands are more abundant in the southern part of the study area. The most common peatland types are pine swamps.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7065, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1921). The mutual relationship between the climate, the soil and the vegetation. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 21 no. 1 article id 7065. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7065
Keywords: vegetation; climate; soil; climatic zone; forest cultivation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is based on the work “Metsänhoidon perusteet I” [The fundamentals of Forest management I] by the author (1919 in Finnish). The different processes of the soil and the vegetation are dependent on the climatic conditions, but also affect each other. The article presents the climatic zones of the earth and their most important characteristics in regard of cultivation of (to respective zone) exotic trees species and agriculture. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7064, category Article
J. Valmari. (1921). Paper on chemical soil analyses. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 20 no. 4 article id 7064. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7064
Keywords: forest soil; nutrients; fertilizing; soil analysis; method development
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article tries to develop the method for defining the requirements of fertilizers for soil. The chemical soil analysis is also seen as the requirement for exact site classification based on height over age. The study is based on 1500 soil samples, one half of them from forest soils, the other half from arable land soils.    

The productivity of different forest types and the results of soil analyses are in line with each other. The most important growth factors are discerned.  Some shortcomings of the method are discussed.  Combining the soil analysis and the plant analyses of the sample plots seems to give the most accurate about the amount of nutrients that are available for the plants.

  • Valmari, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7063, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1922). Statistical studies on the vegetation in different forest types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 20 no. 3 article id 7063. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7063
Keywords: vegetation; ; forest type; statistic
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article statistically studies the vegetation patterns in different forest types.  

467 sample plots with area varying from one fourth of a hectare to one eighth, even one tenth of a hectare were collected. There are different amount of sample plots representing every forest type. The sample plots are located in 58 communes in southern parts of Finland, reaching from the Gulf of Finland up to Oulujärvi –see in northern Ostrobothnia. The vegetation was examined from rectangle shaped study plots in even structured and even-aged stands with one primary tree species.

The results are shown in tables for every forest type. The amount of species is at highest in the most nutritious forest types, and decreases with the shift to more infertile types. However, some species occur in all forest types, and some only or mostly on more barren types. The occurrence and abundance of most plant species does not seem to depend on the tree species of the stand, but there are some exceptions to this.

The possible shortcomings of the research method are discussed. The importance of systematic studying of the sample plots with a method of survey lines is emphasized.  

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7061, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander, Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1921). About the forest types II. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 20 no. 1 article id 7061. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7061
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest classification; forest types; site classification; yield tables
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article contains tree lectures given in the meeting of the Geographical Society in Finland on February 25th 1921.  The titles of the lectures are I Forest types in general, II Forest types as a basis for new growth and yield tables in Finland, and III Other research on forest types.  

The first lecture is a follow-up of the Cajander’s 1909 published article on forest types. It deepens the theory on forest types. The classification into forest types represents primarily different plant communities of ground cover. The types are named after the characteristic plant species, indicator plants, however, many other species appear in different abundance.

The second lecture represents the research proceedings of mensuration of forest stands of different types to compile yield tables for pine.  The forest types differ from each other distinctly on their growing preconditions, but inside one class the variation of the growing conditions is so small, that the classification can be used for yield tables, determining the basis of taxation and for classification of forest based on height over age.

The third lecture is a summary of other studies about forest type classification.  They confirm the results presented in earlier lectures. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown
article id 7060, category Article
August Renvall, Aarne Boman. (1921). Tilastollisia tutkimuksia yhtiöiden maanomistuksesta Suomessa III. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 19 no. 3 article id 7060. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7060
English title: Statistical studies on the landholdings of companies in Finland.
Original keywords: maatalousmaa; maanomistus; metsäyhtiö; puutavarayhtiö; puutavaranhankinta
English keywords: forest land; timber harvesting; agricultural land; landholding; timber companies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The timber companies began acquiring forest land in 1890s which raised concerns about decrease of the number of private farms and agricultural land, as had happened in Sweden earlier. This was not considered to be a major problem in Finland, but the sale of homesteads on former state lands for sawmill companies was considered to be against their objective. One reason for the sale of farms was the farmers’ poor conception of the value of the land. In 1915 three decrees that restricted the right of companies that use timber to buy land were approved. The article discusses in detail the arguments that led to the legislation and compares it to the situation in Sweden.

A survey was commissioned to study the of landholdings of the companies, and to compare it with farming in private and company owned farms. The article includes a study about individual farms in the municipalities of Multia, Heinävesi, Sulkava, Ruokolahti and Luumäki, and about land use in the areas.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
  • Boman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown
article id 7059, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo, Eino Saari. (1922). Forestry in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 19 no. 2 article id 7059. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7059
Keywords: forest management; forest industry; forest resources
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About 60%, 20.5 million hectares, of Finland is covered by forests. Of this area 10.5 million hectares are peatlands. The forests are divided in fertile forest land (17 million hectares), forest land of low productivity (3.5 million hectares) and nonproductive lands (about 10 million hectares). Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is the dominant species in 60%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in 23%, and Betula sp. 17% of the forests. The younger age classes are poorly represented, but despite the abundance of older age classes, the growing stock and productivity of the forests are not very high. The reason is low density of the forests, unfavorable tree species composition and the condition of the forests. Timber is used as household timber in towns and in rural areas (16.5 million m3), in traffic (1.3 million m3), fuelwood in industry (3 million m3), raw material in wood industry (9.1 million m3) and export (4 million m3). State owns 36.9% of forest lands, companies and associations 8.1% and other private forest owners 53.5%. The article describes the administration of state and private forests, and forest education in Finland. There was about 600 sawmills, 25 mechanical pulpwood mills, 24 pulp mills and 31 paper mills in the country in 1920.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown
article id 7058, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo, Eino Saari. (1922). Suomen metsät ja metsätalous. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 19 no. 1 article id 7058. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7058
English title: Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; metsätalous; puunkäyttö; metsäteollisuus; puuvarat
English keywords: forest management; forest industry; forest resources
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

About 60%, 20.5 million hectares, of Finland is covered by forests. Of this area 10.5 million hectares are peatlands. The forests are divided in fertile forest land (17 million hectares), forest land of low productivity (3.5 million hectares) and nonproductive lands (about 10 million hectares). Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is the dominant species in 60%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in 23%, and Betulasp. 17% of the forests. The younger age classes are poorly represented, but despite the abundance of older age classes, the growing stock and productivity of the forests are not very high. The reason is low density of the forests, unfavorable tree species composition and the condition of the forests. Timber is used as household timber in towns and in rural areas (16.5 million m3), in traffic (1.3 million m3), fuelwood in industry (3 million m3), raw material in wood industry (9.1 million m3) and export (4 million m3). State owns 36.9% of forest lands, companies and associations 8.1% and other private forest owners 53.5%. The article describes the administration of state and private forests, and forest education in Finland. There was about 600 sawmills, 25 mechanical pulpwood mills, 24 pulp mills and 31 paper mills in the country in 1920.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown
article id 7057, category Article
Viljo Kujala. (1921). Havaintoja Kuusamon ja sen eteläpuolisten kuusimetsäalueiden metsä- ja suotyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18 no. 5 article id 7057. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7057
English title: Observations of forest and peatland site types in Norway spruce areas in Kuusamo.
Original keywords: kuusi; Picea abies; kasvillisuus; metsätyyppi; suotyyppi; kuusimetsäalue
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; peatland type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The forest and peatland site types can be identified based on the ground vegetation. Grazing, forest fires, fellings and other interferences, altitude and soil, however, change the species composition. In Kuusamo area, the land is mountaneous, but the moraine layer is mostly continuous. Thus, there is relatively little rocky sites. In addition, the calcareous soil is more fertile than in the most parts of the country. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is common on Hylocomium-myrtillus site type, where vegetation differs to some extent from the corresponding forest site types in the southern parts of the country. These changes seem to be caused by the thin stands in the north. In the southern parts of the Kuusamo area, the stands are denser which affects the vegetation. In areas that have been burned, the dominant tree species is mostly Betula sp., and Norway spruce may grow in understorey, and the ground vegetation is herb-rich. The forest become thinner, the higher the altitude. This changes also ground vegetation. Norway spruce is also dominant species in the spruce swamps and transition zones between spruce swamps and the open peatland types.
  • Kujala, E-mail: vk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7053, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1921). Valtion metsätalous liikeyrityksenä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 18 no. 2 article id 7053. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7053
English title: State forestry as a business.
Original keywords: Metsähallitus; kannattavuus; valtion metsät
English keywords: profitability; Forest Service; state forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The income of forestry in the state lands was 136 million Finnish marks, expenditure 65 million Finnish marks and the result 71 million Finnish marks in 1920. Both the income and expenditure had steadily increased during the 1900s. The forests in state lands are poorer than the forests in the country in average, which affects the profitability of forestry. However, ways to improve the profitability could be found. These include better transport connections, especially floating in Northern Finland. The growth of the forest could be increased by forest improvement, for instance peatland draining. The local demand of wood could be improved by selling rights to harvest household wood.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7051, category Article
Mauno Pekkala. (1920). Tutkimuksia kruununmetsätorppien taloudesta Kurun, Parkanon ja Ikaalisten pitäjissä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 17 no. 3 article id 7051. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7051
English title: Studies on the economic situation of tenants in the state lands in counties of Kuru, Parkano and Ikaalinen.
Original keywords: valtionmaat; kruununmetsätorppa; torppa; torppari; varallisuus
English keywords: state forests; state lands; farm; tenants
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study was conducted for the request of state forest committee. The aim was to study the economic situation of tenants of state lands in Kuru, Parkano and Ikaalinen, situated in Central Finland. The chosen 30 farms were located in relatively remote parts of the state forests in the area. Half of the farms were established already in 1800-1860 for shifting cultivation or fishing, and the land was not always suited for farming. The state forests were in general on the poorest lands of the areas. They were relatively small; third of them had less than 2 hectares of agricultural land. Household timber harvesting required a permission from a local forest officer of Metsähallitus (Forest Service). The legal rights of the tenants were fairly secured, but many wished to get right to purchase the farm land. Due to the poor lands and insufficient fertilizing, the crops were lower than in small farms in average. The forests around the farms were mixed forests of poor quality, due to the wood utilization of the tenants.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Pekkala, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7045, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1920). Studies on the relationship between the type of the peatland and the peat of its surface. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 16 no. 3 article id 7045. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7045
Keywords: peatland; afforestation; drainage; peat; peat type; peat layer
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study is to find out how do the peatlands develop after drainage and how does the type of peat affect the growing conditions of the forest on it. Study is based on measurements made in summer 1919 in about middle Finland (districts of Loppi, Yläne, Kihniö, Nerkoo, Orivesi, Vilppula, Multia and Karstula). The macroscopic identified content of the peat was analyzed: the different peat types were categorized according the species of the most abundant plant remains. The characteristics of the studied peat types are represented.

The conclusion of the study is that when deciding about the suitability of the drained peatland for afforestation, the thickness and content of the peat must be considered in addition to peat type.   

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7042, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Kasvu- ja tuottotaulut Suomen eteläpuoliskon mänty-, kuusi- ja koivumetsille. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 4 article id 7042. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7042
English title: Growth and yield tables for the Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch in the southern part of Finland.
Original keywords: Etelä-Suomi; kuusi; Picea abies; mänty; Pinus sylvestris; metsätyyppi; koivu; Betula sp.; Keski-Suomi; kasvu- ja tuotostaulukko; runkolukusarja
English keywords: Southern Finland; forest site type; stem frequency distribution series; Central Finland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first proper growth and yield tables were prepared in Finland already in 1872, but they have been used little as the needs of forestry and forest sciences increased. One of the problems of the old yield tables was how the site quality classes are determined. The new growth and yield tables use the forest site type classification, which enables the use of same site types for all tree species. This makes it possible to compare the growth of different tree species in same kind of sites. The tables also use stem frequency distribution series. In the first stage, the tables were prepared for Southern and Central Finland.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7041, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Tutkimuksia metsätyyppien taksatoorisesta merkityksestä nojautuen etupäässä kotimaiseen kasvutaulujen laatimistyöhön. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 3 article id 7041. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7041
English title: Studies on mensurational significance of forest site types as part of preparation of Finnish growth and yield tables.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; kasvupaikkatyypit; kasvu- ja tuotostaulukot
English keywords: tree growth; growth and yield tables; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

New growth and yield tables were prepared for Southern Finland. To finalize the tables, it had to be determined whether the forest site types developed by Cajanus could be used in mensurational research.

Comparative study was performed in 1916-1919 to study the growth of the trees in different forest site types. Total of 467 sample sites were measured in Southern and Central Finland. All the forest site types were found to have a distinctive vegetation typical to the site. It can be concluded that the ground vegetation can be used to determine the forest site type. The growth of trees was different in different forest site types, yet similar within each site type. The forest site types are uniform, natural and easy to determine, and can thus be used to classify the forest stands and used in mensurational research and a basis to growth and yield tables.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7040, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1920). Metsämaitten puuntuotantokyvyn, nykyisen tuoton ja puunkulutuksen välisestä suhteesta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 2 article id 7040. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7040
English title: The relation of the productive capacity of forests, their current production and wood utilization.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; puuntuotantokyky; puun käyttö; ylihakkuut
English keywords: forest management; forest utilization; overcutting; forest devastation; productive capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Annual variations in wood utilization makes it complicated to estimate the balance between wood utilization and wood production of forests. According to the article, the balance is unsustainable especially in the private forests in the southern part of Finland. The annual wood utilization of the country was 37.3 million m3 in 1913, and the annual wood production 35.2 million m3, according to a report of a committee that was appointed to find methods to prevent overcutting. The committee suggested legislation to forbid forest devastation. Also the growth of the forests could be increased, if the forests are well managed, the article argues. To prove this, the potential wood production capacity is estimated for the municipalities of Viipuri, Mikkeli and Kuopio, and compared to the present wood production and wood utilization of the area.

The PDF includes a German summary.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7039, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1920). Pohjois-Suomen kuusimetsien esiintyminen, laajuus ja puuvarastot. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 15 no. 1 article id 7039. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7039
English title: The distribution and volume of Norway spruce forests in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; kuusi; Picea abies; puuvarat; levinneisyys; valtion maat
English keywords: state forests; wood volume; Norway spruce area
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) forests in Northern Finland are situated mainly in the state lands. The survey is based on silvicultural surveys made in the northernmost districts of the state forests. The quality of private lands of the area was deduced based on the adjacent state lands and specific observations. A map was drawn on the distribution of productive Norway spruce forest in the study area.

The continuous Norway spruce forest areas covered 1,112,000 hectares, of which 866,000 hectares were on the state lands. Especially in the northern parts of the area also more fragmented spruce forest could be found (130,000 hectares in the state lands). The estimated total volume of the wood in the forests in the state and private lands was 57.78 million m3 in the continuous spruce forest area. The spruce forests were often situated on hill and fell areas relatively high above the sea level. In the areas north of the 66th parallel, almost half of the forests were above 300 meters above the sea level. Because spruce forests of the state lands were concentrated near watershed areas, the wood harvesting was more expensive, and reduced the value of the state forests. The spruce forests grow usually on fresh mineral soil sites. However, towards north the species was found on drier sites. The stands were mostly pure spruce stands or mixed birch-spruce stands. The older age groups were the most common, but young stands were rare.

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7038, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1920). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta v. 1917-1920. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 14 no. 5 article id 7038. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7038
English title: Activities of Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1917-1920.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes the minutes of the Finnish Society of Forest Sciences in 1917-1920. In the meetings of the society were held 39 presentations which are included in the article.

The PDF includes a German summary.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7037, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1920). Tutkimuksia Pohjois-Suomen metsätyypeistä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 14 no. 4 article id 7037. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7037
English title: Studies on forest site types in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyyppi; kasvupaikka; kasvillisuusanalyysi
English keywords: ground vegetation; forest site type; vegetation analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest site classification system used in Finland is based on ground vegetation rather than the wood production capacity. A. K. Cajander has presented a detailed classification of different forest site classes in different parts of the country. This study focuses on the forest site types of Northern Finland, which are less well defined. The article presents detailed vegetation analysis and lists of plant species in different forest site types in Northern Finland. In contrast to southern parts of Finland, both the natural Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst) stands are uneven-aged in the north. The forests are also relatively thin. There is a marked difference in height of trees between the richest and poorest sites, but the dominant trees of the same site type were of similar height both in the north and south part of the study area. The differences in the height of dominant trees seem to be smaller than in Southern Finland. Also, in windy areas prone to snow damage, climate conditions can affect tree growth more than the forest site type. In more sheltered areas forest site type determines forest growth.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7035, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1920). Use of water of the trees and the moisture conditions in the soil. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 14 no. 2 article id 7035. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7035
Keywords: regeneration; forest soil; water consumption; use of water; moisture conditions; heathy forests type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data has been collected in the dry heathy forests in Harjavalta commune in south-west Finland and in Sodankylä commune in Lapland in summer time 1918 and 1919. The aim to the study was to find out how does the water consumption of the trees affect the moisture conditions of the soil and how they are linked to the regeneration of the forest.

Trees in one age class have a certain spatial distribution: the greater the distance between trees the older the trees and the smaller the distance, the younger the trees. This seem to rather be due to the development of the root system and the nutrition intake of a tree than the competition for light. The moisture content of the upper soil layers is higher in the open areas than in the closed canopy stands. Hence there are more seedlings growing in open areas.   However, it is not clear whether the results apply for other forest site types as well, and more research is needed.     

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7034, category Article
V. T. Aaltonen. (1920). The distribution and abundance of the tree roots in the heathy forests on Lapland. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 14 no. 1 article id 7034. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7034
Keywords: pine; root system; heath; heathy forests; tree root; root competition; rootage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study presents and describes the abundance and distribution of tree roots in specific stands of heathy forest types in Lapland. The data was collected in the Sodankylä commune.  

Due to the shortcomings in the data, conclusions can be drawn only regarding pine forests. The result of study states that the root competition plays an important role in the development of the forests, and most of the other observed phenomena are linked with root competition. The more infertile the soil the vertically and horizontally wider and more abundant the root system. It seems that the abundance of the root system is similar in forest of same fertility class and same density and age.      

  • Aaltonen, E-mail: va@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7033, category Article
Aarne Boman. (1920). Tilastollisia tutkimuksia yhtiöiden maanomistuksesta Suomessa II. Yksityisten ja yhtiöiden maanomistus. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 13 no. 2 article id 7033. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7033
English title: Statistical studies on landholding of companies in Finland II. Landholding of private landowners and companies.
Original keywords: yksityismetsät; metsänomistus; yhtiöt
English keywords: forest ownership; private forests; companies
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The forest ownership of companies had been criticized which led in 1913 to legislation that restricted land purchases of the companies. The aim of the survey was to study the condition of forests in five municipalities in Southern and Central Finland, where landholding of the industry was most common. The companies owned 13-33%, private forest owners 45-83% and the state 1-22% of the forests in the studied municipalities. The forest holdings of the private owners were the smallest, while the companies owned larger estates. The forest site types did not differ markedly between the two owner groups. The dominant tree species in all municipalities was Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The age-classes varied in the forests of both owner groups, but in private forests the younger age-classes were more common, mostly due to shifting cultivation practiced in the previous decades. The wood volume of the stands was significantly larger in the forests of companies. The stands were of poorer quality in the private forest due to selection fellings. Forest regeneration was more usual in the company forests.

The text is included in Finnish, Swedish and German.

  • Boman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7032, category Article
August Renvall. (1919). Program för utredningen af industrins jordförfärf. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 13 no. 1 article id 7032. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7032
English title: Statistical studies on land purchase of forest companies in Finland I.
Keywords: forest policy; Finland; statistics; land purchase; forest industries
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article includes a program for an investigation concerning land purchases by the forestry companies in Finland, requested by the Finnish Forest Association in 1917. The paper draws detailed principles for collecting a comprehensive, accurate and objective information of land purchases of the industry, as well as land holdings, farms and forest lands owned by the companies. Finally, it gives suggestions on how to correct the observed problems in the land purchase, and how to balance the conflicts of interests between the different branches.  

The PDF includes a summary in German. 

  • Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7031, category Article
O. J. Lakari. (1919). Ehdotus kasvutalujen laatimiseksi Pohjois-Suomen metsiä varten. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 12 no. 4 article id 7031. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7031
English title: Proposal to prepare growth and yield tables for the forests in Northern Finland.
Original keywords: Pohjois-Suomi; metsänarvioiminen; kasvutaulukko
English keywords: forest mensuration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article describes a method to prepare growth and yield tables for forests in Northern Finland, which differ markedly from forests in the southern part of the land. They are mostly uneven-aged, and there are little forests that belong to separate age-classes. The forests are predominantly old. The most common age-class in the old forest’s group is 150-160 years. Also, the lands are poorer than in Southern Finland. Because the variation of the poorer sites is larger than in better sites, the number of sample plots needed to prepare the growth and yield tables has to be larger than in Southern Finland, where the lands are better. The yield tables cannot be prepared for all the numerous forest site types of Northern Finland. The number of age-classes has to be relatively low. In consequence, the growth and yield tables will not be as accurate as those made for the better forest site types in Southern Finland.

  • Lakari, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7030, category Article
Eino Saari. (1919). Itä-Suomen lahjoitusmailla noudatetusta metsäpolitiikasta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 12 no. 3 article id 7030. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7030
English title: Forest policy associated to donated lands in Eastern Finland.
Original keywords: valtionmetsät; metsäpolitiikka; yksityismetsät; Karjalan kannas; lahjoitusmaat; maareformi
English keywords: forestry; land reform; state forests; private forests; Karelian isthmus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on the lands that were donated to the Russian aristocracy in Eastern and Southeastern Finland in 1700s. The farmers in the area used to be tenants of state lands or independent land owners. The insufficient and diverse stipulation of the ownership of the lands in the donation documents caused later disputes between the landlords and the farmers. One of the issues was who had right to use the forests. For the farmers this meant significant reductions in their right to harvest timber and household wood, or practice shifting cultivation. There were attempts to improve the situation of the tenants, but the final solution came in the end of 1800s, when the parliament began to promote farmers’ right to purchase the lands. In the land reform, the state raised a loan to purchase the donated lands, and give them to the farmers, who would then pay back their share of the loan. Part of the forests remained state lands in the reform. Several jointly owned forests were also established using the state forests to give access to household wood for farms that had little own forests. The private forests on donated lands had larger standing crop than the private forests in general. Together with increasing demand of wood for the developing manufacturing industry, this gave possibility for abusive practices in timber trade. The timber prices were low, and farmers exchanged felling rights to loan.

  • Saari, E-mail: es@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7028, category Article
A. L. Backman. (1919). Torvmarksundersökningar i mellersta Österbotten. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 12 no. 1 article id 7028. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7028
English title: Peatland studies in central Ostrobothnia in Finland.
Keywords: Finland; peatlands; Forest Service; state forests; peatland type; Ostrobothnia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The studies were conducted in 1913-1916 in state forests of Finland as a part of a large survey of peatlands by the Forest Service’s districts in Ostrobothnia in the Western Finland. The area and type of peatlands were estimated based on data of National Land Survey of Finland. In the 36 counties of Ostrobothnia, the total area of peatlands was approximately 1.4 million hectares. 30% of the peatlands are treeless bogs, 45% pine swamps, 5% spruce swamps, 15% areas resembling pine swamps and 5% areas resembling spruce swamps. The article describes in detail different peatland types and their vegetation within these classes. The peatlands were divided into five classes by their suitability for drainage and forestry or agriculture. In addition, the depth of peat, height growth of the peat and formation of peatlands in the area are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Backman, E-mail: ab@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7027, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo, August Renvall. (1921). About the protection forests. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 11 no. suppl. article id 7027. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7027
Keywords: pine; timber line; protection forest; reindeer pasture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is based on observations made during a decade in the parishes of Utsjoki and northern, middle and eastern parts of Inari in Finnish Lapland. At the timber line the pine regenerates very slowly. The amount and quality of pine forests on their timber line has been diminishing because of forestry, expansion of settlements and reindeer pasturing.  

Assigning the pine forests on the timber line as protection forests would serve the nature protection purposes as well as the wellbeing of the inhabitants and the state. Protection of areas where the regeneration is weak as well as the birch forests that serve as source of firewood for local people is of particular important. Measures against forest fires need to be taken. Extensive use of forests for reindeer pastures have caused a threat to existence of those forests.

When it comes to forest management, securing the seed yield and the survival of the seedlings need to be taken care. The productivity of the forests must be increased. For growing amount of people living in the area, the need for firewood and timber for other purposes must be fulfilled without increasing pressure to nearby forests.    

  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown
article id 7023, category Article
August Renvall. (1919). Suojametsäkysymyksestä III. Metsän suojeleminen kuloilta. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 11 no. 2-3 article id 7023. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7023
English title: Protection forests III.
Original keywords: mänty; Pinus sylvestris; lainsäädäntö; metsäpalo; metsäraja; palontorjunta
English keywords: Scots pine; forest fire; legislation; timber line; fire protection
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The third part of the six-article series about protection forest in Northern Finland describes prevention of forest fires in the pine timber line area. The article gives a proposal for a forest fire decree. According to the proposal, lighting a campfire should be prohibited in dry and windy times. Vegetation should be cleared around a campfire in the summertime. The local people should be obliged to help to extinguish any forest fire, and given compensation for the work. The compensation would be claimed from the person who lit the fire, if that is known. A fine is collected if forest fire breaks out by negligence. 

The article is divided in six parts. The parts II and III of the article series are included in the same PDF. A German summary is in a separate PDF.

  • Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7021, category Article
August Renvall. (1919). Suojametsäkysymyksestä I. Mäntymetsän elinehdot sen pohjoisrajalla sekä tämän rajan alenemisen syyt. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 11 no. 1 article id 7021. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7021
English title: Protection forests I.
Original keywords: mänty; Pinus sylvestris; suojametsät; metsänraja
English keywords: Scots pine; timber line; protection forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article aims to give a proposal on how to organize a protection forest system to protect the pine timber line in the northernmost Finland. In this first part of the six-article series is described the range and biology of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the timber line area, and human actions influencing the species in the area. The southward shift of Scots pine timber line cannot be explained by change of climate. The main factors are too intensive fellings, reindeer husbandry and forest fires. The poor reproduction of pine in Lapland makes it vulnerable to disturbances. The trees produce viable seeds in average only every 100 years. Thus, effective measures are needed to protect the existing pine forests in the area.

The article is divided in six parts. A German summary is in a separate PDF.

  • Renvall, E-mail: ar@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7088, category Article
Uunio Saalas. (1919). Kaarnakuoriaisista ja niiden aiheuttamista vahingoista Suomen metsissä. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 10 no. 1 article id 7088. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7088
English title: Bark beetles and insect damages in Finnish forest.
Original keywords: kaarnakuoriaiset; hyönteistuho; entomologia
English keywords: forest pests; Tomicus piniperda; insect damage; Pityogenes chalcographus; Ips typographus; entomology; Scolytus Ratzburgi
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to investigate the abundance of bark beetle species and their damage in Finland. The bark beetle populations were studied in several areas in Finland, both in sites with known beetle damage and without. Two-meter wide lines were measured in the sample plots, where all trees were studied for bark beetle damage in the stem and the crown of the trees. The abundance of bark beetle species and the beetle damages in 25 study areas, and 52 different species are discussed in detail.

Divided by their lifestyle, the most important groups of bark beetles are the pine shoot beetles (Tomicus sp.), beetles reproducing in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stems and branches under the bark, beetles reproducing in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stems and branches under the bark, beetles living in the other coniferous trees, beetles reproducing in roots, beetles reproducing under the Betula sp. bark, beetles reproducing in other deciduous trees and beetles reproducing inside of the stems. Of individual species, Blastophagus piniperda (now Tomicus piniperda) and B. minor cause worst damage to pine and Ips typographus (L.) and Pityogenes chalcographus (L.) to spruce. Serious damage is caused also by Xyloterus lineatus to coniferous trees, Polygraphus polygraphus and P. subopacus to Norway spruce and Scolytus Ratzburgi to Betula sp.

The PDF includes a summary in German.
  • Saalas, E-mail: us@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7020, category Article
S. E. Multamäki. (1919). Tutkimuksia metsien tilasta Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 2 article id 7020. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7020
English title: Studies on state of forests in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; linja-arviointi; metsävarat; metsätyyppi; metsänarviointi; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: forest management; forest resources; forest mensuration; forest site type; strip survey; distribution of tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A strip survey was made to define the forest and peatland site class distribution and the condition of the forests in Savo and Karelia in central and eastern parts of Finland. According to the survey, 24% of the forested lands are peatlands. Fresh mineral soil sites (26%) were the most common mineral soil site type. Intermediately dry forest soil sites covered 22% of the area, forest sites with grass-herb vegetation 12,79%, rich grass-herb forest soil sites 3,16% and dry forest soil sites 9,59% of the forested area. The most common tree species were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), 39%, Betula sp., 26%, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), 18%, and grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), 10% of the forest land. The article includes a review about the wood harvesting in the forests, and their present silvicultural state. According to the study, about 30% of the forested lands (not including peatlands) were unproductive; mostly mixed alder and birch stands of poor quality or open lands.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Multamäki, E-mail: sm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7019, category Article
O. J. Lukkala. (1919). Tutkimuksia viljavan maa-alan jakautumisesta etenkin Savossa ja Karjalassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 9 no. 1 article id 7019. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7019
English title: Studies on distribution of fertile lands in Savo and Karelia.
Original keywords: viljavuus; metsätyyppi; kasvupaikkatyyppi; kasvillisuustyyppi; maalaji
English keywords: soil; fertility; peatland type; vegetation type; site class; forest soil type
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article presents a survey on distribution of fertile lands, soil types and site classes in Savo and Karelia in the central and eastern parts of Finland. The survey was based both in existing publications and statistics, a line survey, and visual observations during field trips. The site quality classification is based on the vegetation and occurrence of indicator plant species. The article lists distribution of indicator species in different forest site types on maps of the area. In addition, a review of history of land use and agriculture give indications of the location of the fertile lands in the area. A map of the forest site types in different parts of the area illustrate the data collected from the different sources.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Lukkala, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7015, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1917). Suomen metsätieteellisen seuran toiminta v. 1909-1917. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 7 no. 1 article id 7015. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7015
English title: The activities of Finnish Society of Forest Science in 1909-1917.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura
English keywords: forest science; The Finnish Society of Forest Research
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Finnish Society of Forest Research was established in 1909 to promote research in forest and wood science in Finland. This article contains the minutes of the meetings of the society in 1909-1917, which could not be published earlier due to lack of funding. The minutes include also part of the presentations held in the meetings, 97 in all. Some of the presentations have been published elsewhere, and they are not included in the article.

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7014, category Article
Raf. Björkenheim. (1919). Writings on knowledge on forest types in spruce forests of German “Mittelgebirge” (mountainous areas). Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 6 no. 3 article id 7014. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7014
Keywords: vegetation; height growth; spruce; German mittelgebirge; German uplands; forest site types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The data has been collected in spruce forests in mountainous areas of Germany: Fichtelgebirge and Böhmerwald in Bavaria, Erzgebirge in Saxonia. The studied characteristics of the stand were: growth of the trees in height and diameter, and the ground vegetation. The stands were classified according Cajander’s forest site classification. The article presents the most common plants and other characteristics of every forest site type and studied stands. The relation of the height of the trees and their age is represented in diagrams for every forest type.

The presence of indicator plants is somewhat dependent on the stand age and crown coverage. The amount of species is lowest when the crown coverage is at the greatest.

As conclusion of the study it can be seen that the growth of the stand differentiates clearly depending on the forest site type, being greater at the more nutritious sites. Since the differently growing stands need different management, it would be natural to direct the management of the stand according the forest site type. 

  • Björkenheim, E-mail: rb@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7012, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1916). Mäntymetsikköjen valtapuitten kasvusta mustikka- ja kanervatyyppien kankailla Salmin kruununpuistossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 6 no. 1 article id 7012. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7012
English title: The growth of the dominant trees in Scots pine forests of Myrtillus and Calluna typesailla Salmin kruununpuistossa.
Original keywords: kasvupaikkatyyppi; läpimitan kasvu; tilavuuskasvu; pituuskasvu
English keywords: diameter growth; volume growth; forest site type; site quality class; height growt
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Tree growth is one of the factors that have been used to determine the site quality. The aim of the study was to show that growth of single trees growing on a same forest site class are similar, but differ from trees growing on a different site type. To compare the tree growth, a stem analysis was performed to dominant trees in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands, measured in 15 Myrtillus type sample plots and in 15 Calluna type sample plots in state forests in Salmi, situated in north side of Lake Ladoga. The height growth when the tree was young was higher in the trees growing in the Myrtillus type than in the Calluna type. Also, the trees of same age are higher in Myrtillus type stand than in the Calluna type. In Calluna type, the height growth, however, evens out later in age than in the Myrtillus type. The volume growth of the trees begins to increase earlier in Myrtillus type, and is higher than in Calluna type. Similarly, the diameter growth in breast height is higher in the Myrtillus type.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7534, category Article
Olli Heikinheimo. (1915). Kaskiviljelyksen vaikutus Suomen metsiin. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 4 no. 2 article id 7534. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7534
English title: The effect of shifting cultivation on forests in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätalous; kaskiviljely; maanviljely; puulajisuhteet
English keywords: forestry; shifting cultivation; agriculture; distribution of tree species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is a review on shifting cultivation, its methods and use in Finland, and its effect on the condition of forests. Shifting cultivation decreases forest reserves not only by burning large amounts of wood. Of the area used for shifting cultivation, 10-50% can be open land. The older age classes of forests are often missing, and range of tree species shift towards deciduous trees. This causes lack of large timber. The shorter the rotation, the less well the most valuable trees survive on the area. One reason is lack of seed trees. Of the coniferous trees, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is able to survive in the burnt-over lands better than Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), because it can produce seeds at a relatively young age. Betula sp. and especially grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) regenerate well on burnt-over lands. Also the frequency of good seed years determine which tree species become the dominant species on a burnt-over site.

When shifting cultivation is abandoned, deciduous trees keep their advantage over coniferous trees, because the wood of coniferous trees is used more in the surrounding villages. Pine and spruce spread to the burnt-over areas from the poorer sites that often had remained unburned. In densely populated areas in some counties in Savo in eastern Finland, where shifting cultivation was practiced intensively, Norway spruce became rare. Dominant tree species in the burnt-over areas became birch and pine.

The article is divided in two parts. A German summary is included in a separate PDF
  • Heikinheimo, E-mail: oh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7531, category Article
Werner Cajanus. (1914). The development of even-aged forests stands - a statistical study. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 3 no. 1 article id 7531. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7531
Keywords: forest valuation; forest mensuration; yield tables; growth tables
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study is to generate yield tables that enables calculating the stumpage values of the forests in different ages. The article investigates the diameter distribution of a stand at the breast height and their changes with the age of the stand.  In an even-aged stand the calculating of the stumpage value is based on height and breast height diameter. Hence the diameter distribution of a stand determines the stand volume, the stem frequency distribution series can be used as the basis of compiling the yield tables, in which the volume is the main factor.   

The study is based on spruce and pine mensuration data from Finland, pine stands from Prussia, and spruce stands from mountainous area of Switzerland. The article presents the characteristics of stem frequency distribution series based on the data. The studied characteristics are arithmetic middle, dispersion, asymmetry (skewness) and excess.

It can be recommended to create tables that show the different developments for age classes. Based on such tables the expected value of the stand can be calculated in practical forest management. Determining a general value of a stand in different forest site types would be important for forest valuation and forest statistics.    

  • Cajanus, E-mail: wc@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7528, category Article
Einari Vuori. (1913). Coniferous tree stands of the state forest “Vesijako” reforested through controlled burning. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 2 no. 1 article id 7528. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7528
Keywords: Alnus incana; grey alder; prescribed burning; forest improvement; coniferous trees; controlled burning; white alder
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study area is state owned forest of Vesijako in southern middle Finland that has earlier been intensively managed with slash-and-burn agriculture. Reforestation of broad-leaved forests into coniferous forest with controlled burning has been studied on 76 sample plots.

The article describes the practice of leasing forest stands to leaseholders who executed the controlled burning and forest regeneration and management according a leasing contract. The results of the reforestation with coniferous trees shows that sowed pine (Pinus silvestris) stands give good results but spruce (Picea abies) must be planted as a seedling.  For the state this method of forest improvement is cost effective  and should be used more widely. 

  • Vuori, E-mail: ev@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7526, category Article
Aimo Kaarlo Cajander. (1913). About forest site types. Acta Forestalia Fennica vol. 1 no. 1 article id 7526. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7526
Keywords: yield tables; forest site types; forest site classes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study is based on research in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, north Russia and Siberia, and Finland in years 1906-1908. The objective of the study is to find means to create forest site classes or forest types to direct practical forest management.

The article presents the classification of forests into site classes (Oxalis-Majanthemum type, Myrtillus type, Vaccinium type and Calluna type). The second part of the article represents different methods to calculate growth and yield tables for different forest site types. The conclusion of the study is that forest areas with similar vegetation and forest type can be handled in one way for forest management. 

  • Cajander, E-mail: ac@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7521, category Article
Johanne M. G. Morasse. (1998). Estimation of cutting volume with three inventory methods for harvest planning in Canadian boreal forests. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 261 article id 7521. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7521
Keywords: Canada; forest mensuration; GPS; forest roads; methods; harvesting inventory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two methods of pre-harvest inventory were designed and tested on three cutting sites containing a total of 197,500 m3 of wood. These sites were located on flat-ground boreal forest in north-western Quebec, Canada. Both methods studied involved scaling of trees harvested to clear the road path one year (or more) prior to harvest of adjacent cutblocks.

The first method (ROAD) considers the total road right-of-way volume divided by the total road area cleared. The resulting volume per hectare is then multiplied by the total cut-block area scheduled for harvest during the following year to obtain the total estimated cutting volume. The second method (STRATIFIED) also involves scaling of trees cleared from the road. A volume per hectare is calculated for each stretch of road that crosses a single forest stand. This volume per hectare is then multiplied by the remaining area of the same forest stand scheduled for harvest one year later. The sum of all resulting estimated volumes per stand gives the total estimated cutting-volume for all cut-blocks adjacent to the studied road. A third method (MNR) represent the actual existing technique for estimating cutting volume in the province of Quebec. It involves summing the cut volume for all forest stands. The cut volume is estimated by multiplying the area of each stand by its estimated volume per hectare obtained from standard stock tables.

When the resulting total estimated volume per cut-block for all three methods was compared with the actual measured cut-block volume (MEASURED), the analysis showed that MNR volume estimate was 30% higher than MEASURED. However, no significant difference from MEASURED was observed for volume estimates for ROAD and STRATIFIED methods, which respectively estimated cutting volumes 19% and 5% lower than MEASURED.

  • Morasse, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7520, category Article
Wending Huang. (1998). Productive coexistence and gain in agroforestry systems. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 260 article id 7520. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7520
Keywords: agroforestry; coexistence gain; facilitation; interaction model; productive coexistence; resource sharing; Taxodium ascendens
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Productive coexistence and gain of populations were studied using nine years’ data from field experiments of Taxodium ascendens-intercrop systems in Lixiahe, Jiangsu province, China. A theoretical framework for productive coexistence in agroforestry was developed. Interaction patterns between trees and intercrops were presented within the framework. A model framework was developed to describe the coexistence gain and interaction of populations in T. ascedens-intercrop systems. Facilitation and resource sharing were identified as main contribution to the advantage of species combination in agroforestry. The model of population interaction developed in the present study was accepted for describing the interaction of populations in T. ascendens -intercrop system, because it explained a high proportion of the variance of experimental data and fitted well the observations in most intercropping types. The model provides flexibility for describing different patterns of intra- and inter-specific interactions. Model coefficients were applied to the determination of the ecological compatibility of species.

Managed T. ascendens-intercrop systems were advantageous as compared to a monoculture of trees or arable crops. In T. ascendens stands up to the age of three, arable crops contributed about 50–80% of the total biomass yield of agroforestry. The diameter height growth of T. ascendens was not significantly influenced by intercrops. When the trees were young (during the first three years), T. ascendens did not depress the crop yields, and a land equivalent ratio greater than unity was obtained together with a high yield of both components. The diameter and height of the trees were similar in four spacing configurations with an equal number of trees per hectare up to the age of 8, but wider between-rows open range were beneficial for the intercrops. The relationship between open-ranges and species coexistence was also analysed and the distribution of soil nutrients studied.

  • Huang, E-mail: wh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7519, category Article
Jori Uusitalo. (1997). Pre-harvest measurement of pine stands for sawing production planning. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 259 article id 7519. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7519
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; diameter distribution; height models; crown height estimation; forest sampling; lumber quality prediction
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

To enhance the utilization of the wood, the sawmills are forced to place more emphasis on planning to master the whole production chain from the forest to the end product. One significant obstacle to integrating the forest-sawmill-market production chain is the lack of appropriate information about forest stands. Since the wood procurement point of view in forest planning systems has been almost totally disregarded there has been a great need to develop an easy and efficient pre-harvest measurement method, allowing separate measurement of stands prior to harvesting. The main purpose of this study was to develop a measurement method for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands which forest managers could use in describing the properties of the standing trees for sawing production planning.

Study materials were collected from ten Scots pine stands located in North Häme and South Pohjanmaa, in Southern Finland. The data comprise test sawing data on 314 pine stems, diameter at breast height (dbh) and height measures of all trees and measures of the quality parameters of pine sawlog stems in all ten study stands as well as the locations of all trees in six stands. The study was divided into four sub-studies which deal with pine quality prediction, construction of diameter and dead branch height distributions, sampling designs and applying height and crown height models. The final proposal for the pre-harvest measurement method is a synthesis of the individual sub-studies.

Quality analysis resulted in choosing dbh, distance from stump height to the first dead branch, crown height and tree height as the most appropriate quality characteristics of Scots pine. Dbh and dead branch height are measured from each pine sample tree while height and crown height are derived from dbh measures by aid of mixed height and crown height models. Pine and spruce diameter distribution as well as dead branch height distribution are most effectively predicted by the kernel function. Roughly 25 sample trees seem to be appropriate in pure pine stands. In mixed stands the number of sample trees needs to be increased in proportion to the intensity of pines in order to attain the same level of accuracy.

  • Uusitalo, E-mail: ju@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7524, category Article
Jari Varjo. (1997). Change detection and controlling forest information using multi-temporal Landsat TM imagery. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 258 article id 7524. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7524
Keywords: forest inventory; change detection; continuous updating; satellite image; radiometric calibration; stand information; nonparametric discrimination
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A method was developed for relative radiometric calibration of single multitemporal Landsat TM image, several multitemporal images covering each other, and several multitemporal images covering different geographical locations. The radiometrically calibrated different images were used for detecting rapid changes on forest stands. The nonparametric Kernel method was applied for change detection. The accuracy of the change detection was estimated by inspecting the image analysis results in field.

The change classification was applied for controlling the quality of the continuously updated forest stand information. The aim was to ensure that all the manmade changes and any forest damages were correctly updated including the attribute and stand delineation information. The image analysis results were compared with the registered treatments and the stand information base. The stands with discrepancies between these two information sources were recommended to be field inspected.

  • Varjo, E-mail: jv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7514, category Article
Pekka Ripatti. (1996). Factors affecting partitioning of private forest holdings in Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 252 article id 7514. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7514
Keywords: forest policy; forest ownership; logistic regression; Finland; private forests; partitioning; forest holding size; forestry behaviour; ownership change
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Questions of the small size of non-industrial private forest (NIPF) holdings in Finland are considered and factors affecting their partitioning are analysed. This work arises out of Finnish forest policy statements in which the small average size of holdings has been seen to have negative influence on the economics of forestry. A literature survey indicates that the size of holdings is an important factor determining the costs of logging and silvicultural operations, while its influence on the timber supply is slight.

The empirical data are based on a sample of 314 holdings collected by interviewing forest owners in 1980–86. In 1990–91 the same holdings were resurveyed by means of a postal inquiry and partly by interviewing the forest owners. The principal objective was to collect data to assist in quantifying ownership factors that influence partitioning among different kinds of NIPF holdings. Thus, the mechanism of partitioning was described and a maximum likelihood logistic regression model was constructed using seven independent holding and ownership variables.

One out of four holdings had undergone partitioning in conjunction with a change in ownership, one fifth among family owned holdings and nearly a half among jointly owned holdings. The results of the logistic regression model indicate, for instance, that the odds on partitioning is about three times greater for jointly owned holdings than for family owned ones. Also, the probabilities of partitioning were estimated and the impact of independent dichotomous variables on the probability of partitioning ranged between 0.02 and 0.01. The low value of Hosmer-Lemeshow test statistics indicates a good fit of the model, and the rate of correct classification was estimated to be 88% with a cut-off point of 0.5.

The average size of holdings undergoing ownership changes decreased from 29.9 ha to 28.7 ha over the approximate interval 1983–90. In addition, the transition probability matrix showed that the trends towards smaller size categories mostly concerned the small size categories. The results can be used in considering the effects of the small size holdings for forestry and if the purpose is to influence partitioning through forest or rural policy.

  • Ripatti, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7513, category Article
Jyrki Kangas, Teppo Loikkanen, Timo Pukkala, Jouni Pykäläinen. (1996). A participatory approach to tactical forest planning. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 251 article id 7513. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7513
Keywords: forest planning; public participation; optimization; heuristics; conflict management; decision analysis; participative planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper examines the needs, premises and criteria for effective public participation in tactical forest planning. A method for participatory forest planning utilizing the techniques of preference analysis, professional expertise and heuristic optimization is introduced. The techniques do not cover the whole process of participatory planning, but are applied as a tool constituting the numerical core for decision support. The complexity of multi-resource management is addressed by hierarchical decision analysis which assesses the public values, preferences and decision criteria toward the planning situation. An optimal management plan is sought using heuristic optimization. The plan can further be improved through mutual negotiations, if necessary. The use of the approach is demonstrated with an illustrative example. Its merits and challenges for participatory forest planning and decision making are discussed and a model for applying it in general forest planning context is depicted. By using the approach, valuable information can be obtained about public preferences and the effects of taking them into consideration on the choice of the combination of standwise treatment proposals for a forest area. Participatory forest planning calculations, carried out by the approach presented in the paper, can be utilized in conflict management and in developing compromises between competing interests.

  • Kangas, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Loikkanen, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown
  • Pukkala, E-mail: tp@mm.unknown
  • Pykäläinen, E-mail: jp@mm.unknown
article id 7512, category Article
Mauno Pesonen, Arto Kettunen, Petri Räsänen. (1995). Non-industrial private forest landowners’ choices of timber management strategies. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 250 article id 7512. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7512
Keywords: forest owners; timber management strategies; genetic algorithm; strategic decision making
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The factors affecting the non-industrial, private forest owners’ (NIPF) strategic decisions in management planning are studied. A genetic algorithm is used to induce a set of rules predicting potential cut of the forest owners’ choices of preferred timber management strategies. The rules are based on variables describing the characteristics of the landowners and their forest holdings. The predictive ability of a genetic algorithm is compared to linear regression analysis using identical data sets. The data are cross-validated seven times applying both genetic algorithm and regression analyses in order to examine the data-sensitivity and robustness of the generated models.

The optimal rule set derived from genetic algorithm analyses included the following variables: mean initial volume, forest owner’s positive price expectations for the next eight years, forest owner being classified as farmer, and preference for the recreational use of forest property. When tested with previously unseen test data, the optimal rule set resulted in a relative root mean square error of 0.40.

In the regression analyses, the optimal regression equation consisted of the following variables: mean initial volume, proportion of forestry income, intention to cut extensively in future, and positive price expectations for the next two years. The R2 of the optimal regression equation was 0.3 and the relative root mean square error from the test data 0.38.

In both models, mean initial volume and positive stumpage price expectations were entered as significant predictors of potential cut of preferred timber management strategy. When tested with complete data set of 201 observations, both the optimal rule set and the optimal regression model achieved the same level of accuracy.

  • Pesonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kettunen, E-mail: ak@mm.unknown
  • Räsänen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
article id 7509, category Article
Mauno Pesonen. (1995). Non-industrial private forest landowners’ choices of timber management strategies and potential allowable cut. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 247 article id 7509. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7509
Keywords: non-industrial private forest owners; utility function; Analytic Hierarchy Process; potential allowable cut; timber management strategy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In the study, the potential allowable cut in the district of North-Savo, Eastern Finland was clarified  based on the non-industrial private forest landowners’ (NIPF) choices of timber management strategies. Alternative timber management strategies were generated, and the choices and factors affecting the choices of timber management strategies by NIPF landowners were studied. The choices of timber management strategies were solved by maximizing the utility functions of the NIPF landowners. The parameters of the utility functions were estimated using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP).

The level of the potential allowable cut was compared to the cutting budgets based on the 7th and 8th National Forest Inventories (NFI7, NFI8) in Finland, to the combining of private forestry plans, and to the realized drain from non-industrial private forests. The potential allowable cut was calculated using the MELA system that has been used in calculating the national cutting budget.

The data consisted of the NIPF holdings that had been inventoried compartmentwise and had forestry plans made in 1984–92. The NIPF landowners’ choices of timber management strategies were clarified by a mail inquiry.

The most preferred strategy obtained was ”sustainability” (chosen by 62% of landowners). The second was ”finance” (17%) and the third ”savings” (11%). ”No cuttings”, and ”maximum cuttings” were the least preferred (9% and 1%, resp.). The factors promoting the choices of strategies with intensive cuttings were: a) ”farmer as forest owner” and ”owing fields”, b) ”increase in the size of the forest holding”, c) agriculture and forestry orientation in production, d) ”decreasing short-term stumpage earnings expectations”, e) ”increasing intensity of future cuttings”, and f) ”choice of forest taxation system based on site productivity”.

The potential allowable cut defined in the study was 20% higher than the average of the realized drain in 1988–93, which was at the same level as the cutting budget based on the combining of forestry plans in Eastern Finland. The potential allowable cut defined in the study was 12% lower than the NFI8-based greatest sustained allowable cut for the 1990. Using the method, timber management strategies can be clarified for private forest owners.

  • Pesonen, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7508, category Article
Tapani Lahti. (1995). Understorey vegetation as an indicator of forest site potential in Southern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 246 article id 7508. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7508
Keywords: Norway spruce; site quality; Scots pine; classification; forest vegetation; estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relationship between site characteristics and understorey vegetation composition was analysed with quantitative methods, especially from the viewpoint of site quality estimation. Theoretical models were applied to an empirical data set collected from the upland forests of Southern Finland comprising 104 sites dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris. L.) and 165 sites dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). Site index H100 was used as an independent measure of site quality.

A new model for the estimation of site quality at sites with a known understorey vegetation composition was introduced. It is based on the application of Bayes’ theorem to the density function of site quality within the study area combined with the species-specific presence-absence response curves. The resulting probability density function may be used for calculating an estimate for the site variable

Using this method, a jackknife estimate of site index H100 was calculated separately for pine- and spruce-dominated sites. The results indicated that the cross-validation root mean squared error (RMSEcv) of the estimates improved from 2.98 m down to 2.34 m relative to the ”null” model (standard deviation of the sample distribution) in pine-dominated forests. In spruce-dominated forests RMSEcv decreased from 3.94 m down to 3.19 m.

In order to assess these results, four other estimation methods based on understorey vegetation composition were applied to the same data set. The results showed that none of the methods was clearly superior to the others. In pine-dominated forests RMSEcv varied between 2.34 and 2.47 m, and the corresponding range for spruce-dominated forest was from 3.13 to 3.57 m.

  • Lahti, E-mail: tl@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7506, category Article
Eero Kubin, Lauri Kemppainen. (1994). Effect of soil preparation of boreal spruce forest on air and soil temperature conditions in forest regeneration areas. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 244 article id 7506. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7506
Keywords: soil preparation; soil temperature; forest regeneration; air temperature; boreal spruce forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effect of scarification, ploughing and cross-directional ploughing on temperature conditions in the soil and adjacent air layer have been studied during 11 growth periods by using an unprepared clear-cut area as a control site. The development of seedling stand was followed to determine its shading effect on the soil surface.

Soil preparation decreased the daily temperature amplitude of the air at the height of 10 cm. The maximum temperatures on sunny days were lower in the tilts of the ploughed and in the humps of the cross-directional ploughed sites compared with the unprepared area. Correspondingly, the night temperatures were higher and so the soil preparation reduced the risk of night frost. In the soil at the depth of 5 cm, soil preparation increased daytime temperatures and reduced night temperatures compared with unprepared area. The maximum increase in monthly mean temperatures was almost 5°C, and the daily variation in the surface parts of the tilts and humps increased so that excessively high temperatures for the optimal growth of the root systems were measured from time to time. The temperature also rose at the depths of 50 and 100 cm.

Soil preparation also increased the cumulative temperature sum. The highest sums accumulated during the summer months were recorded at the depth of 5 cm in the humps of cross-directional ploughed area (1,127 dd.) and in the tilts of the ploughed area (1,106 dd.), while the corresponding figure in the unprepared soil was 718 dd. At the height of 10 cm the highest temperature sum was 1,020 dd. in the hump, and 925 dd. in the unprepared area.

The incidence of high temperature amplitudes and frequency of high temperatures at the depth of 5 cm decreased most rapidly in the humps of cross-sectional ploughed area and the ploughing tilts towards the end of the study period. The decrease was attributed principally to the compressing of tilts, the ground vegetation succession and the growth of seedlings. The difference between the prepared and unprepared area did not diminish. The increase in temperature due to soil preparation, thus, lasted at least over 10 years.

  • Kubin, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kemppainen, E-mail: lk@mm.unknown
article id 7503, category Article
Anssi Niskanen, Olavi Luukkanen, Olli Saastamoinen, Suree Bhumibhamon. (1993). Evaluation of the profitability of fast-growing tropical trees. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 241 article id 7503. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7503
Keywords: cost-benefit analysis; profitability; Thailand; development forestry; tree plantations; environmental impacts
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The profitability of fast-growing trees (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., Acacia mangium Willd. and Melia azedarach L.) was investigated in the north-eastern and eastern provinces of Thailand. The financial, economic, and tentative environmental-economic profitability was determined separately for three fast-growing plantation tree species and for three categories of plantation managers: the private industry, the state (the Royal Forest Department) and the farmers. Fast-growing tree crops were also compared with teak (Tectona grandis L. f.), a traditional medium or long rotation species, and Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Müll. Arg.) which presently is the most common cultivated tree in Thailand.

The optimal rotation for Eucalyptus camaldulensis pulpwood production was eight years. This was the most profitable species in pulpwood production. In sawlog production Acacia mangium and Melia azedarach showed a better financial profitability. Para rubber was more profitable and teak less profitable than the three fast-growing species. The economic profitability was higher than the financial one, and the tentative environmental-economic profitability was slightly higher than the economic profitability.

The profitability of tree growing is sensitive to plantation yields and labour cost changes and especially to wood prices. Management options which aim at pulpwood production are more sensitive to input or output changes than those options which include sawlog production. There is an urgent need to improve the growth and yield data and to study the environmental impacts of tree plantations for all species and plantation types.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Niskanen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown
  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: os@mm.unknown
  • Bhumibhamon, E-mail: sb@mm.unknown
article id 7679, category Article
Ville Ovaskainen. (1992). Forest taxation, timber supply, and economic efficiency. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 233 article id 7679. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7679
Keywords: timber supply; economic efficiency; forest taxation; two-period model; comparative static analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects and relative efficiency of alternative forest taxes are analysed theoretically. The Fisherian two-period model of consumption, savings and timber harvesting is extended by incorporating the management intensity decision and deriving the concept of long-run timber supply. The effects of lump-sum (site productivity), realized income (yield) and ad valorem property taxes on short-run timber supply, management intensity, and long-run timber supply are established. As the core of the study, the alternative taxes are compared in order to determine the appropriate forest tax regime in terms of production efficiency. The efficiency criterion generally requires that the excess burden of taxation at any given tax revenue should be kept to a minimum. The study distinguishes between an initially undistorted economy and an economy with pre-existing distortions due to capital income taxation (interest charge deductions). When the effects on forest management decisions of forest and capital income taxes are considered as a whole, a neutral forest taxation is no longer efficient. The non-timber benefits of a forest are incorporated to examine the robustness of the tax results with respect to the objective function. Finally, forest tax issues specific to Finland are considered, and administrational and equity aspects are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Ovaskainen, E-mail: vo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7675, category Article
Erkki Tomppo. (1992). Satellite image aided forest site fertility estimation for forest income taxation. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 229 article id 7675. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7675
Keywords: site quality; discriminant analysis; forest taxation; satellite images; segmentation; logistic regression analysis; Markov random field
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two operative forest site class estimation methods utilizing satellite images have been developed for forest income taxation purposes. For this, two pixelwise classification methods and two post-processing methods for estimating forest site fertility are compared using different input data. The pixelwise methods are discriminant analysis, based on generalized squared distances, and logistic regression analysis. The results of pixelwise classifications are improved either with mode filtering within forest stands or assuming a Markov random field type dependence between pixels. The stand delineation is obtained by using ordinary segmentation techniques. Optionally, known stand boundaries given by the interpreter can be applied. The spectral values of images are corrected using a digital elevation model of the terrain. Some textural features are preliminary tested in classification. All methods are justified by using independent test data.

A test of the practical methods was carried out and a cost-benefit analysis computed. The estimated cost saving in site quality classification varies from 14% to 35% depending on the distribution of the site classes of the area. This means a saving of about 2.0–4.5 million FMK per year in site fertility classification for income taxation purposes. The cost savings would rise even to 60% if that version of the method were chosen where field checking is totally omitted. The classification accuracy at the forest holding level would still be similar to that of traditional method.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Tomppo, E-mail: et@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7673, category Article
Jimin Tan. (1992). Planning a forest road network by a spatial data handling-network routing system. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 227 article id 7673. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7673
Keywords: spatial analysis; road network; wood transport; forest roads; locating
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The basic objective in planning a forest road network is to minimize the total cost of terrain transportation, road transportation, road construction and maintenance by controlling the road location, road network density and road quality, besides environmental and ecological considerations. Studies on the optimization of forest road network have encountered difficulties in taking into account the spatial diversity of forest terrain and stands. The spatial data handling-network routing system developed in this study proves to be useful in assisting forest managers to carry out the planning of forest road networks by covering the spatial and economic analysis.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Tan, E-mail: jt@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7671, category Article
Eero Kubin, Lauri Kemppainen. (1991). Effect of clearcutting of boreal spruce forest on air and soil temperature conditions. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 225 article id 7671. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7671
Keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; clearcutting; soil temperature; air temperature; boreal spruce forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present paper deals with the effects of clearcutting on soil and air temperature and the development of temperature conditions during the 12 growing seasons following clearcutting of a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stand on a Vaccinium-Myrtillus forest type in Kainuu, northeast Finland. The uncut control site had a growing stock of 140 m3/ha. The temperature measurements were carried out by means of thermographs, Grant measuring devices and minimum and maximum glass thermometers.

Clearcutting had no significant influence on temperatures measures at 2 m above the ground in a meteorological screen and no changes occurred in them during the period studied, while on the ground level and in the adjacent layer of air the daily maxima increased and the daily minima decreased as compared with uncut forest. The greatest difference was over 10°C between the maximum temperatures at 10 cm and almost 8°C between the minimum temperatures. Night frosts were considerably more common at 10 cm above the ground in the clearcut area than in uncut forests.

Temperature differences were smaller in the soil than close to ground level. Day temperatures were 2–3°C higher in the clearcut area than in uncut forests, and differences between night temperatures at this depth were even smaller. Correspondingly, temperatures were 3–5°C higher at depths of 50 cm and 100 cm in the clearcut area during the whole measuring period. The differences between the temperatures in the clearcut area and uncut forests did not diminish to any significant extent during the 12 years despite the stocking of the former area with seedlings.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kubin, E-mail: ek@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kemppainen, E-mail: lk@mm.unknown
article id 7668, category Article
Tuomas Häme. (1991). Spectral interpretation of changes in forest using satellite scanner images. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 222 article id 7668. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7668
Keywords: remote sensing; forests; satellite image; changes; interpretation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Spectral characteristics of rapid changes in forest and the spectral separability of change categories were studied through the analysis of satellite scanner images. A computational model of the spectral reflectance of a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand as a function of time was constructed and compared with empirical data. The study area, centred at 61°51’ N, 24°22’ E, was located in boreal forest in Southern Finland. Ground truth data consisted of forest stands and sample plots. Spectral data comprised multitemporal Landsat Thematic Mapper and Spot images as well as spectroradiometer measurements. The separability of the changes was tested with statistical tests and classifications. The separability varied according to the change category. A scheme for fully automated change monitoring system was presented.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Häme, E-mail: th@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7666, category Article
Kullervo Kuusela, Sakari Salminen. (1991). Suomen metsävarat 1977-1984 ja niiden kehittyminen 1952­-1980. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 220 article id 7666. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7666
English title: Forest resources of Finland in 1977–1984 and their development in 1952–1980.
Original keywords: metsävarat; Suomi; metsätase; metsänomistus; puutase; valtakunnan metsien inventointi
English keywords: forest ownership; National Forest Inventory; Finland; forest resources; forest balance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The field of work of the 7th National Forest Inventory was carried out during 1977–84. This report consists of the analysis of the forest resources, long-term development of forests and the results by ownership categories in Finland.

The area of forestry land, 26.4 million ha, has decreased slightly because of the increase of build-up areas and communication routes. Forest land, which is suitable to growing wood profitably, amounted 20.1 million ha. It has increased, although not as fast as earlier, due to drainage and fertilization of scrub and waste land swamps and the afforestation of agricultural land.

The growing stock volume was 1,660 million m3 and the estimated gross annual increment 68.4 million m3. A large quantity of young, rapidly growing stands, and fellings markedly below the increment, are the principal factors increasing the growing stock. The volume of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has increased most but the greatest proportional increase has been in the volume of broadleaved trees.

The silvicultural quality of stands has improved and the increase in saw log tree volume has resulted in an increase in the total growing stock volume. The proportional volume of saw logs, however, has decreased. Both aging mature stands and postponed thinnings increase the risk of losses due to mortality and decay. Too dense stands retard the diameter growth of trees. The proportion of unsuccessful artificial regeneration has increased.

The area of private forests has slightly decreased, while companies and collective bodies have increased their ownership. Non-farmer private ownership already accounts for one half of the area of private forests. The silvicultural quality of company forests is best and the increase of the growing stock and its increment is proportionally greatest in these forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Kuusela, E-mail: kk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Salminen, E-mail: ss@mm.unknown
article id 7606, category Article
Kari Heliövaara, Rauno Väisänen, Auli Immonen. (1991). Quantitative biogeography of the bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) in northern Europe. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 219 article id 7606. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7606
Keywords: climate change; boreal forests; biodiversity; Nordic countries; multivariate methods; insect pests; biogeography; Scolytids; logistic regression models; faunal changes; Fennoscandia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Biogeographical patterns of the Scolytidae in Fennoscandia and Denmark, based on species incidence data from the approximately 70 km x 70 km quadrats (n = 221) used by Lekander et al. (1977), were classified to environmental variables using multivariate methods (two-way indicator species analysis, detrended correspondence analysis, canonical correspondence analysis).

The distributional patterns of scolytid species composition showed similar features to earlier presented zonations based on vegetation composition. One major difference, however, was that the region was more clearly divided in an east-west direction. Temperature variables associated with the location of the quadrat had the highest canonical coefficient values on the first axis of the CCA. Although these variables were the most important determinants of the biogeographical variation in the beetle species assemblages, annual precipitation and the distribution of Picea abies also improved the fit of the species data.

Samples with the most deviant rarity and typicality indices for the scolytid species assempblages in each quadrat were concentrated in several southern Scandinavian quadrats, in some quadrats in northern Sweden, and especially on the Swedish islands (Öland, Gotland, Gotska Sandön) in the Baltic Sea. The use of rarity indices which do not take the number of species per quadrat, also resulted high values for areas near Stockholm and Helsinki with well-known faunas. Methodological tests in which the real changes in the distribution of Ips acuminatus and I. amitinus were used as indicators showed that the currently available multivariate methods are sensitive to small faunal shifts even, and thus permit analysis of the fauna in relation to environmental changes. However, this requires more detailed monitoring of the species’ distributions over longer time spans.

Distribution of seven species (Scolytus intricatus, S. laevis, Hylurgops glabratus, Crypturgus cinereus, Pityogenes salasi, Ips typographus, and Cyleborus dispar) were predicted by logistic regression models using climatic variables. In spite of the deficiencies in the data and the environmental variables selected, the models were relatively good for several but not for all species. The potential effects of climate change on bark beetles are discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
  • Immonen, E-mail: ai@mm.unknown
article id 7665, category Article
Seppo Vehkamäki. (1990). Woodlot price formation in the early 1980s. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 218 article id 7665. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7665
Keywords: forest ownership; forest holdings; woodlot sales; woodlot purchasing price; woodlot transaction price
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to explain both theoretically and empirically the formation of the unit price of a woodlot in the early 1980’s in Finland. The structure of the market in which woodlot transactions take place is described by analysing the volume of markets, the heterogeneity of the woodlots, institutional regulation of woodlot ownership and information concerning the market. The decision-making processes of both woodlot seller and buyer are examined using a theoretical model. Using a woodlot transaction sample for 1983 and 1984 woodlot unit price is explained empirically.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Vehkamäki, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7660, category Article
Heikki Hänninen. (1990). Modelling bud dormancy release in trees from cool and temperate regions. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 213 article id 7660. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7660
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; climatic adaptation; annual cycle; bud dormancy; quiescence; rest; growth competence
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The premises of several models obtained from literature on bud dormancy release in trees from cool and temperate regions differs from each other with respect to responses to air temperature during the rest period of the buds. The predicted timing of bud burst in natural conditions varied among the models, as did the prediction of the models for the outcome of a chilling experiment.

Experimental results with two-year old seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) did not agree with any of the models. The experimental results also deviated from abundand earlier findings, which also disagreed with any of the models. This finding suggests that Finnish provenances of Scots pine and Norway spruce differ from more southern provenances with respect to temperature regulation of bud dormancy release.

A synthesis model for the effects of air temperature on bud dormancy release in trees was developed on the basis of the previous models and the experimental results of both the present and previous studies. The synthesis model contains part of the original models as special cases. The parameters of the synthesis model represent several aspects of the bud dormancy release of trees that should be addressed separately with each species and provenance in experimental studies. Further aspects of dormancy release were discussed, in order to facilitate further development of the models.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Hänninen, E-mail: hh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7659, category Article
Ari Lääperi. (1990). Hoidettujen talvilaitumien vaikutus hirvituhoihin mäntytaimikoissa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 212 article id 7659. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7659
English title: Effect of winter feeding on moose damage to young Scots pine stands.
Original keywords: mänty; hirvituhot; männyntaimikot; talviruokinta
English keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Alces alces; seedling stands; feeding; moose damage; forest plantations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The establishment of moose (Alces alces L.) winter feeding sites, their utilization and their effect on damage to young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations was studied in Ruokolahti-Imatra area in Eastern Finland in 1987–89. During the period, the density in the area was about 3–5 moose/ 1,000 ha.

Six feeding sites were established by fertilization, offering mineral lics and the tops of aspen and Scot pine and by salting the tops of pine. The moose preferred the feeding site to control areas during both summer and winter. In winter browsing was very heavy, especially in those areas located in or close to traditional wintering areas. In winter no moose were seen in the summer habitats.

The extent of, and fluctuations in moose damage were studied in 47 Scots pine plantations in the immediate surroundings of the feeding sites (29 plantations), control areas (18 plantations) and also 68 randomly selected pine plantations. Before the experiment began in 1987 four plantations had been seriously damaged. During the study period only one plantation was seriously damaged. However, it could not be conclusively proved that damage to the pine plantations had been reduced as a result of the feeding sites. The results of the study can be put into practice elsewhere to create better living conditions for moose in their winter habitats. However, the food offered at the feeding site should be in the right proportion to the number of animals wintering in the area, so that the risk of damage to nearby plantations would be kept as small as possible.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Lääperi, E-mail: al@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7657, category Article
Matti Rousi. (1990). Breeding forest trees for resistance to mammalian herbivores - a study based on European white birch. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 210 article id 7657. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7657
Keywords: Betula pendula; vole; breeding; resistance; clonal forestry; phenotypic plasticity; pests; mammals; Betula platyphylla; interspecific hybrids; climatic adaptibility; hare
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Resistance to browsing by mammals differs among birch species, and among origins and families of European white birch (Betula pendula Roth). The variation in resistance is large even among individual seedlings of the same family.

On the surface of the bark of European white birch seedlings there are resin droplets, and the number of droplets is strongly and positively correlated with resistance to browsing by hares. The resistance of European white birch apparently is not expensive metabolically because the rapid growth rate of seedlings was positively correlated with hare resistance, and no correlation was found between seedling size and vole resistance. In cafeteria experiments voles and hares were very discriminating in their feeding on birch seedlings. In field experiments, however, environmental heterogeneity partly masked differences in vole resistance among birch families. Fertilization of seedlings seems not to have a clear effect on resistance to hares. On the other hand, there were indications that greenhouse temperature had an effect on resistance to voles. Practical forestry applications of differences in resistance, e.g. use of species hybrids and clonal forestry, are discussed. The prospects for resistance breeding are good.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Rousi, E-mail: mr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7656, category Article
Kari Leinonen, Matti Leikola, Antti Peltonen, Pentti Räsä­nen. (1989). Kuusen luontainen uudistaminen Pirkka-­Hämeen metsälautakunnassa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 209 article id 7656. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7656
English title: Natural regeneration of Norway spruce in Pirkka-Häme Forestry Board District, Southern Finland.
Original keywords: kuusi; luontainen uudistaminen; taimettuminen; suojuspuumenetelmä
English keywords: Picea abies; natural regeneration; shelterwood method; restocking
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to evaluate and develop the use of natural regeneration of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in private forestry. The study was carried out using a line-plot survey with permanent circular sample plots. In total 40 regeneration sites were measured. The study includes results from three successive inventories: prior to the shelterwood cutting, in the summer after the cutting, and one year after the cutting. Regression and logistic regression analyses were used to construct models describing the effect of various factors on the restocking of the stands.

The standing volume prior to the shelterwood cutting was on average 236 m3/ha (ranging from 80 to 428 m3/ha) and after the cutting 120 m3/ha (39–220 m3/ha). The average number of stems per hectare decreased from 435 to 186. Prior to the shelterwood cutting 22% of the stands were satisfactorily restocked. After the cutting and one year later these percentages were 6 and 29%, respectively. Prior to the shelterwood cutting the number of acceptable seedlings was 1,440/ha, in the summer and year later 1,308/ha and 1,546/ha, respectively. Prior to the shelterwood cutting the characteristics of the mother stands did not correlate well with the number of seedlings. The change in the number of seedlings during the initial stage of shelterwood method depended on height of the seedling stand, amount of logging waste and number of germlings prior to the cutting. The risk to fail in regeneration was highest in the poorly restocked, sparse shelterwood stands, where a fast expansion of grass vegetation took place.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leinonen, E-mail: kl@mm.unknown (email)
  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown
  • Peltonen, E-mail: ap@mm.unknown
  • Räsä­nen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
article id 7646, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1987). Suomalaiset metsätieteelliset väitöskirjat ja niiden laatijat. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 199 article id 7646. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7646
English title: Academic dissertations and doctors in forestry sciences in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätieteet; metsäopetus; väitöskirjat
English keywords: Finland; forest education; forest science; post-graduate education; career development; dissertations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study analyses Finnish academic dissertations in forestry sciences on the basis of number published and yearly trends, length, topic, sources of funding and guidance, and the doctoral candidates’ background and career development before and after disputation.

From 1912–1984, 131 dissertations in forest sciences were published. The majority of them were written in Finnish. The length averaged 151 pages. In general, the more rapidly the dissertation was prepared, the better grade it received.

The majority of doctors in forest sciences come from well-to-do families, in cities located in Southern Finland. They constitute 2–6% of the total number of graduating foresters. At the time of disputation their average age has been 36 years. Doctors have used job changes to improve their position in the hierarchy of their employing institutions.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7640, category Article
Seppo Vehkamäki. (1986). The economic basis of forest policy: a study on the goals and means of forest policy. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 194 article id 7640. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7640
Keywords: forest policy; forest ownership; forest taxation; wood supply
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The goal-setting in forest policy and the means available for achieving the desired goal of forest policy are examined in this study. Examination of the goal is done using a macromodel of a closed economy. In the model GNP is assumed to be linearly dependent on the supply of raw wood. The model is used to derive the marginal conditions of the optimum equilibrium forestry with respect to the growing stock and the silviculture. The effect on the forest owners’ behaviour of the following means are examined: the taxation of ”pure income” from forestry, the taxation of income from selling raw wood, unit sales taxation and ad valorem sales taxation of forestry and corresponding sales subsidies, the support of silvicultural investments and the channelling of income from wood sales into silvicultural investments. The marginal conditions have been defined according to the maximum principle. An empirical study concerning the raw wood market in the case of softwood logs, and silvicultural investments in the case of young stand tending, has been carried out on the basis of the theoretical examination.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Vehkamäki, E-mail: sv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7639, category Article
Matti Keltikangas, Jukka Laine, Pasi Puttonen, Kustaa Seppälä. (1986). Vuosina 1930-1978 metsäojitetut suot: ojitusalueiden inventoinnin tuloksia. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 193 article id 7639. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7639
English title: Peatlands drained for forestry during 1930–1978: results from field surveys of drained areas.
Original keywords: suotyypit; ojitetut suot; inventointi; kuivatusteho; ojaverkosto; metsänhoidollinen tila
English keywords: inventory; forest drainage; drainage effect; site type distribution; silvicultural condition; ditch network
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

An extensive field-based survey was conducted to establish the distribution of site types on drained peatlands, the condition of the drainage networks, the post-drainage development of the tree stands, their structure and silvicultural condition and the corresponding requirements for operational measures. The data is based on sampling of the forest drainage undertaking during 1930–78 and consists of 1,312 km inventory transect, 6,030 relascope sample plots and 21,700 studied ditches.

Of the studied peatlands more than 60% were Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) mires, slightly under 20% Norway spruce (Picea abies) mires, and under 10% each treeless mires and paludified upland forest sites. The remaining peatland area that is to be considered suitable for forest drainage according to criteria used by Heikurainen (1960) now consists mainly of spruce mires and paludified upland forest types; about 1 million ha both groups still remain undrained.

The proportion of ditches in need of ditch cleaning was estimated to be under 10% in the youngest drained areas and under 30% in the oldest. The mean tree stand volumes of the drained peatlands of different site types show the same dependence on the trophic level as in earlier studies but the volumes seem to be some 5–10% lower. These results compare favourably with those of the 7th national forest inventory.

Trends in the post-drainage development of tree stand volumes and increment are also, generally, in accordance with earlier findings but have somewhat lower values. The development of the nutrient-poor site type stands, especially in Northern Finland, seems to be significantly poorer than was earlier assumed.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Laine, E-mail: jl@mm.unknown
  • Puttonen, E-mail: pp@mm.unknown
  • Seppälä, E-mail: ks@mm.unknown
article id 7638, category Article
Jussi Kuusipalo. (1985). An ecological study of upland forest site classification in southern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 192 article id 7638. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7638
Keywords: understorey vegetation; ecosystem; soil properties; humus layer; fertility; forest types; forest vegetation; ecological site classification; sub-soil
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The vegetation and number of physical and chemical soil properties were studied on a random sample of closed upland forest stands in Southern Finland. The material consists of a total of 410 sample plots. Two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) was carried out in order to produce a hierarchical clustering of samples on the basis of the vegetation data. Discriminant analysis and analysis of variance were applied in order to find environmental correlations of the vegetation clustering.

The vegetation was found to indicate the nutrient regime of the humus layer well, but to a less extent the properties of the sub-soil. The understorey vegetation was found to be jointly dependent on the site fertility and on the properties of the tree stand, especially on the tree species composition. Although the forest vegetation appears to be distributed rather continuously along an axis of increasing site fertility, relatively unambiguous classification can be based on the appearance of indicator species and species groups.

The results of the study were interpreted as indication that operational site classification done using the vegetation is rather good method for classification in closed forest stands. Different methods produce relatively consistent, natural and ecologically interpretable classifications. The results also imply that the vegetation cover and the humus layer develop concurrently during the development of the ecosystem, but the differentiation of the site type is regulated simultaneously by a number of interacting factors ranging from mineralogical properties of the parent material to the topographical exposition of the site. As the plant cover depicts all these primary factors simultaneously, only a relatively rough ecological site classification can be based on the vegetation.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kuusipalo, E-mail: jk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7645, category Article
Viljo Holopainen, Aarne Nyyssönen, N. A. Osara, Jouko Hämäläinen, K. O. Donner. (1984). Suomen Metsätieteellinen seura 75 vuotta. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 190 article id 7645. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7645
English title: The 75th Anniversary volume of the Society of Forestry in Finland.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomen Metsätieteellinen Seura; Suomi
English keywords: Finland; Finnish Society of Forest Science; forest reserarch
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The 75th Anniversary volume of the Society of Forestry in Finland (now the Finnish Society of Forest Science) consists of three invited papers.

Professor Viljo Holopainen contributed the article ”The Society of Forestry in Finland during the period of active science and forest policy”. The article gives an account of the founding of the Society and its early activities, and views the main trends in the development of forest science in Finland. The emphasis is on a review of the science policy practiced in Finland during the past few decades, the changes that have taken place in forestry and forest policy and the challenges facing forest research in the changed circumstances. The development in the organization and material resources of forest research is examined in relation to the general trends in science policy. The author also gives an extensive account of the Society’s activities.

Professor Aarne Nyyssönen’s article ”International connections of Finnish forestry research” is an account of the international connections that forestry research in Finland has had in recent years. The author begins with international cooperation in university level education, especially in research training. He then proceeds to examine the international organizations in the field of forestry research, their tasks, activities and the role of Finnish researchers in them. A special form of cooperation, based on bilateral agreements between Finland and other countries is brought up. The greatest importance is attached to Nordic cooperation.

Professor N.A. Osara studies the comprehensive question ”World forestry: some trends and prospects”. The article begins with a review of forest resources, which points out several alarming problems in the tropical and subtropical zones as well as in industrialized countries. Prospects for expansion in the consumption of wood and wood-based products, industry and trade are studied in relation to wood availability and renewable forest resources. The author concludes that forestry can contribute to the improvement of rural conditions all over the world. He also stresses the importance of forest management not only for wood production but also for soil and water management.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Holopainen, E-mail: vh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown
  • Osara, E-mail: no@mm.unknown
  • Hämäläinen, E-mail: jh@mm.unknown
  • Donner, E-mail: kd@mm.unknown
article id 7636, category Article
Kari Heliövaara, Rauno Väisänen. (1984). Effects of modern forestry on Northwestern European forest invertebrates: a synthesis. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 189 article id 7636. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7636
Keywords: forest fires; forest management; insects; forestry; intensive silviculture; Scandinavia; forest invertebrates; primeval forests; changes in boreal forest dynamics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of modern forestry on northwest European forest invertebrates are summarized and analysed mainly on the basis of published literature. The direct influence of different practices including clear-cutting, thinning, burning-over, ploughing, changes in tree species composition of stands, fertilization, insecticides, pheromones and biological control are discussed from a forest zoological point of view. Also, the indirect effects of general changes in boreal forest dynamics, loss of primeval forests, cessation of natural fires and the dominance of young stands are described. The direct effects of different silvicultural practices on the species composition and diversity of forest invertebrates are usually considered to be striking but transient. However, when large areas are treated, the species associated with primeval forests, especially with the wood composition system in them, as well as the species associated with fires, seem to have drastically declined. In northwest Europe, efficient forestry has not caused such serious pest problems as is known from tropical countries or North America.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Heliövaara, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
  • Väisänen, E-mail: rv@mm.unknown
article id 7627, category Article
Markku Simula. (1983). Productivity differentials in the Finnish forest industries. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 180 article id 7627. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7627
Keywords: productivity; paper industry; Finland; forest industry; sawmill industry; pulp industry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Improvement of Finnish forest industries’ competitiveness in the world markets through productivity increase as branch and plant level requires the search for appropriate comprehensive productivity indicators and the analysis of factors underlying productivity variations. These were the main objectives of the study. The data was based on the information on individual plants in 1974, obtained from the files of Industrial Statistics in the Central Statistical Office in Finland.

The study uses neoclassical average production functions as the starting point and the theory is expanded to cover factors underlying productivity variation when measured with regard to labour, capital, material input, and total factor input. For the measurement of the latter an index formula is suggested which would not necessarily incorporate neoclassical assumptions as they cannot be assumed valid in the Finnish forest industries. The estimation results of average production functions suggest increasing rate of returns in sawmilling but in pulp and paper production evidence remains inconclusive. The elasticity of substitution is unlikely to be constant and the non-homotheticity assumption cannot be rejected.

The productivity variation is, in general, best explained by a relatively simple model with capital-labour ratio, plant size and output quality as explanatory factors. Further trials with input quality, input price ratio, process characteristics, and the rate of capacity utilization improved the models only marginally in most cases, which may have been partly due to the failure to measure the variables successfully.

The cross-section results are compared with those of an earlier time-series study. The estimation results of average production functions yield somewhat different information in the long and short run. Both cross-section and time-series productivity models illustrate the importance of output level in total productivity.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Simula, E-mail: ms@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7625, category Article
Antti Turakka, Olavi Luukkanen, Suree Bhumibhamon. (1982). Notes on Pinus kesiya and P. merkusii and their natural regeneration in watershed areas of northern Thailand. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 178 article id 7625. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7625
Keywords: forest fires; natural regeneration; Pinus kesiya; Thailand; Pinus mercusii
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present work was to clarify the structure of selected natural Pinus kesiya Royale ex Gord. And P. merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese stands, with particular attention on the amount and quality of naturally-occurring seedlings and young trees. Furthermore, basic information required in the management of pine stands in watershed areas of northern Thailand was obtained.

Large number of pine seedlings were found in P. kesiyana stands only. Two of the examined four localities where this species occurred also included various intermediary height classes under the mature trees. In dense stands the number of seedlings was generally smaller as compared with lower seed tree densities. Neither one of the two localities where P. Merkusii was investigated indicated sufficient natural regeneration. Young pines (over 5 m height) seemed to survive the frequent ground fires quite well, whereas younger seedlings were destroyed and the ground layer vigour was lowered in these cases.

In situ sowing experiments at the beginning of the dry season indicated a faster development and better survival of emerging P. Kesiya seedlings as compared to P. Merkusii. Soil preparation and exposure to sun decreased the survival of seedlings in both species. Utilization of natural regeneration and direct sowing of pines as a silvicultural method as well as the general significance of the two pine species in the succession of plant communities under the influence of forest fires is also discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Turakka, E-mail: at@mm.unknown (email)
  • Luukkanen, E-mail: ol@mm.unknown
  • Bhumibhamon, E-mail: sb@mm.unknown
article id 7622, category Article
Matti Leikola. (1981). Suomen metsätieteellisen julkaisutoiminnan rakenne ja määrällinen kehitys vv. 1909-1978. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 175 article id 7622. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7622
English title: Structure and development of publishing activity in Finnish Forest Sciences in 1909–1978.
Original keywords: metsäntutkimus; Suomi; julkaisutoiminta
English keywords: Finland; forest research; forest sciences; publishing
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This study examines the extent, structure and development of the publishing activity of Finnish forest sciences between 1909–1978. The subject comprises the four main forestry series; Acta Forestalia Fennica, Silva Fennica, Communicationes Forestales Fenniae and Folia Forestalia. Collectively, 532 authors produced 1,715 publications containing 90,134 pages.
The total number of pages of forest science publications doubled every 25 years. Only a small number of short research reports (few pages) and long monographs (over 200 pages) were published. The median age class of the authors was 36–40 years. The so called Lotka’s law, which describes the productivity of the researchers, proved to be valid in forest sciences. According to this law, among other things, one tenth of the researchers produced approximately half of all publications. Despite changes, the structure of the publisher community remained roughly constant. Every year approximately 30% of the author community was composed of new members, whilst 19–26% of authors stopped publishing.

  • Leikola, E-mail: ml@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7617, category Article
Risto Savolainen, Seppo Kellomäki. (1981). Metsän maisemallinen arvostus. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 170 article id 7617. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7617
English title: Scenic value of forest landscape.
Original keywords: metsänhoito; virkistyskäyttö; maisema; metsämaisema; maiseman arvostus; luontoelämys
English keywords: forest management; recreation; forest landscape; attractiveness; scenic value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two approaches were applied in measuring the scenic value of forest landscapes. In the field, the scenic value of forest lands representing clear cut areas, as well as young closed stands and mature stands with varying tree species composition, were assessed. In the laboratory, the scenic value of the same stands was measured with the help of photographs of the same stand. The same persons representing forest students (36 persons) and city dwellers (25 persons) made the evaluation.

Stands of moderate density containing individual tall trees and a coniferous undergrowth had the greatest scenic value, independently of the tree species composition. However, birch was preferred to Scots pine and Norway spruce. Measurements made in the field by means of interviews, and in the laboratory based on photographs, gave very similar results. Photographs seem to represent a reliable tool for estimating the scenic value of forest landscapes.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Savolainen, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown (email)
  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown
article id 7615, category Article
Erkki Wuolijoki. (1981). Effects of simulated tractor vibration on the psychophysiological and mechanical functions of the driver : comparison of some excitatory frequencies. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 168 article id 7615. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7615
Keywords: forest work; forest tractor; ergonomy; occupational health; vibration; tractor driver
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to search for differences in ergonomic effects between lateral 1, 2, 3 and 4 Hz whole-body vibrations of the forest tractor driver. Healthy male volunteers, both professional drivers and students, were exposed to 692 different vibrations in four different experiments, total number of subjects being 34.

Increase of vibration displacement affected clearly the subjects’ manipulating ability. The subjective magnitude rating of vibration correlated with energy content of vibration, but no correlation was found between subjective rating and heart rate, blood pressure or urinary catecholamine excretion, although the last variables mentioned indicate the energy consumption of the body. The professional drivers rated the vibration with smaller ratings than amateur drivers.

Frequency alteration of tractor vibration can be a possibility for reduction of vibrational effects as a tool for industrial hygiene.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Wuolijoki, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7599, category Article
Veikko Juhana Palosuo. (1979). MERA-ohjelmat Suomen metsätaloudessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 165 article id 7599. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7599
English title: MERA programmes in the Finnish forestry.
Original keywords: metsänparannus; metsänhoito; metsäpolitiikka; Suomi
English keywords: forest management; forest policy; Finland; forest improvement work
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Forest Financing Committee played an important role in Finnish Forestry in the 1960's. This voluntary working group prepared three plans for financing basic forest improvement work from 1965 to 1975.

The report describes the origin of the MERA I (1965–70) and the volunteer work of the Forestry Financing (MERA) Committee in preparing the second and third programmes (1966–75). It deals the initiative of the Committee aiming to finance forest improvement works also from international sources, resulted later on to the Forest Improvement Project (1973–76). Its costs were covered for 16% by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in form of a State Loan. The report includes comments about the forest policy in Finland during the 60s and 70s as well as the results of the programmes.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish and Swedish.

  • Palosuo, E-mail: vp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7593, category Article
Erkki Wuolijoki. (1977). Metsätyöntekijän väsyminen. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 159 article id 7593. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7593
English title: Fatigue in forest work.
Original keywords: työ; rasitus; työntekijät; lihastyö; maitohappo; fyysinen kuormitus
English keywords: forest work; forest workers; physical stress; work; lactic acid
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to search for measurement methods of muscle fatigue in forest work. Lactic acid concentration of capillary blood was measured from test persons after submaximal and maximal strain tests in laboratory and during forest work. At rest the lactic acid content was affected mainly by the body dimensions and blood pressure. In a maximal strain test it was affected mainly by the age. In submaximal forest work lactic acid content concentrated below the attitude factor indicating working pace and below the body dimensions so that bigger persons had a higher lactic acid concentration than smaller persons.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Wuolijoki, E-mail: ew@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7591, category Article
Heikki Juslin. (1977). Yksityismetsänomistajien puunmyyntiasenteisiin vaikuttaminen. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 157 article id 7591. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7591
English title: Influencing private forest owners’ attitudes towards timber sales.
Original keywords: yksityismetsät; metsänomistajat; asenteet; puunmyynti
English keywords: forest owners; private forests; timber sales; attitudes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the study was to produce information which is needed when planning the influencing the timber sales propensity of private forest owners. The study deals with the relations between communication behaviour and cutting behaviour as well as the attitudes and norms connected with them. On the basis of the results of this study, the choice of psychodynamic model can be recommended as a main strategy of influencing the timber sales propensity of forest owners. The paper gives the information basis for the choice of channels and messages of influencing.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Juslin, E-mail: hj@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7590, category Article
Jukka Sarvas. (1977). Mathematical model for the physiological clock and growth. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 156 article id 7590. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7590
Keywords: forest trees; annual cycle; physiological clock
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In this paper a precise definition is given of the term physiological clock and the role of this clock in biological developmental and growth processes is mathematically studied. The heat sum method employed in the study of the annual cycle of development of forest trees has been used as the starting point. The mathematical principles of this method are analysed and it is shown that, on the same principles, a fairly general physiological clock can be constructed. Also, two growth models are presented in which this generalized physiological clock proves to play an important role.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Sarvas, E-mail: js@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7588, category Article
Niilo Söyrinki, Risto Salmela, Jorma Suvanto. (1977). Oulangan kansallispuiston metsä- ja suokasvillisuus. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 154 article id 7588. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7588
English title: The forest and mire vegetation of the Oulanka National Park, Northern Finland.
Original keywords: kasvillisuus; metsätyypit; Lappi; suotyypit; kansallispuistot; suojelualueet
English keywords: vegetation; Finland; Lapland; nature conservation; forest types; national parks; peatland types; vegetation types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The Oulanka National Park is situated in the district of Kuusamo on the eastern border of Finland, close to the Arctic Circle and within the coniferous forest zone. It covers a surface area of 107 km2, and is known for the richness of its vegetation and flora, a product of a varied bedrock pattern including occurrences of dolomite. A description is given of the vegetation of the 9 forest and 47 peatland types distinguishable in the area by means of tables based on quadrat surveys. The distribution of each forest and peatland type is described in a vegetation map. The vegetation types are discussed in terms of the structure of their soil and the ecological and floristic features of their plant cover.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Söyrinki, E-mail: ns@mm.unknown (email)
  • Salmela, E-mail: rs@mm.unknown
  • Suvanto, E-mail: js@mm.unknown
article id 7582, category Article
Pentti Alho. (1975). Metsien tuoton alueellisista eroista Suomessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 148 article id 7582. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7582
English title: Regional differences in forest returns within Finland.
Original keywords: tuottokyky; alueelliset erot; kantohinnat; metsän tuotto
English keywords: Finland; regional differences; timber yield; stumpage prices; forest returns
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this paper was to study the nature of the relative areal differences in the Finnish forests in respect of timber yield, intensity of exploitation and stumpage prices. The yield index is the most inconsistent and the source of the greatest regional differences. The differences arise even in Southern Finland, as the yield in the South-West is only 80 % of that obtained in Eastern Häme. The areal variations in the wastage index are of the order of only 10 % at most, and the stumpage price index is relatively constant, remaining within the 10 % limit, as far north as the southern boundary of the province of Oulu.

Indices for the forest yield and final forest returns suggest that the further one goes in Finland the greater the discrepancy between the two, as a consequence of the increase in stumpage price differences. Thus, whereas the yield per hectare in North-Eastern Finland is about 20 % of that in Eastern Häme, the stumpage price is similarly only just over 50 % of that prevailing in the latter area. This, the resulting returns per hectare are only 10 % of those obtainable in the more southerly area. When the return per hectare for the Forestry Board District of Eastern Häme is represented by the index 100, one then obtains corresponding return indices of 21.0 for the Northern Ostrobothnia and Kainuu area, 13.0 for Lapland and 10.0 for North-Eastern Finland. Thus, it may be said that roughly 10 hectares of forest land in Lapland, 5 in Northern Ostrobothnia or Kainuu, or 2 in Northern Karelia or the coastal area of southern and central Ostrobothnia would be required to produce the same returns as 1 hectare in Eastern Häme. This represents an extremely wide range of variation within the borders of one country.

This work provides a clear and sufficiently accurate impression of the order of magnitude of the areal differences in returns from the Finnish forests, and may thus serve as an adequate basis for the taking of decisions in this field.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7581, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki, Varpu-Leena Saastamoinen. (1975). Trampling tolerance of forest vegetation. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 147 article id 7581. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7581
Keywords: ground vegetation; forest types; forest vegetation; trampling tolerance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The trampling tolerance of ground vegetation of different types of forest stands has been examined in this study in the light of short-term trampling. The trampling treatment was simulated by a mechanical tamp. The relation between deterioration of the ground vegetation and the amount of the trampling was presumed to follow a curvilinear pattern when the material was being analysed. In order to quantify this relationship, a mathematical equation was developed for every plant community and their members of which the trampling tolerance was analysed. The trampling tolerance was compared using a parameter of the developed equations. Vegetation growing on sites of the Myrtillus, Vaccinium and Calluna types was included in the study.

The study showed a clear difference in the trampling tolerance between the ground vegetation of sites differing in their fertility. The ground vegetation typical of the Calluna type was found to have a lower trampling tolerance than the vegetation of the most fertile sites which were studied. It can be concluded that the relationship between the site fertility and the trampling tolerance of the ground vegetation is a curvilinear one such that the trampling tolerance of the vegetation on the poorest and the richest sites is lower than that of the vegetation growing on sites of medium fertility. However, it does appear that the most fertile sites have a higher trampling tolerance than the poorest sites. In addition, information about the trampling tolerance of a number of commonly occurring forest plants is also presented.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Saastamoinen, E-mail: vs@mm.unknown
article id 7580, category Article
Seppo Kellomäki. (1975). Forest stand preferences of recreationists. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 146 article id 7580. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7580
Keywords: tree species; mixed forests; recreation; forest landscape; nature; outdoorsman; scenery; scenic beauty; scenic value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The environmental preferences of recreationists were studied at the forest stand level in this study. The hypothesis which has been drawn up on the basis of the literature has been studied by attempting to elucidate the environmental preferences of groups using two recreation areas owned by the City of Helsinki using interviews and questionnaires. The material consisted of 1,323 interviews supplemented by questionnaires.

The replies to the questionnaires showed that recreationists consider birch and Scots pine to be more beautiful than Norway spruce, and stands made up of several tree species to be more beautiful than stands of single tree species. They also consider mature stands to be more beautiful than young stands.

During the interviews, the attention of the recreationists was directed at the view formed by the interview stand. The scenic preferences for the stands were measured using adjectives which the interviewee was asked to use in describing his or her impression of the view which was pointed out. First of all, the results clearly indicated that from the point of view of the scenic value of the stand, the way in which the stand is organised to form a scenic aspect or a stand view is more important than its ecological structure. However, it is obvious that stands containing large sized trees in particular are in many ways more preferred than stands which are younger in their development stage. This should therefore be the case when changes in the stand view resulting from management measures are insignificant or difficult to see. The main tree species in the stand does not seem to have from the point of view of scenic preference as much significance as would have been expected judging by the questionnaire material.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kellomäki, E-mail: sk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7578, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo, Mikko Ilvessalo. (1975). Suomen metsätyypit metsiköiden luontaisen kehitys- ja puuntuottokyvyn valossa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 144 article id 7578. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7578
English title: The forest types of Finland in the light of natural development and yield capacity of forest stands.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; puuntuotantokyky; alueellinen jakautuminen
English keywords: wood production; forest types; regional differences; yield capacity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present study was to describe the forest types of Finnish mineral forest lands as a uniform whole in the light of stand development and wood production.

The study shows that it has been possible to work out uniform age-based development series for different stand characteristics for forest types on mineral forest lands in Finland. There is generally a clear difference in the development series of various stand characteristics and their average values between different forest types. The exceptions in a few places have been explained as depending on certain factors. The differences between adjacent forest types in order of their quality are of varying magnitude, thus differing from a schematic site quality classification obtained through calculation. Consequently, each forest type has its own development series with regard to the stand characteristics.

The number of forest types in the whole country is rather high. However, the different forest types are limited to different parts cf the country in such a way that there is no need for more than 5–6 forest types and 4 northerly sub-forms (-types) in each region, except in the border areas between the regions. In Finland the forest types have been the basis of forest site classification in forest research and practical forestry over a period of half a century. In pointing out the necessity of further study of forest types, Cajander has stressed the examination of differences in the compositions of vegetation between different classes of density of tree-stand and building up average descriptions of vegetation in such classes in young, middle-age and old stands. The same may be caused by some other factors which also are of essential influence to the composition of the vegetation.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: mi@mm.unknown
article id 7577, category Article
Pekka Kilkki, Raimo Pökälä. (1975). A long-term timber production model and its application to a large forest area. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 143 article id 7577. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7577
Keywords: forest management; forestry; timber production; methods; timber production model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A long-term timber production model was developed. The model is based upon numerical simulation and it is viewed only as a means of providing the decision-maker with values of the predicting variables in his utility function. Special attention was paid to the development of automatic cutting decision rules. The model was applied to the area of 2,752,000 hectares of forest land in Central Finland. The measurement data were extracted from the Sixth National Forest Inventory, which was made in 1973. Utilities from a hypothetical utility function were attained to a number of feasible timber production policies. The Bayes and maximin criteria were employed to evaluate these policies.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
  • Pökälä, E-mail: rp@mm.unknown
article id 7576, category Article
Matti Palo. (1974). Goal-setting for Finnish forest research policy of the 1970's : a plan concerning the potential effectiveness of forest research activities in the implementation of the Government science policy program. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 142 article id 7576. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7576
Keywords: forest policy; Finland; forest research; forest sciences
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this paper was to design the goals for Finland's forest research policy in the 1970's in order to promote the implementation of the five general science policy objectives approved by the Government. Nine objectives and 22 research activities were formed for forest research policy by applying the relevance tree approach. A simplified Delphi technique was used to find out the two groups of forest research activities having the strongest and second strongest impact on the five Government science policy objectives.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Palo, E-mail: mp@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7569, category Article
Heikki Vesikallio. (1974). Yksityismetsälöiden alueelliset yhdentymisratkaisut puunkorjuun ja metsänhoitotöiden kustannusten kannalta. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 135 article id 7569. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7569
English title: Regional cooperation in farm forests in Finland. Possibilities to control the costs of wood harvesting and silvicultural operations.
Original keywords: metsätalous; yksityismetsät; kustannukset; yhteistyö; yhteisomistus; yhteismetsät
English keywords: forest management; forestry; costs; private forests; cooperation; joined ownership
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The paper deals with the possibilities of decreasing the costs of timber harvesting and silvicultural work through regional cooperation between private forest owners in Finland. Alternatives based on joint management and, on the other hand, joint ownership were compared with activities on a forest-unit basis. According to the results obtained, considerable savings in costs can be gained through cooperation on a regional basis. Examination of the data obtained from the study shows that in the case of harvesting some 40 million Finnish marks can be saved annually by application of the joint-management alternative, and as much as 90 million marks annually by the joint-ownership alternative, when taking the whole country into consideration. The corresponding values for silvicultural work were 2 million marks and 4 million marks, respectively.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Vesikallio, E-mail: hv@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7564, category Article
Kauko Hahtola. (1973). The rationale of decision-making by forest owners. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 130 article id 7564. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7564
Keywords: forest management; forest owners; private forests; farm forestry; decision-making
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The study explores the mental and environmental factors affecting the normative and strategic decision-making of forest owners. Four value orientations: preference for subsistence economy, attachment to land, resistance to change and traditionalism are defined by the aid of factor analysis, as well as six ecological types of farming: (1) problem farming, (2) extensive part-time farming, (3) prosperous field farming, (4) labour-intensive family farming, (5) part-time farming, and (6) commercial farming. The decisions analysed on the basis of these theoretical constructs concern management, cooperation and the promotion of private forestry. Some philosophical problems connected with the use of mental variables are also discussed.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Hahtola, E-mail: kh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7562, category Article
Rihko Haarlaa. (1973). The effect of terrain on the output in forest transportation of timber. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 128 article id 7562. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7562
Keywords: forest haulage; timber transportation; terrain; forest tractor; transportation costs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The first part of the study includes a summary of conclusions from five earlier reports dealing with terrain transportation costs, effect of terrain, load, snow and additional machine components on the mobility of forest tractors, and the distance a vehicle has to move in forest transportation of timber. In the second part of the study the effect of these separate factors on the transport output have been analysed on the basis of simulating a transportation of 3,000 loads by computer.

It was concluded that no specific terrain factor had a dominating effect on any component of the forwarding output. However, many terrain-factor combinations with a nonsignificant effect on the mobility and also on the forwarding output were identified. The most significant factors affecting the output were the size of load and the distance driven during the cycle.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Haarlaa, E-mail: rh@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7556, category Article
Pekka Kilkki. (1971). Optimization of stand treatment based on the marginal productivity of land and growing stock. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 122 article id 7556. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7556
Keywords: forest management; forest management planning; methods; stand treatment; marginal productivity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Production of timber in forest stands is described by a production function. The variable inputs of the function are land and growing stock and the output is the annual value growth. The partial derivatives of this production function express the marginal productivity of the land and of auction function express the marginal productivity of the land and of the growing stock. These marginal productivities can be utilized for determination of the need of regeneration and thinning. The stand should be regenerated when the marginal productivity of the land falls below the annual rent of a unit area of open land and thinned when the marginal productivity of the growing stock falls below the annual rent of one unit of growing stock.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7554, category Article
Matti Keltikangas. (1971). Time factor and investment calculations in timber growing. Theoretical fundamentals. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 120 article id 7554. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7554
Keywords: forest management; profitability; investment; time factor; interest rates
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The role of the time factor is discussed from the viewpoint that investment calculations are expected to be used to transform and condense information and not necessarily to show the optimum. Some general conclusions are drawn concerning the recommendable form of such a calculation when used by a consultant advising a forest owner. A few of the practical problems arising in the connection of applications to timber growing are also discussed.

In conclusion, a recommendation was developed for the calculation procedure to be used in the so-called contractual research into the profitability sequence of forest improvements. It would seem advisable to carry out the calculations using both varying interest rates and varying time horizons. In addition, it is justifiable also to present the expected series of cash flow changes, such as they are, among the results. Further studies will follow.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Keltikangas, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7553, category Article
Leo Ahonen. (1971). Diskonttausarvo ja hakkuitten ajallinen tahdistus. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 119 article id 7553. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7553
English title: Discount value and time sequence of fellings.
Original keywords: metsänarvonlaskenta; metsänarvo; hakkuuennuste; hakkuumahto; diskonttausmäärä
English keywords: forest valuation; cutting budget; forest holding; discount value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the study was to discover a model by which the determination of the discount value of a woodlot can be simplified so as to make it possible to avoid both the computation of a cutting budget and the customary discount procedure itself. The regression analysis of the cutting budget data that indicates the discounted amount of the fellings to be expected and the assortment composition can be discovered rather accurately as a function of the measured stand characteristics only.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ahonen, E-mail: la@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7550, category Article
Aarne Nyyssönen, Pentti Roiko-Jokela, Pekka Kilkki. (1971). Studies on improvement of the efficiency of systematic sampling in forest inventory. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 116 article id 7550. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7550
Keywords: forest inventory; costs; sampling; sample plots; sample plot size; systematic sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Emphasis was laid on the finding of regression equations to indicate the dependence of standard error upon various variables in systematic sampling. As a result, the size of sample for a given precision could be computed, under varying alternatives of sample plot size and type. Another task was that of examining inventory costs by means of time studies. On combination of the results in regard to the sample size and survey time, the relative efficiency of different alternatives could be discussed, with a view to the precision of the total volume of growing stock.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Nyyssönen, E-mail: an@mm.unknown (email)
  • Roiko-Jokela, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown
  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown
article id 7543, category Article
Päiviö Riihinen. (1970). The forest owner and his attitudes toward forestry promotion. A study based on forest owners in Ostrobothnia, Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 109 article id 7543. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7543
Keywords: forest management; forest owners; attitudes; forestry promotion
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study is (1) to develop, on the basis of sociological and economic theory, and of occasional observations, a frame of reference capable of providing a starting point for an empirical analysis of the behaviour of forest owners, and (2) to provide an insight into attitudes, and relate these with such general characteristics of forest owners as are theoretically defensible and supported by empirical findings.

The analysis of the results show that the more forest owners know about forestry the more generally are they willing to mark themselves trees for cutting, the more negative toward forest management associations, and the more inclined to believe that teaching forestry in elementary school is useful.

In general, it seems that the attitudes of forest owners toward forestry promotion in its »traditional» form become more negative as industrialization and urbanization raise the level of knowledge and technical know-how. However, this shift is not linear; there is first a weakening of negative attitudes (shift from mechanical to organic solidarity), while a further social change characterized by industrialization, urbanization, etc. seems to result in increasingly negative attitudes.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Riihinen, E-mail: pr@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7542, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1970). Metsiköiden luontainen kehitys- ja puuntuottokyky Pohjois-Lapin kivennäismailla. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 108 article id 7542. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7542
English title: Natural development and yield capacity of forest stands on mineral soils in Northern Lapland.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; Pohjois-Lappi; luonnonnormaalit metsät
English keywords: growth; forest types; natural normal forests; Northern Lapland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is fifth part of a series of papers on fully stocked natural normal stands on mineral soils in Finland. This part studies the stands in Northern Lapland, dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). This investigation was concerned mainly with Scotch pine stands, using Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and birch (Betula sp.) stands for comparison only. 107 sample plots were measured.

The most common forest types in the area are Empetrum-Myrtillus-(Cladina) type, EM(C1), Ericacea-Cladinae type, ErCIT, P-L, and Cladina type, C1T. Stand development is more rapid and wood production greater in EM(C1) type than ErCIT, while the C1T stands are further behind in all respects. The average differences in stand characteristics between forest types are roughly similar, but for cubic volume and total production less, than between the more southerly forest types. Measurements made from increment cores taken at breast height have confirmed that variation of the pine annual ring width has on average been very considerable, in accordance with the climatic, mainly temperature, variations, in the investigation area close to the north pine forest limit.

The few plots from birch and spruce stands measured as samples in the northern Lapland investigation area indicate the generally poor development and wood production of these stands by comparison with pine stands.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7539, category Article
Leo Ahonen. (1970). Diskonttausarvo metsän hinnoitusinformaationa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 105 article id 7539. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7539
English title: Discount value as a basis for valuation of woodlots.
Original keywords: metsämaa; metsänarvonlaskenta; diskonttausarvo; metsän hinta; metsätila
English keywords: forest valuation; value of land; forest holdings; discout value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This methodical study aims at assessing discount value and its nature and function in setting a price for a forest holding. The aim is to study how the subject interested in buying or selling a woodlot could in the most meaningful way use discount value to prepare the sale and aid the decision making, taking account his personal interests. The paper includes a literature review on the determination of value.

It is concluded that woodlots have no «correct and real» values and, therefore, they cannot be calculated. Value is formed for the woodlots only in connection to the subject running the household, and his environment and actions. A discount value can be defined as a discount value of future net incomes. In the study different ways to calculate discount value are analysed.

The PDF includes a summary in German.

  • Ahonen, E-mail: la@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7609, category Article
Matti Kärkkäinen. (1969). Metsän vaurioituminen kesäaikaisessa puunkorjuussa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 100 article id 7609. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7609
English title: The amount of injuries caused by timber transportation in the summer.
Keywords: logging; forest haulage; transportation; methods; logging damages; tree damage; terrain damage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to build a mathematic predictive model for the formation of injuries and to try its usability in predicting. The empirical data consisted of 24 thinning sites, which were situated mainly in forests owned by forestry companies. The timber was made by strip roads. The terrain transportation of timber was carried out by forwarders or by agricultural tractor-trailer combinations.

The model has been compiled by multiple regression analysis. The predictive model has been interpreted so that the formation of injuries is, for one part, dependent of the number of trees exposed to damages, and, on the other hand, on the factors influencing the probability of injuries, the possibility for this existing. The number of trees exposed to injuries is dependent on the density of strip roads and on the amount of standing timber left after logging. The probability of injuries is influenced by the quality of the standing timber, the type of soil and the intensity of the timber harvesting process.

The predictive model has been interpreted in similar way as the number of injured trees. The possibility of formation of injuries is mainly affected by the length of strip roads and the amount of the standing timber. The probability of injuries is influenced, for the part of the number of root injuries by the strength of the soil type, and probably also by transportation equipment. For the amount of stem injuries no valid predictive equation was found in this study.

  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: mk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7608, category Article
Peitsa Mikola. (1969). Comparative observations on the nursery technique in different parts of the world. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 98 article id 7608. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7608
Keywords: Finland; New Zealand; substrate; forest nurseries; nurseries; methods; Africa; potted seedlings; greenhouses; Mediterranean countries; Australia; Latin America
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This paper is a report of the authors visits to over 80 forestry nurseries in 20 countries mostly in the tropics or subtropics. The article aim is to describe the methods used in the various countries and compares them to the conventional methods of cool and temperate countries. The article introduces nurseries of Africa south of the Sahara, Mediterranean area, Australian and New Zealand and Latin America.

A complete revolution has taken place in the Finnish nursery practice, which used to raise the seedlings in natural field soil in open-air nurseries. The seedlings were usually transplanted into transplant beds at the age of two years. Now the use of plastic greenhouses of light construction and an artificial soil substrate (fertilized peat) are essential. The new technique has some similarities to the practises of the tropical and subtropical nurseries. In Finland cultivation in greenhouses has hastened the development of the seedlings and shortened the nursery rotation from four to two years, and provided better control of watering and fertilization.

Peat beds in greenhouses are used also in Swaziland. The advantage of peat is that it is free of weed seeds, which eliminates weeding. Peat substrate gives also better yield of seedlings, which decreases the need of seeds, which is important in Finland. Another technique common with tropical silviculture is the production of potted seedlings, which are easy to handle and transport. In tropics, peat pots (jiffy pots) have made it possible to grow plantable seedlings in one season without transplanting. The present Finnish technique means a decreased degree of mechanization compared to the conventional technique of modern European and American nurseries.

  • Mikola, E-mail: pm@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7607, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1969). The time table of vegetative spreading of the lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis L.) and the wood small-reed (Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth) in southern Finland. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 97 article id 7607. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7607
Keywords: regeneration; forest fire; Calamagrostis epigeios; lily-of-the-valley; Convallaria majalis; wood small-reed
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study has been to compile a time-table for the vegetative spreading o the lily-of-the-valley and the wood small-reed. The diameters of the mainly solitary stands of these species have been compared to stand diameters of bracken (Lycopodium clavatum, L. annotium, and L. complanatum), to tree age determined by basal borings, and to times of fires in the site.

Regeneration of the lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria Majalis L.) and the wood small-reed (Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth) from seed is relatively infrequent, and distance between stands may be considerable. Regeneration is more common after fire. The stands of the species are relatively fire resistant, especially on heathlands, where the subsurface parts are safe in the mineral soil. Large stands are generally due to vegetative spreading.

The rate of vegetative spreading of both of the species is practically constant, and about equal, 12.5 cm/year in diameter and 6.2 cm/year in the radial direction. When the actual regeneration time after the fire is not known, the rate of the spreading can be lower than this number.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7605, category Article
Yrjö Ilvessalo. (1969). Luonnonnormaalien metsiköiden kehityksestä Pohjanmaan kivennäismailla. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 96 article id 7605. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7605
English title: The development of natural normal forest stands on mineral soils in Ostrobothnia in Finland.
Original keywords: metsätyypit; Pohjanmaa; luonnonnormaalit metsät
English keywords: Finland; growth; forest types; Ostrobothnia; natural normal forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The article is third part of a series of papers on fully stocked natural normal stands on mineral soils in Finland. This part studies area between the ca. 62nd and 66nd parallels of the strip of land on the Gulf of Bothnia stretching from the coast to an altitude of 150 m above the sea level. The material consists of 121 sample plots in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands, 36 sample plots in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and 22 sample plots in birch (Betula sp.) stands.

Since the vegetation gradually changes from south to north, it was considered necessary to separate sub-types (marked s.) for certain southern-central forest types; these are poorer in vegetation but obviously more generally found than the main types. The Myrtillus s. sub-type shows slower development of pine stands than the Myrtillus type. The number of stems on the former is greater, owing to the slow initial development, but the mean diameter and height are smaller than on the latter. The difference in volume and growth increases with age. The slower the rate of self-thinning on the sub-type has the effect that the differences in total production are small.

The Vaccinium sub-type s. (VTs.) is poorer in vegetation than the southern-central type, differs from VT less than was the difference in the MT sub-types. The Empetrum-Vaccinium type (EVT) in general differs considerably from the VT but less from the VTs., in relation to which the difference shows mainly in the volume and total production. The EVT differs from the Calluna type as regards in all stand characteristics.

The results of this study suggest that the s.c. sub-type MT could be placed between the types MT and VT. This has significance especially in forest mensuration. However, in practical forest inventories it would seem possible to combine MT and MTs. to avoid having too many site classes. The types VT and VTs. can generally be considered nearly as one type. Similarly, CT and ECT (Empetrum-Calluna type) may be regarded as one site group. The differences may also partly be due to differences in early treatment of the forests.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Ilvessalo, E-mail: yi@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7600, category Article
Pekka Kilkki. (1968). Income-oriented cutting budget. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 91 article id 7600. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7600
Keywords: forest management; forest management planning; income; methods; forest holdings; cutting budget
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to develop cutting budget methods for a forest undertaking. Cutting budget provides information on the future income from the forest undertaking, and on the development of the forest.

Two cutting budget models have been developed, by the application of simulation and linear programming. Both of the models are deterministic in nature, i.e. there is only one possible outcome once the stated input information has been given. To make the models simpler, it has been assumed that thinning and clear cutting with reforestation are the only activities that can occur in the forest. The models are directly applicable only to forests consisting of even-aged Scots pine stands at three different forest types. However, they can easily be extended to cover forests comprising several tree species and more sites.

In the light of this study, simulation seems today to be more appropriate than linear programming in the preparation of cutting budgets. However, the increasing capacity of computers may even in the near future make linear programming quite competitive, especially as if it is borne in mind that the theoretical basis of linear programming is much firmer than that of simulation. The most advisable cutting budget method might consist of a combination of simulation and linear programming. Simulation could be employed to find a rough cutting schedule, and linear programming to test and improve the solution.

The PDF includes a summary in Finnish.

  • Kilkki, E-mail: pk@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7189, category Article
Pentti Alho. (1968). Pohjois-Pohjanmaan metsien käytön kehitys ja sen vaikutus metsien tilaan. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 89 article id 7189. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7189
English title: Utilization of forests in north Ostrobothnia and its effect on their condition.
Original keywords: hakkuut; kaskiviljely; hakkuutavat; tervanpoltto; metsien käyttö; metsävarat; sahateollisuus; Pohjois-Pohjanmaa; poimintahakkuut
English keywords: Finland; forest utilization; selective cutting; logging methods; forest resources; Ostrobothnia
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of the present investigation was to study the extent of human interference with the forests of different epochs in the district of north Ostrobothnia in Northern Finland, and its effect on the condition of the forests.

The study revealed that the quantities of wood removed were not most detrimental to the condition of the forest; the regionally irregular loggings and the logging methods employed were the most harmful. The old forms of wood utilization, tar industry, shipbuilding, sawmill industry and timber exports, were characterized by timber selection. Public opinion considered it the only recognized cutting method long after the conditions had changed and silvicultural methods should have been used.

The spread and abandonment of selection cuttings are illustrated in the results of first National Forest Surveys in Finland. According to the first survey (1921–1924), nearly half of the loggings in the province of Oulu were based on selection, which spoiled and devastated 41% of the forests. In the 1930s one-fifth of the North Ostrobothnian forests were weakened by selection cuttings, in 1960s the figure was 6%. The article also summarises the extent of tar and pitch production, sawmill industry, shipbuilding and household wood consumption of wood in the area.

The PDF includes a summary in English

  • Alho, E-mail: pa@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7187, category Article
Eino Oinonen. (1968). Lycopodium clavatum L.- ja L. annotium L.-kasvustojen laajuus rinnastettuna samanpaikkaisiin L. complanatum L.- ja Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn -esiintymiin sekä puuston ikään ja paloaikoihin. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 87 article id 7187. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7187
English title: The size of Lycopodium clavatum and L. Annotinum stands as compared to that of L. Complanatum and Pteridium aquilinum stands, the age of the stand and the dates of fire, on the site.
Original keywords: metsäpalo; uudistuminen; kloonit; katinlieko; riidenlieko; lisääntyminen
English keywords: regeneration; forest fire; clones; Pteridium aquilinum; Lycopodium complanatum; Lycopodium clavatum; Lycopodium annotium
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The present study is a part of larger project into the size and age of certain forest plants. This study seeks to confirm the size-age relationship of Lycopodium clavatum L. and L. annotium L. stands, and the time of sporal regeneration. The stand dimensions were plotted against the size of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) and ground pine (Lycopodium complanatum L.) stands growing on the same site, and against the age of the timber and the time of fire on the site.

The method based on parallel measurements carried out in burned forests has proved to be suitable for establishing the rate of spreading of stands and their age. The three club-moss species proved to be much alike in their sporal regeneration. They, as well as bracken, regenerate under the condition created by fire. The largest detached patches are often clones. Both Lycopodium clavatum and L. annotium survive fire poorly. Thus, the maximum size of the clones is usually connected with the last forest fire. Pieces of the shoots may survive the fires.

Sporal regeneration of these species also occur without the aid of fire. As also variation in the annual growth of the shoots can be considerable, the stand size of these species is not as good indicator of the date of fire as with Pteridium aquilinum and L. complanatum. The winding appearance of the shoots increases the error in determination of stand age by the stand size further.

The results emphasize the importance of taking into account the time and spread of the plants in the traditional vegetation analysis. A central question is: what is an individual.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Oinonen, E-mail: eo@mm.unknown (email)
article id 7185, category Article
Jouko Mäkelä. (1968). Puunkorjuun tuottavuuteen vaikuttavat tekijät maatilametsätaloudessa. Acta Forestalia Fennica no. 85 article id 7185. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7185
English title: Factors affecting logging productivity in farm forestry.
Original keywords: hakkuut; yksityismetsät; maatilametsätalous; puunkorjuu; menetelmät; tuottavuus
English keywords: productivity; logging; private forests; methods; farm forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This is a fourth paper in a series of studies concerning logging in farm forests. The objective was to construct a model representing the productivity per farm of logging for delivery cuts. The first objective was to find out how the productivity of logging should be measured. In the study, combined labour and capital are regarded as the input.

Second object was to consider what variables to use in theory to determine the productivity of logging for delivery cuts. The factors affecting productivity depend on the concept of productivity employed. The productivity per farm of logging in delivery cuts can be determined both by regional and by farm variables. Still considering solely the effect of the quality of labour and capital input, the variables representing the person in charge of the delivery cuts are important explanatory farm variables. Others represent the farm totality (size, lines of production etc.).

Third aim was to develop a statistical-mathematical method suitable for constructing the model. Possible methods include regression analysis, which is, however, not the best method when there is large number of different levels to explain, or factor analysis. The suitable method to use in constructing a model depicting the productivity of a farm, was considered to be to condense the explanatory variables into rotated orthogonal factors. After preliminary correlation analysis, estimates of the factors interpreted as rational were employed as the explanatory variables for selective regression analysis.

Last, the model was tried out against actual material collected per farm, and the hypotheses were tested.

The PDF includes a summary in English.

  • Mäkelä, E-mail: jm@mm.unknown (email)

Category : Special section

article id 290, category Special section
Mikko Peltoniemi, Esther Thürig, Stephen Ogle, Taru Palosuo, Marion Schrumpf, Thomas Wutzler, Klaus Butterbach-Bahl, Oleg Chertov, Alexander Komarov, Aleksey Mikhailov, Annemieke Gärdenäs, Charles Perry, Jari Liski, Pete Smith, Raisa Mäkipää. (2007). Models in country scale carbon accounting of forest soils. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 290. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.290
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; soil carbon; greenhouse gas inventory; decomposition; IPCC; regional and national modeling; soil model
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Countries need to assess changes in the carbon stocks of forest soils as a part of national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol (KP). Since measuring these changes is expensive, it is likely that many countries will use alternative methods to prepare these estimates. We reviewed seven well-known soil carbon models from the point of view of preparing country-scale soil C change estimates. We first introduced the models and explained how they incorporated the most important input variables. Second, we evaluated their applicability at regional scale considering commonly available data sources. Third, we compiled references to data that exist for evaluation of model performance in forest soils. A range of process-based soil carbon models differing in input data requirements exist, allowing some flexibility to forest soil C accounting. Simple models may be the only reasonable option to estimate soil C changes if available resources are limited. More complex models may be used as integral parts of sophisticated inventories assimilating several data sources. Currently, measurement data for model evaluation are common for agricultural soils, but less data have been collected in forest soils. Definitions of model and measured soil pools often differ, ancillary model inputs require scaling of data, and soil C measurements are uncertain. These issues complicate the preparation of model estimates and their evaluation with empirical data, at large scale. Assessment of uncertainties that accounts for the effect of model choice is important part of inventories estimating large-scale soil C changes. Joint development of models and large-scale soil measurement campaigns could reduce the inconsistencies between models and empirical data, and eventually also the uncertainties of model predictions.
  • Peltoniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mikko.peltoniemi@metla.fi (email)
  • Thürig, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Birmensdorf, Switzerland; European Forest Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: et@nn.ch
  • Ogle, Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA E-mail: so@nn.us
  • Palosuo, European Forest Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Schrumpf, Max-Planck-Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany E-mail: ms@nn.de
  • Wutzler, Max-Planck-Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany E-mail: tw@nn.de
  • Butterbach-Bahl, Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany E-mail: kbb@nn.de
  • Chertov, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg-Peterhof, Russia E-mail: oc@nn.ru
  • Komarov, Institute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science of Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia E-mail: ak@nn.ru
  • Mikhailov, Institute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science of Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia E-mail: am@nn.ru
  • Gärdenäs, Dept. of Soil Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ag@nn.se
  • Perry, USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, St. Paul, MN USA E-mail: cp@nn.us
  • Liski, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
  • Smith, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK E-mail: ps@nn.uk
  • Mäkipää, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: raisa.makipaa@metla.fi
article id 288, category Special section
Björn Berg, Per Gundersen, Cecilia Akselsson, Maj-Britt Johansson, Åke Nilsson, Lars Vesterdal. (2007). Carbon sequestration rates in Swedish forest soils – a comparison of three approaches. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 288. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.288
Keywords: carbon sequestration; stable humus; forest floor C; litter decomposition; limit value
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Carbon sequestration rates in forest soil can be estimated using the concept of calculable stable remains in decomposing litter. In a case study of Swedish forest land we estimated C-sequestration rates for the two dominant tree species in the forest floor on top of the mineral soil. Carbon sequestration rates were upscaled to the forested land of Sweden with 23 x 106 ha with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (Karst.) L.). Two different theoretical approaches, based on limit-value for litter decomposition and N-balance for vegetation and SOM gave rates of the same magnitude. For the upscaling, using these methods, 17 000 grids of 5 x 5 km were used.

The ‘limit-value approach’ gave a sequestration of 4.8   106 tons of C, annually sequestered in the forest floor, with an average of 180 kg C ha–1 yr–1 and a range from 40 to 410 kg C ha–1 yr–1. The ‘N-balance approach’ gave an average value of c. 96 kg ha–1 yr–1 and a range from –60 to 360 kg ha–1 yr–1. A method based on direct measurements of changes in humus depth over 40 years, combined with C analyses gave an average rate that was not very different from the calculated rates, viz. c. 180 kg ha–1 yr–1 and a range from –20 to 730 kg ha–1 yr–1. These values agree with forest floor C sequestration rate based on e.g. sampling of chronsequences but differ from CO2 balance measurements.

The three approaches showed different patterns over the country and regions with high and low carbon sequestration rates that were not always directly related to climate.

  • Berg, Dept. of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland (present address: Dipartimento Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Complesso Universitario, Monte S. Angelo, Napoli, Italy E-mail: bjorn.berg@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Gundersen, Forest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Denmark E-mail: pg@nn.dk
  • Akselsson, Swedish Environmental Research Institute, IVL, Gothenburg, Sweden E-mail: ca@nn.se
  • Johansson, Department of Forest Soils, SLU, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mbj@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Department of Forest Soils, SLU, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
  • Vesterdal, Forest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Denmark E-mail: lv@nn.dk
article id 287, category Special section
Mikko Peltoniemi, Juha Heikkinen, Raisa Mäkipää. (2007). Stratification of regional sampling by model-predicted changes of carbon stocks in forested mineral soils. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 287. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.287
Keywords: uncertainty; soil carbon; anticipated variance; forest soil; monitoring; repeated measurement; soil survey; stratified sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Monitoring changes in soil C has recently received interest due to reporting under the Kyoto Protocol. Model-based approaches to estimate changes in soil C stocks exist, but they cannot fully replace repeated measurements. Measuring changes in soil C is laborious due to small expected changes and large spatial variation. Stratification of soil sampling allows the reduction of sample size without reducing precision. If there are no previous measurements, the stratification can be made with model-predictions of target variable. Our aim was to present a simulation-based stratification method, and to estimate how much stratification of inventory plots could improve the efficiency of the sampling. The effect of large uncertainties related to soil C change measurements and simulated predictions was targeted since they may considerably decrease the efficiency of stratification. According to our simulations, stratification can be useful with a feasible soil sample number if other uncertainties (simulated predictions and forecasted forest management) can be controlled. For example, the optimal (Neyman) allocation of plots to 4 strata with 10 soil samples from each plot (unpaired repeated sampling) reduced the standard error (SE) of the stratified mean by 9–34% from that of simple random sampling, depending on the assumptions of uncertainties. When the uncertainties of measurements and simulations were not accounted for in the division to strata, the decreases of SEs were 2–9 units less. Stratified sampling scheme that accounts for the uncertainties in measured material and in the correlates (simulated predictions) is recommended for the sampling design of soil C stock changes.
  • Peltoniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mikko.peltoniemi@metla.fi (email)
  • Heikkinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Mäkipää, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: raisa.makipaa@metla.fi

Category : Research article

article id 23065, category Research article
Pentti Niemistö, Heikki Korpunen, Yrjö Nuutinen. (2024). Harvesting efficiency and understory damage with different cutting methods on two storied stands of silver birch and Norway spruce. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 2 article id 23065. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23065
Keywords: productivity; thinning; costs; harvesting damage; mixed stand; continuous cover; multistorey forest
Highlights: With careful, well-timed harvesting of overstory birch, it is possible to successfully use initial understory spruce in producing the next tree generation; Preserving understory spruce when cutting overstory birch reduced harvesting productivity by 30% in comparison to unpreserved harvesting; Removal of overstory birch had a positive correlation in cutting productivity but negative correlation in the quality of remaining understory spruce.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Uneven-aged forests set certain challenges for cut-to-length harvesting work. It is a challenge to cost-effectively remove larger trees while leaving a healthy understory for regrowth. The study’s aim was to evaluate productivity and costs of harvesting two-storied Silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) stands by creating time consumption models for cutting, and using existing models for forwarding. Damage to the remaining understory spruce was also examined. Four different harvesting methods were used: 1) all dominant birches were cut; 2) half of them thinned and understory was preserved; compared to 3) normal thinning of birch stand without understory; and 4) clear cutting of two-storied stand. Results showed the time needed for birch cutting was 26–30% lower when the understory was not preserved. Pulpwood harvesting of small sized spruces that prevent birch cutting was expensive, especially because of forwarding of small amounts with low timber density on the strip roads. Generally, when taking the cutting and forwarding into account, the unit cost at clear cuttings was lowest, due to lesser limitations on work. It was noted that with increasing removal from 100 to 300 m3 ha–1, the relative share of initial undamaged spruces after the harvest decreased from 65 to 50% when the aim was to preserve them.  During summertime harvesting, the amount of stem damage was bigger than during winter. In conclusion, two-storied stands are possible to transit to spruce stands by accepting some losses in harvesting productivity and damages on remaining trees.

  • Niemistö, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Kampusranta 9 C, FI-60320 Seinäjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9152-2108 E-mail: ext.pentti.niemisto@luke.fi
  • Korpunen, Norsk institutt for bioøkonomi (NIBIO), Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Department of Forest operations and digitalization, Divisjon for skog og utmark, Avdeling for Driftsteknikk og digitalisering, Høgskoleveien 8, 1433 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9749-5684 E-mail: heikki.korpunen@nibio.no
  • Nuutinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3360-4444 E-mail: yrjo.nuutinen@luke.fi (email)
article id 23045, category Research article
Laura Pikkarainen, Harri Strandman, Eerik Vento, Aaron Petty, Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Antti Kilpeläinen, Heli Peltola. (2024). Effects of forest conservation and management on timber, ecosystem carbon, dead wood and habitat suitability area in a boreal forest under climate change. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 2 article id 23045. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23045
Keywords: saproxylic species; simulation; carbon storage; forest fertilization; Fennoscandia; forest ecosystems services; improved regeneration material
Highlights: Increasing forest conservation areas increased all other ecosystem services except timber yield. Intensive forest management enhanced this increase; Increased conservation area decreased timber yield, but intensive forest management reduced this effect and even overcompensated it at the end of simulation period in the 10% conservation scenario with intensified forest management; Climate change increased all other ecosystem services, except carbon stocks.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

We used forest ecosystem model simulations to study how forest conservation and management intensity affected timber yield, ecosystem carbon stocks, amount of dead wood, and habitat suitability area in a middle boreal forest region of Finland under changing climate over a 90-year simulation period. We used the following forest conservation and management scenarios: baseline forest management (BM), BM with 10 or 20% increase of conservation area with or without intensified forest management (i.e. improved forest regeneration material and forest fertilization). The simulations were done under current climate (reference period of 1981–2010), and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) climate change projections under the RCP2.6 and RCP4.5 forcing scenarios. Overall, increasing the forest conservation area decreased timber yield and increased the ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and consequently the area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. The use of intensified forest management reduced the loss of timber yield, increased ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. At the end of simulation period, the use of intensified forest management even overcompensated (4–6% higher) the timber loss from 10% increase of conservation area. Under changing climate, timber yield, the amount of dead wood and the area of suitable habitats for saproxylic species increased. To conclude, with intensified forest management it is possible, in the short term, to decrease the loss of timber yield through increased forest conservation area and in the long term maintain or even increase it compared to baseline forest management.

  • Pikkarainen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5301-3639 E-mail: laura.pikkarainen@uef.fi (email)
  • Strandman, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9400-6424 E-mail: harri.strandman@uef.fi
  • Vento, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eerik.vento@gmail.com
  • Petty, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6595-1386 E-mail: aaron.petty@uef.fi
  • Tikkanen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3875-2772 E-mail: olli-pekka.tikkanen@uef.fi
  • Kilpeläinen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-0578 E-mail: antti.kilpelainen@uef.fi
  • Peltola, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@uef.fi
article id 23029, category Research article
Amira Fetouab, Nicole J. Fenton, Nelson Thiffault, Martin Barrette. (2024). Planting density and mechanical site preparation effects on understory composition, functional diversity and planted black spruce growth in boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 2 article id 23029. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23029
Keywords: silviculture; paludification; reforestation; plantation establishment; community ecology; functional ecology
Highlights: Mechanical site preparation and planting density interacted to influence understory diversity and composition in plowed plots; Careful logging alone resulted in higher density of naturally established conifers; Planting density and site preparation alone had no effect on tree height and diameter; Findings provide insights for managing paludified forests and enhancing forest ecosystem functions.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Mechanical site preparation (MSP) is used prior to planting to control competing vegetation and enhance soil conditions, particularly in areas prone to paludification. Tree planting density can be adapted to the management context and objectives, as it influences yield and wood quality. However, the combined effects of MSP and planting density on understory vegetation composition, functional traits, and diversity remain uncertain. We thus conducted a study in the Clay Belt region of northwestern Quebec, Canada. After careful logging, the study area was divided into nine sites, each receiving one of three treatments: plowing, disc trenching, or no preparation. Sites were further divided into two, with black spruce (Picea mariana [Mill.] Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.) seedlings planted at either a low planting density of 1100 seedlings ha-1 or a high planting density of 2500 seedlings ha-1. After nine years, we assessed understory composition, diversity, key functional traits, sapling density and growth of planted trees. Careful logging alone led to a higher density of naturally established conifers compared to plowing or disc trenching. The interaction between planting density and MSP significantly influenced understory diversity and composition in plowed plots. Understory composition was affected by the soil C/N ratio, coniferous species, and deciduous species density. The growth of black spruce was notably enhanced with higher planting density in the plow treatment only. Neither planting density nor MSP alone affected tree height and diameter. Our results suggest that combining plowing with high-density planting can enhance stand growth and improve forest productivity. These findings guide future research on paludified forests.

  • Fetouab, Institute for Forest Research and Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: amira.fetouab@uqat.ca
  • Fenton, Institute for Forest Research and Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3782-2361 E-mail: nicole.fenton@uqat.ca
  • Thiffault, Institute for Forest Research and Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada; Canadian Wood Fibre Centre, Natural Resources Canada, 1055 du P.E.P.S, P.O. Box 10380, Sainte-Foy Stn, Québec, QC G1V 4C7, Canada ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2017-6890 E-mail: nelson.thiffault@canada.ca (email)
  • Barrette, Institute for Forest Research and Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada; Direction de la recherche forestière, Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts, 2700 rue Einstein, Québec, QC G1P 3W8, Canada ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5937-382X E-mail: martin.barrette@mffp.gouv.qc.ca
article id 23072, category Research article
Matti Haapanen. (2024). Realised genetic gains from past Finnish silver birch seed orchards. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 23072. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23072
Keywords: Betula pendula; seed orchards; genetic gain; forest reproductive materials
Highlights: Seed orchard materials generally outperformed unimproved trees in all growth and quality traits, but individual seed orchards showed substantial performance variability; Realised gains in stem volume and forking showed an increasing temporal trend, whereas gains in branch quality were positive and steady; Gains in stem volume and branch quality trade off slightly; The bi-clonal seed orchard variety “JR-2” emerged as the best overall performer across all the seed orchards, whereas the older variety “JR-1” was mediocre; An alternative statistical concept, D-value, was introduced to compare levels of genetic gains for different scaled, normally distributed traits.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Genetic gains realised through silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) seed orchards were studied using data from common-garden trials established at 34 sites in southern and central Finland. The test materials include seedlots representing 19 commercial seed orchards that operated between 1972 and 2009, and 21 natural stands. All the trials were assessed for several growth and quality traits between the ages of 9 and 24. Realised gains were estimated based on univariate linear mixed models with corrections for latitudinal seed transfer effects. Overall, seed orchard materials outperformed unimproved reference materials in all the traits but results for individual seed orchards varied substantially. Stem volume gains ranged from 1.0% to 31.1%. Improved trees had, on average, 6.8% (up to 26.7%) fewer ramicorn branches and 16.2% (up to 57.6%) fewer forks than unimproved trees. Branch and overall quality showed consistently positive gains. More recently established seed orchards performed better than older ones, and seed orchards with fewer clones outperformed those with dozens of clones. "JR-1" and "JR-2" bi-clonal seed orchards fared differently, with "JR-1" showing modest genetic gains and "JR-2" emerging as the top overall performer across all seed orchards. An alternative statistical concept, the D-value, was utilised to assess the magnitude of genetic gain for different scaled, normally distributed traits. Average D-values implied a similar level of improvement for stem volume, branch quality, and forking, and a smaller gain for stem slenderness and the number of ramicorn branches. The results for individual seed orchards suggest a slight trade-off between stem volume growth and branch quality.
article id 23062, category Research article
Tobias Semberg, Anders Nilsson, Rolf Björheden, Linnea Hansson. (2024). Real-time target point identification and automated log grasping by a forwarder, using a single stereo camera for both object detection and boom-tip control. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 23062. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23062
Keywords: vector analysis; forwarder; forest operations; loading; boom automation; object detection; stereo camera
Highlights: Simple target-point detection in real time using only a stereo camera; Sturdiness ensured through the simple feedback system based on the same camera; Automated boom-tip control and log grasping successfully tested on full-sized forwarder; A step toward semi-automation (operator support) or autonomous forwarding.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The forest industry is constantly striving to increase productivity and cut costs, and many research and innovation projects are currently focusing on semi-automated or autonomous systems. A key element, with several possible solutions, is automated log grasping, where researchers and manufacturers are looking for efficient and sturdy ways to solve the task in real-time forwarding operations. This study presents a simple method for automated log grasping using only a single stereo camera for object detection (log and grapple) and a simple controller moving the boom, with feedback from the camera as boom-tip control. The accuracy, precision, and repeatability of the method was tested on a full-scale forwarder. Boom movements were examined from two different start positions in relation to the target position, with the log placed at three different angles. The overall log-grasping success was also evaluated. The tests were performed in a full-scale, real-time operation, without hand-eye calibration or other sensor data from the machine. The method was precise, with high repeatability, but the grasping point showed a minor systematic offset, depending on log angle. However, the deviation in accuracy was too small to affect the success rate. In practice, the most difficult log angles can be avoided by moving the machine slightly. The log grasping method may become part of an autonomous forwarding system or could provide operator support in semi-automated systems.
  • Semberg, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: tobias.semberg@skogforsk.se
  • Nilsson, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: anders.nilsson@skogforsk.se
  • Björheden, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4158-102X E-mail: rolf.bjorheden@skogforsk.se
  • Hansson, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9788-1734 E-mail: linnea.hansson@skogforsk.se (email)
article id 23058, category Research article
Johanna Jetsonen, Annamari Laurén, Heli Peltola, Olli Muhonen, Juha Nevalainen, Veli-Pekka Ikonen, Antti Kilpeläinen, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Elisa Männistö, Nicola Kokkonen, Marjo Palviainen. (2024). Effects of nitrogen fertilization on the ground vegetation cover and soil chemical properties in Scots pine and Norway spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 23058. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23058
Keywords: boreal forest; competition index; forest fertilization; upland forests; vegetation cover
Highlights: Nitrogen (N) fertilization decreased the total cover of ground vegetation; N fertilization decreased the cover of mosses and dwarf shrubs and increased the cover of herbaceous plants; N concentration of the mor humus layer increased with the N fertilization; The magnitude of these changes depended on the intensity of the N fertilization.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of this study was to investigate the short-term effects of nitrogen (N) fertilization intensity on the ground vegetation cover and soil chemical properties  in two Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)  and two Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) dominated stands on upland forest sites in Eastern Finland. The fertilizer was applied using a helicopter in the spruce stands and a forwarder in the pine stands. The distribution and the amount of fertilizer was measured with funnel traps. Cover of each species of ground vegetation was estimated  before fertilization and 3–4 years after it in pine and 2–3 years after it in spruce stands. Further, the cover observations were aggregated by plant types. Based on measurements, we analyzed the effects of the funnel-trap-observed amount of N fertilizer on the cover and plant type composition of ground vegetation and soil N and C concentration. In addition, we analyzed  the impacts of competition caused by trees on the ground vegetation cover based on competition indices. N fertilization increased the cover of herbaceous plants and decreased the cover of mosses and dwarf shrubs, and the total cover of ground vegetation. Further, it increased the N concentration of the mor humus layer. The magnitude of the changes increased with the intensity of the N fertilization. The competition caused by trees did not affect the cover of ground vegetation.
  • Jetsonen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: johanna.jetsonen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Laurén, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland; Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6835-9568 E-mail: annamari.lauren@helsinki.fi
  • Peltola, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@uef.fi
  • Muhonen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4051-8567 E-mail: olli.muhonen@forestvital.com
  • Nevalainen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2972-4385 E-mail: juha.hs.nevalainen@gmail.com
  • Ikonen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1732-2922 E-mail: veli-pekka.ikonen@uef.fi
  • Kilpeläinen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-0578 E-mail: antti.kilpelainen@uef.fi
  • Tuittila, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eeva-stiina.tuittila@uef.fi
  • Männistö, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3869-6739 E-mail: elisa.mannisto@uef.fi
  • Kokkonen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0197-2672 E-mail: nicola.kokkonen@uef.fi
  • Palviainen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: marjo.palviainen@helsinki.fi
article id 22017, category Research article
Andis Lazdiņš, Ainārs Lupiķis, Kaspars Polmanis, Arta Bārdule, Aldis Butlers, Santa Kalēja. (2024). Carbon stock changes of drained nutrient-rich organic forest soils in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 22017. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22017
Keywords: drainage; hemiboreal forests; organic soil; peat compaction; peatland forests; subsidence of the peat layer
Highlights: In moderate nutrient-rich forest site type (Myrtillosa turf. mel.), a significant subsidence of peat layer after drainage is associated with compaction rather than decomposition of peat; In nutrient-rich forest site type (Oxalidosa turf. mel.), a contribution of soil C stock losses to subsidence of the peat layer is significant; In moderate nutrient-rich forest site type (Myrtillosa turf. mel.), type of dominant tree species has higher impact on changes in soil C stock after drainage than in nutrient-rich forest site type (Oxalidosa turf. mel.); Distribution of different forest site types involving soil nutrient status has to be taken into account when CO2 emissions from drained organic soil in forest land are estimated at national level.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Impact of drainage of organic soils in forest land on soil carbon (C) stock changes is of high interest not only to accurately estimate soil C stock changes, but also to provide scientifically based recommendations for forest land management in context of climate change mitigation. To improve knowledge about long-term impact of drainage on nutrient-rich organic soils in hemiboreal forests in Latvia, 50 research sites representing drained conditions (Oxalidosa turf. mel. (Kp) and Myrtillosa turf. mel. (Ks) forest site types) and undrained conditions as control areas (Caricoso-phragmitosa, Dryopterioso-caricosa and Filipendulosa forest site types) were selected. Soil C stock changes after drainage was evaluated by comparing current C stock in drained organic soils to theoretical C stock before drainage considering impact of soil subsidence. During the 53-years period after drainage, the peat subsidence was higher in nutrient-rich Kp forest site type compared to moderate nutrient-rich Ks forest site type (peat subsided by 37.0 ± 4.8 and 23.3 ± 4.8 cm, respectively). In nutrient-rich Kp forest site type, soil C stock decreased by 4.98 ± 1.58 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 after drainage, while no statistically significant changes in soil C stock (0.19 ± 1.31 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) were observed in moderate nutrient-rich soils in Ks forest site type. Thus, in Ks forest site type, the main driver of the peat subsidence was the physical compaction, while in Kp forest site type contribution of organic matter decomposition and consequent soil C losses to subsidence of the peat was significant.

  • Lazdiņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7169-2011 E-mail: andis.lazdins@silava.lv
  • Lupiķis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia E-mail: ainars.lupikis@inbox.lv
  • Polmanis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2579-353X E-mail: kaspars.polmanis@silava.lv (email)
  • Bārdule, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0961-5119 E-mail: arta.bardule@silava.lv
  • Butlers, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3118-1716 E-mail: aldis.butlers@silava.lv
  • Kalēja, Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’ (LSFRI Silava), Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, LV-2169, Latvia E-mail: santa.kaleja@silava.lv
article id 23024, category Research article
Anu Laakkonen, Katri Rusanen, Teppo Hujala, Mika Gabrielsson, Jouni Pykäläinen. (2023). Implications of the sustainability transition on the industry value creation logic – case of Finnish pulp and paper industry. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23024. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23024
Keywords: forest industry; business transformation; circular bioeconomy; sustainable business
Highlights: Global change drivers are inducing a sustainability transition to a circular bioeconomy; Established industries need to reconfigure their value creation logic; A document analysis investigated pulp and paper industry’s communicated value creation logic; An interdisciplinary approach helps to understand a changing business environment; Recognition of a socio-economic-technological-environmental system is needed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Global economic, social and environmental change drivers have tremendous effects on the dynamic and nested business environment calling for a sustainability transition to a circular bioeconomy. The transition will pressurise established industries to alter their value creation logic to consider sustainability holistically. The study follows a case study research strategy and investigates how an established Finnish pulp and paper industry reconfigures its communicated value creation logic. The findings of a qualitative document analysis suggest that the pulp and paper industry has started to explore new sustainable path-breaking innovations and create a common development agenda, which has resulted in incremental adaptations in the value creation logic. However, the industry’s narrative of already being sustainable has hampered the reconfiguration and stabilisation of the adapted value creation logic. From a theoretical perspective, adopting an interdisciplinary and systemic perspective is necessary to understand the changing business environment. From a managerial perspective, cross-sectoral collaboration and including perspectives of different actors can help in creating a holistically sustainable value creation logic.
  • Laakkonen, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science, Forestry and Technology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6384-7773 E-mail: anu.laakkonen@uef.fi (email)
  • Rusanen, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science, Forestry and Technology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1705-5561 E-mail: katri.rusanen@uef.fi
  • Hujala, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science, Forestry and Technology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7905-7602 E-mail: teppo.hujala@uef.fi
  • Gabrielsson, Department of Marketing, Hanken School of Economics, P.O. Box 479, FI-00101, Helsinki, Finland; UEF Business School, Faculty of Social Sciences and Business Studies, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0633-6918 E-mail: mika.gabrielsson@uef.fi
  • Pykäläinen, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science, Forestry and Technology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jouni.pykalainen@uef.fi
article id 23023, category Research article
Lennart Noordermeer, Hans Ole Ørka, Terje Gobakken. (2023). Imputing stem frequency distributions using harvester and airborne laser scanner data: a comparison of inventory approaches. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23023. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23023
Keywords: forest inventory; airborne laser scanning; harvester data; inventory approaches
Highlights: We imputed stem frequency distributions using harvester reference data and predictor variables computed from airborne laser scanner data.; Stand-level distributions of stem diameter, tree height, volume, and sawn wood volume; (Enhanced) area-based and semi-individual tree crown approaches outperformed the individual tree crown method.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stem frequency distributions provide useful information for pre-harvest planning. We compared four inventory approaches for imputing stem frequency distributions using harvester data as reference data and predictor variables computed from airborne laser scanner (ALS) data. We imputed distributions and stand mean values of stem diameter, tree height, volume, and sawn wood volume using the k-nearest neighbor technique. We compared the inventory approaches: (1) individual tree crown (ITC), semi-ITC, area-based (ABA) and enhanced ABA (EABA). We assessed the accuracies of imputed distributions using a variant of the Reynold’s error index, obtaining the best mean accuracies of 0.13, 0.13, 0.10 and 0.10 for distributions of stem diameter, tree height, volume and sawn wood volume, respectively. Accuracies obtained using the semi-ITC, ABA and EABA inventory approaches were significantly better than accuracies obtained using the ITC approach. The forest attribute, inventory approach, stand size and the laser pulse density had significant effects on the accuracies of imputed frequency distributions, however the ALS delay and percentage of deciduous trees did not. This study highlights the utility of harvester and ALS data for imputing stem frequency distributions in pre-harvest inventories.
  • Noordermeer, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8840-0345 E-mail: lennart.noordermeer@nmbu.no (email)
  • Ørka, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7492-8608 E-mail: hans-ole.orka@nmbu.no
  • Gobakken, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
article id 23021, category Research article
Virpi Stenman, Annika Kangas, Markus Holopainen. (2023). Upper stem diameter and volume prediction strategies in the National Forest Inventory of Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23021. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23021
Keywords: forest inventory; measurement errors; accuracy; Bland-Altman plot
Highlights: National Forest Inventory specific methods were applied with a number of measurement instruments, including a laser-based dendrometer, to collect tree stem diameter measurements; Bland-Altman plots and measurement error variances were used to determine measurement precision and accuracy; The laser-based dendrometer did not perform better than the other instruments in the study.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In forest inventories, field data are needed for the prediction of tree volumes. However, gathering field data requires resources, such as labour, equipment, and data management operations. This means that time and budget, as well as quality, must be carefully considered when National Forest Inventory (NFI) field measurement activities are planned. Therefore, the development of cost efficient, simple, safe and reliable measurement methods and tools are of great interest. To date, upper stem diameter (d6), which provides a more reliable estimation of tree stem volume, has typically been measured with a parabolic calliper. In this study, the performance of the Criterion laser-based dendrometer was examined for d6 measurements. A total of 326 sample trees were measured multiple times with three different measurement instruments. These instruments were used to measure diameter at breast height (dbh) as well as d6 measurements. Bland-Altman plots and measurement error variances were used to determine measurement instrument reliability. For all trees, the standard deviation for the laser based dendrometer was 18.73 mm at dbh and 15.36 mm for the d6 measurements. When the performance of Criterion was analysed with reference to the mean value of repeated measurements, the standard deviation in the dbh measurements was 12.21 mm, and 8.88 mm in the d6 measurements.
  • Stenman, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1176-7840 E-mail: virpi.stenman@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio­economy and Environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
  • Holopainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markus.holopainen@helsinki.fi
article id 23009, category Research article
Abubakari H. Munna, Nyambilila A. Amuri, Proches Hieronimo, Dino A. Woiso. (2023). Modelling ecological niches of Sclerocarya birrea subspecies in Tanzania under the current and future climates. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23009. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23009
Keywords: climate change; conservation; GIS; agroforestry; domestication; MaxEnt; protected areas network
Highlights: Tanzania harbors ecological niches of Sclerocarya birrea (S. birrea) subsp. caffra, multifoliata and birrea in the eastern, southern-central-northern, and northeastern part of the country, covering 184 814 km2, 139 918 km2 and 28 446 km2 of Tanzania’s land area, respectively; Ecological niches will contract under future warming climates; Currently, significant parts of ecological niches for Sclerocarya birrea subspecies are beyond Tanzania’s protected areas network.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The information on ecological niches of the Marula tree, Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Horchst. subspecies are needed for sustainable management of this tree, considering its nutritional, economic, and ecological benefits. However, despite Tanzania being regarded as a global genetic center of diversity of S. birrea, information on the subspecies ecological niches is lacking. We aimed to model ecological niches of S. birrea subspecies in Tanzania under the current and future climates. Ecological niches under the current climate were modelled by using ecological niche models in MaxEnt using climatic, edaphic, and topographical variables, and subspecies occurrence data. The Hadley Climate Center and National Center for Atmospheric Research's Earth System Models were used to predict ecological niches under the medium and high greenhouse gases emission scenarios for the years 2050 and 2080. Area under the curves (AUCs) were used to assess the accuracy of the models. The results show that the models were robust, with AUCs of 0.85–0.95. Annual and seasonal precipitation, elevation, and soil cation exchange capacity are the key environmental factors that define the ecological niches of the S. birrea subspecies. Ecological niches of subsp. caffra, multifoliata, and birrea are currently found in 30, 22, and 21 regions, and occupy 184 814 km2, 139 918 km2, and 28 446 km2 of Tanzania's land area respectively, which will contract by 0.4–44% due to climate change. Currently, 31–51% of ecological niches are under Tanzania’s protected areas network. The findings are important in guiding the development of conservation and domestication strategies for the S. birrea subspecies in Tanzania.
  • Munna, Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3008, Morogoro, Tanzania ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8858-0457 E-mail: amabmunna81@gmail.com (email)
  • Amuri, Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3008, Morogoro, Tanzania ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3092-3458 E-mail: namuri@sua.ac.tz
  • Hieronimo, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3003 Morogoro, Tanzania ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4450-5073 E-mail: phmusigula@gmail.com
  • Woiso, Department of Biosciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3038 Morogoro, Tanzania E-mail: dino@sua.ac.tz
article id 23019, category Research article
Victor F. Strîmbu, Tron Eid, Terje Gobakken. (2023). A stand level scenario model for the Norwegian forestry – a case study on forest management under climate change. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 23019. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23019
Keywords: forest planning; carbon balance; climate change mitigation; forest stand simulator
Highlights: GAYA 2.0: a new scenario analysis model focusing on forest carbon fluxes; Carbon sequestration potential estimated at regional level; GAYA 2.0 may be used to estimate the costs of obtaining carbon benefits by adapting the forest management.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Carbon sequestration and income generation are competing objectives in modern forest management. The climate commitments of many countries depend on forests as carbon sinks which must be quantified, monitored, and projected into the future. For projections we need tools to model forest development and perform scenario analyses to assess future carbon sequestration potentials under different management regimes, the expected net present value of such regimes, and possible impacts of climate change. We propose a scenario analysis software tool (GAYA 2.0) that can assist in answering these types of questions using stand level simulations, detailed carbon flow models and an optimizer. This paper has two objectives: (1) to describe GAYA 2.0, and (2) demonstrate its potential in a case study where we analyze the forest carbon balance over a region in Norway based on national forest inventory sample plots. The tool was used to map the optimality front between the carbon benefit and net present value. We observed changes in net present value for different levels of carbon benefit as well as changes in optimal management strategies. We predicted future changes in several forest carbon pools as well as albedo and illustrated the impact of gradual increase in forest productivity (i.e., due to climate warming). Having been updated and modernized from its previous version with increased attention to forest carbon and energy fluxes, GAYA 2.0 is an effective tool that offers multiple opportunities to perform various types of scenario analyses in forest management.
  • Strîmbu, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0588-2036 E-mail: victor.strimbu@nmbu.no
  • Eid, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: tron.eid@nmbu.no
  • Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5534-049X E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
article id 23012, category Research article
Jari Vauhkonen, Juho Matala, Ari Nikula. (2023). Future browsing damage in seedling stands according to projected forest resources and moose population density. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 23012. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23012
Keywords: forest management planning; forest development simulation; forest projection; Markov chain; scenario analysis; transition matrix model
Highlights: Projections of forest resources and seedling stands damaged by moose browsing; Damaged seedling stand area modelled by moose population and forest characteristics; Moose damage predicted by the age class structure of simulated future forests.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
An important modifier of forests and forestry practices is browsing by cervids. As high populations of moose (Alces alces L.) cause extensive forest damage in the Fennoscandian boreal forests, models should be able to predict the susceptibility of projected forest structures to browse damage. We augmented the European Forestry Dynamics Model (EFDM) for the area of seedling stands damaged by moose. The augmented model was tested in projecting both forest resources and moose damage for 18 million hectares of forest land in Finland, based on input data from the National Forest Inventory (NFI). Modeling the area of seedling stands damaged as a function of moose population density, forest characteristics, and region-specific interactions of these variables was found to work realistically for 30 years, predicting that the area of seedling stands damaged by moose would increase by up to a third from the last NFI observation. Our work lays the groundwork for modeling consequential, large-scale ecological and socio-economic effects of moose browsing.
  • Vauhkonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Latokartanonkaari 7, FI-00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland E-mail: jari.vauhkonen@uef.fi
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Nikula, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8372-8440 E-mail: ari.nikula@luke.fi
article id 22028, category Research article
Eelis Halme, Matti Mõttus. (2023). Improved parametrisation of a physically-based forest reflectance model for retrieval of boreal forest structural properties. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22028. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22028
Keywords: forest structure; Sentinel-2; reflectance; hyperspectral; tree distribution
Highlights: Spatial distribution of trees is a key driver for forest reflectance; Knowledge of the ratio of branch to leaf area improves forest reflectance simulation substantially; Different optical properties of the two leaf sides have a notable effect on forest reflectance.
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Physically-based reflectance models offer a robust and transferable method to assess biophysical characteristics of vegetation in remote sensing. Forests exhibit explicit structure at many scales, from shoots and branches to landscape patches, and hence present a specific challenge to vegetation reflectance modellers. To relate forest reflectance with its structure, the complexity must be parametrised leading to an increase in the number of reflectance model inputs. The parametrisations link reflectance simulations to measurable forest variables, but at the same time rely on abstractions (e.g. a geometric surface forming a tree crown) and physically-based simplifications that are difficult to quantify robustly. As high-quality data on basic forest structure (e.g. tree height and stand density) and optical properties (e.g. leaf and forest floor reflectance) are becoming increasingly available, we used the well-validated forest reflectance and transmittance model FRT to investigate the effect of the values of the “uncertain” input parameters on the accuracy of modelled forest reflectance. With the state-of-the-art structural and spectral forest information, and Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument imagery, we identified that the input parameters influencing the most the modelled reflectance, given that the basic forestry variables are set to their true values and leaf mass is determined from reliable allometric models, are the regularity of the tree distribution and the amount of woody elements. When these parameters were set to their new adjusted values, the model performance improved considerably, reaching in the near infrared spectral region (740–950 nm) nearly zero bias, a relative RMSE of 13% and a correlation coefficient of 0.81. In the visible part of the spectrum, the model performance was not as consistent indicating room for improvement.
article id 22026, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Mari Myllymäki, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2023). Understanding uncertainty in forest resources maps. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22026. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22026
Keywords: autocorrelation; ensemble modelling; kriging; quantile; random forest; sequential Gaussian simulation
Highlights: Forest resources maps without uncertainty assessment may lead to false impression of precision; Suitable tools for visualization of map products are lacking; Kriging method provided accurate uncertainty assessment for pixel-level predictions; Quantile random forest algorithm slightly underestimated the pixel-level uncertainties; With simulation it is possible to assess the uncertainty also for landscape-level characteristics.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Maps of forest resources and other ecosystem services are needed for decision making at different levels. However, such maps are typically presented without addressing the uncertainties. Thus, the users of the maps have vague or no understanding of the uncertainties and can easily make wrong conclusions. Attempts to visualize the uncertainties are also rare, even though the visualization would be highly likely to improve understanding. One complication is that it has been difficult to address the predictions and their uncertainties simultaneously. In this article, the methods for addressing the map uncertainty and visualize them are first reviewed. Then, the methods are tested using laser scanning data with simulated response variable values to illustrate their possibilities. Analytical kriging approach captured the uncertainty of predictions at pixel level in our test case, where the estimated models had similar log-linear shape than the true model. Ensemble modelling with random forest led to slight underestimation of the uncertainties. Simulation is needed when uncertainty estimates are required for landscape level features more complicated than small areas.
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
  • Myllymäki, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2713-7088 E-mail: mari.myllymaki@luke.fi
  • Mehtätalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8128-0598 E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@luke.fi
article id 22013, category Research article
Bodil Häggström, Reimo Lutter, Tomas Lundmark, Fredrik Sjödin, Annika Nordin. (2023). Effect of arginine-phosphate addition on early survival and growth of Scots pine, Norway spruce and silver birch. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 2 article id 22013. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22013
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pendula; Picea abies; forest regeneration; seedling growth; seedling survival; arginine
Highlights: Arginine-phosphate addition (APA) represents a potential tool to aid regeneration of planted trees, especially to increase survival of Scots pine seedlings on sites where susceptible to pests;Effects of APA however varies between different sites.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Applying arginine-phosphate (AP) to tree seedlings at planting is a novel silvicultural practice in Northern Europe to improve the success of forest regeneration. We present three case-studies of the potential advantages of adding AP at planting on the establishment and damage susceptibility of seedlings in pure and mixed plantings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. ) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) over two years in the field. Location of study sites were in southern (S), northeastern (NE) and northwestern (NW) Sweden. The main agents of damage were pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) on conifers at the south site, browsing of birch at all sites and browsing/other top damage to conifers at the north sites. The effect of adding AP varied between the sites. It was positive for survival of pine at site S, despite considerable damage by pine weevil. However, at the S site more of the surviving spruce and birch were browsed when treated with AP. At the NE site AP-treatment had positive effects on conifer growth. At the NW site adding AP positively affected survival and growth of all three species, and AP-treated seedlings of all species were less browsed than untreated seedlings. AP treatment presents a potential tool to improve the success of forest regeneration, especially when establishing pine stands in south Sweden.
  • Häggström, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7738-5493 E-mail: bodil.haggstrom@slu.se
  • Lutter, Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu 51006, Estonia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5847-4282 E-mail: reimo.lutter@emu.ee
  • Lundmark, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2271-3469 E-mail: tomas.lundmark@slu.se
  • Sjödin, Unit for field-based forest research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: fredrik.sjodin@slu.se
  • Nordin, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5765-3550 E-mail: annika.nordin@slu.se
article id 23001, category Research article
Eirik Ogner Jåstad, Niels Oliver Nagel, Junhui Hu, Per Kristian Rørstad. (2023). The location and capacity-dependent price impacts of biofuel production and its effect on the forest industry. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 1 article id 23001. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23001
Keywords: partial equilibrium model; biofuel location policy; biomass supply; forest-based biofuel; nordic forest sector
Highlights: Large biofuel units prefer regions close to transportation facilities; Forest owners are the main winners if large-scale biofuel production is established; The first production units reduce export, hence should be located at an exporting hub; Biofuel production will reduce the Norwegian export of roundwood to Sweden; Biofuel production increases the local demand and pulpwood prices.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest-based biofuel stands out as a promising solution to avoid fossil emissions in parts of the transport sector. Biofuel production will need large amounts of forest biomass, collected from a large area. Roundwood is costly to transport compared with other goods. Therefore, the location of forest-based biofuel production is a crucial part of an investment decision. This study analyses the optimal location of biofuel plants in Norway and the implications for the traditional forest sector in the Nordic countries. We test different numbers of production units, different sizes of the units, and various raw materials. The study applies a partial equilibrium model that covers the Norwegian and Nordic forest sectors, with 356 regions in Norway. The results indicate that small biofuel plants have the potential to turn exporting regions into importing regions. Larger biofuel plants are suitable for areas with large harvest activity today or regions with access to harbour or timber terminals along railways. We find that forest owners close to a biofuel plant will profit the most from biofuel production. Policymakers and investors should take into account that different locations and production capacities have different impacts on the forest sectors.
  • Jåstad, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1089-0284 E-mail: eirik.jastad@nmbu.no
  • Nagel, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3171-0262 E-mail: niels.oliver.nagel@nmbu.no
  • Hu, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0001-5993 E-mail: junhui.hu@nmbu.no
  • Rørstad, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: per.kristian.rorstad@nmbu.no
article id 22019, category Research article
Aleksi Nirhamo, Juha Pykälä, Kimmo Jääskeläinen, Jari Kouki. (2023). Habitat associations of red-listed epiphytic lichens in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 1 article id 22019. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.22019
Keywords: boreal forests; deciduous trees; biodiversity; conservation; threatened species
Highlights: We analyzed the habitat associations of 231 nationally red-listed epiphytic lichen species in Finland; Their habitat associations were varying, but deciduous trees, old forests and trees, and microclimates with intermediate or high light availability and humidity were particularly important; The maintenance of the habitats of many red-listed epiphytic lichens is difficult if not impossible to combine with intensive forest management.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The Finnish red list shows that the epiphytic lichen flora of Finnish forests is highly threatened and declining steeply. Red lists provide limited information on the habitat associations of threatened species, which could be relevant in informing management and conservation measures. We used documented empirical data and expert assessments to determine for each red-listed (IUCN categories Near Threatened, NT; Vulnerable, VU; Endangered, EN; Critically Endangered, CR; Regionally Extinct, RE) epiphytic lichen species of Finland the following key habitat associations: host tree species, substrate type, habitat type, geographical distribution, preferred microclimate, and minimum required forest and tree age. The most important host tree species were Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. and Populus tremula L. Other tree species of high importance included Sorbus aucuparia L. and Salix caprea L. One fourth of red-listed epiphytic lichens were primarily lignicolous. Most species required old-growth forests (required by 41% of species) or old trees (52%), but many species required only mature forests (36%) or trees (35%). The microclimatic preferences of most red-listed epiphytic lichens consisted of high or intermediate light availability and humidity. Most species whose status had deteriorated were dependent on deciduous trees. The continuous availability of old deciduous trees (especially Populus, Salix and Sorbus) requires special attention in both managed and protected forests. Red-listed epiphytic lichens would be aided by increased forest protection or transitioning to less intensive management regimes.
article id 10798, category Research article
Perttu Anttila, Johannes Ojala, Teijo Palander, Kari Väätäinen. (2023). The effect of road characteristics on timber truck driving speed and fuel consumption based on visual interpretation of road database and data from fleet management system. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 10798. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10798
Keywords: fuel consumption; forest roads; CAN bus; forest logistics; greenhouse gas emissions; log truck; road classes
Highlights: Finnish road and pavement classes explain driving speed and fuel consumption of a timber truck; Other significant explanatory variables include the number of road crossings, season, proportion of distance travelled with a loader, and total laden mass of a truck; In the future, higher-resolution tracking data is needed to construct generalisable models for 76-tonne vehicles.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Road transport produces 90% of greenhouse gas emissions in timber transport in Finland. It is therefore necessary to understand the factors that affect driving speed, fuel consumption, and ultimately, emissions. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of road characteristics on timber truck driving speed and fuel consumption. Data from the fleet management and transport management systems of two timber trucks were collected over a year. A sample of 104 trips was drawn, and the tracking points were overlaid on the road data in a geographical information system. Thereafter, work phases were determined for the points, and they were visually classified into road and pavement classes. Subsequently, the data of 80 trips were utilised in regression analysis to further study the effects of the visually interpreted variables on driving speed and fuel consumption. Fuel consumption was explained by the proportion of forest roads and distance travelled with a loader, and the number of crossings and season when driving without a load. When driving with a load, both asphalt and gravel pavements decreased consumption, in contrast to an unpaved road. Crossings increased fuel consumption, as did the winter and spring months, and the total laden mass of the truck. In conclusion, the study showed that the functional Finnish road and pavement classes can be used to predict driving speed and fuel consumption.

  • Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi (email)
  • Ojala, UPM Metsä, Sirkkalantie 13 b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johannes.ojala@upm.com
  • Palander, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland (UEF), Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9284-5443 E-mail: teijo.s.palander@uef.fi
  • Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6886-0432 E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi
article id 10762, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Jaana Luoranen, Timo Saksa, Tiina Laine, Juha Heiskanen. (2022). Long-term growth response of Norway spruce in different mounding and vegetation control treatments on fine-textured soils. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 10762. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10762
Keywords: boreal forest; establishment; regeneration; site preparation; plantation; tree growth; scarification; fine-textured soils; mechanical vegetation control
Highlights: Spot and ditch mounding methods favoured spruce sapling development on fine-textured soils; Inverted and unprepared plots showed the weakest growth; Vegetation control suppressed the growth differences between site preparation methods; Vegetation control reduced the density of resprouts after early cleaning.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Mechanical site preparation (MSP) is a common practice that precedes the planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) in Nordic forests. Mounding has become the most used method in spruce planting in recent years. This study examined the effects of different mounding treatments (spot and ditch mounding, inversion, unprepared control with or without herbicide application) and a mechanical vegetation control (MVC) treatment done 3–4 years after planting on the post-planting growth of spruce container seedlings and their development to saplings during the first 11–13 years on two forest till soils in central Finland, one on flat terrain and other on a southwest slope. On these fine-textured soils the spot and ditch mounding methods favoured spruce saplings development. Inversion and unprepared plots showed weakest growth. On the site with flat terrain, 11 years post planting, spruce saplings were 78–144 cm (38–80%) taller and their breast height diameters were 11–13 mm (60–74%) thicker for ditch or spot mounding than for inversion or herbicide treatment. On the site with sloped terrain the differences were minor between the MSP treatments. MVC improved spruce height growth on sites which did not have intensive MSP, especially on control saplings planted on unprepared soil in herbicide and inversion treatments. On the flat terrain, MVC reduced the density of resprouts to be removed later in pre-commercial thinning. As a conclusion, spot or ditch mounding favoured the growth of spruce over inversion especially on flat terrain with fine-textured soil.

  • Uotila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@luke.fi (email)
  • Luoranen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6970-2030 E-mail: jaana.luoranen@luke.fi
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1776-2357 E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
  • Laine, Metsä Forest, Revontulenpuisto 2, FI-02100 Espoo, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6448-8274 E-mail: tiina.laine@metsagroup.com
  • Heiskanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0549-835X E-mail: juha.heiskanen@luke.fi
article id 10757, category Research article
Silvana M.J. Sione, Silvia G. Ledesma, Pablo G. Aceñolaza, Marcelo G. Wilson. (2022). Biomass Carbon and Nitrogen allocation in different tree species: do tree compartments and size affect C:N relationship? Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 10757. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10757
Keywords: Neltuma nigra; Neltuma affinis; Vachellia caven; biomass compartments; C:N ratio; native forests
Highlights: C:N relationship variations in biomass compartments were positively correlated with N concentration and did not exhibit significant association with C; C:N ratios differed significantly among species and compartments; Only in Neltuma affinis and Vachellia caven stems C:N relationship differed among tree size.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Tree carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations and C:N ratio are critical for understanding the elemental compositions of forests, N use efficiency, productivity and the biogeochemical cycles. We evaluate differences in C and N allocation among biomass compartments of three N‑fixing tree species of Espinal Argentine eco-region; the scaling relationship between C and N and the C:N ratio variation among compartments and tree size. Neltuma affinis (Spreng.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis, Neltuma nigra (Griseb.) C.E. Hughes & G.P. Lewis and Vachellia caven (Molina) Seigler & Ebinger plants (n = 30 for each species) were felled, grouped by stem basal diameter-based size classes and partitioned into 3 biomass compartments: stem (st), large branches (lb) and small branches + leaves, flowers and fruits (sbl). C and N concentrations were markedly influenced by species and biomass compartments. In general, sbl compartment presented more N than the st and lb, while C concentrations in Neltuma stems were the highest. Overall, no isometric C–N scaling relationships were found in different compartments. C:N variations in compartments were positively correlated with N concentrations but did not exhibit any significant association with C concentrations. C:N ratios differed significantly among species and biomass compartments. The C:N ratio for compartments ranked in an order of st > lb > sbl. C:N ratio variability in sbl was the least. Only in N. affinis and V. caven stems C:N relationship differed among tree size. Our results provide evidence of the importance of using in situ C and N concentration per main tree species and biomass compartments, to more accurate estimates of C and N stocks.

  • Sione, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina; CICyTTP-CONICET (National Research and Technological Investigation Council), Materi y España (3105) Diamante, Entre Ríos, Argentina ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2119-0363 E-mail: silvana.sione@fca.uner.edu.ar (email)
  • Ledesma, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9264-1766 E-mail: silvia.ledesma@fca.uner.edu.ar
  • Aceñolaza, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina; CICyTTP-CONICET (National Research and Technological Investigation Council), Materi y España (3105) Diamante, Entre Ríos, Argentina ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5033-3466 E-mail: pablo.acenolaza@fca.uner.edu.ar
  • Wilson, National University of Entre Ríos, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ruta 11 Km 10,5 (3101) Oro Verde, Entre Ríos, Argentina ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1214-1041 E-mail: wilson.marcelo@inta.gob.ar
article id 10676, category Research article
Eva Ring, Fredrik Johansson, Claudia von Brömssen, Isabelle Bergkvist. (2022). A snapshot of forest buffers near streams, ditches, and lakes on forest land in Sweden – lessons learned. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 4 article id 10676. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10676
Keywords: forestry; conifer; harvest; lake; riparian; stream; watercourse
Highlights: Forest buffers were inventoried on 174 harvested and site-prepared compartments bordering surface water in Sweden; Buffers with 100% shoreline coverage were present beside all 16 lakes and 55% of the natural or modified stream reaches; Judging streams´ character from field inspection of individual reaches alone proved difficult on forest land affected by historic drainage activities.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest buffers beside surface water can mitigate negative effects of logging. To gain more information on buffer implementation in operational forestry, forest buffers were inventoried during 2018 on 174 harvested and site-prepared compartments traversed by or bordering streams, ditches and lakes in three regions across Sweden 2–4 years after clearcutting. Most of the inventoried stream and ditch reaches were ≤5 m wide. The water reaches were categorized as lakes (n = 16), natural streams (n = 50), modified streams (n = 21) or ditches (n = 87). Forest buffers with 100% shoreline coverage were present along all lake reaches and 55% and 10% of the natural or modified stream and ditch reaches, respectively. Buffers were absent beside 14% of the natural or modified stream reaches and 61% of the ditch reaches. Lake reaches had significantly wider buffers on average than ditch reaches and natural or modified stream reaches. The mean (SE) buffer widths beside lakes, natural or modified stream reaches and ditch reaches across all three regions and shoreline coverage classes were 12 (1.1), 6.6 (0.6) and 1.5 (0.5) m, respectively. The character of the local stream networks (natural or modified streams or ditches) containing each inventoried reach, were assessed using map information and the reaches´ field classifications. This illustrated the difficulty of judging a streams´ character based solely on field inspections of individual reaches on forest land where historic drainage activities have been performed. We recommend that also upstream and downstream conditions should be considered when planning environmental measures to protect surface water bodies.

  • Ring, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8962-9811 E-mail: eva.ring@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Johansson, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, 751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: fredrik.johansson@skogforsk.se
  • von Brömssen, Department of energy and technology, Division of applied statistics and mathematics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1452-8696 E-mail: Claudia.von.Bromssen@slu.se
  • Bergkvist, Mellanskog, Uppsala Science Park, Box 127, 751 04 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: isabelle.bergkvist@mellanskog.se
article id 10755, category Research article
Rikard Jonsson, Lotta Woxblom, Rolf Björheden, Eva-Maria Nordström, Bosko Blagojevic, Ola Lindroos. (2022). Analysis of decision-making processes for strategic technology investments in Swedish large-scale forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 3 article id 10755. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10755
Keywords: information needs; qualitative analysis; harwarder; forest technology development; semi-structured interviews; unstructured decision processes
Highlights: When making development decisions, respondents representing six relatively large users of forest technology aimed to maximize economic criteria without falling below threshold values for criteria such as operator well-being, soil rutting, and wood value; Collaboration between users, manufacturers, and researchers was found to be important; Decision-making could be improved by using tools such as problem-structuring methods, simulations, and optimization.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Technological development gives forest companies opportunities to maintain competitiveness in the highly cost-sensitive market for forest products. However, no previous studies have examined the technological development decisions made by forest companies or the support tools used when making them. We therefore aimed to describe and analyze 1) the processes used when making such decisions, 2) the associated decision situations, and 3) the use of and need for decision support tools in these processes, with a harwarder concept as case. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with respondents from six forestry organizations. Two theoretical frameworks were used to analyze the interviews, one for unstructured decision processes and one for decision situations. The respondents’ descriptions of their decision processes were consistent with those observed in other industries, and it was shown that decision-making could potentially be improved by investing more resources into diagnosing the problem at hand. The main objective in decision-making was to maximize economic criteria while satisfying threshold requirements relating to criteria such as operator well-being, soil rutting, and wood value. When facing large uncertainties, interviewees preferred to gather data through operational trials and/or scientific studies. If confronted with large uncertainties that could not be reduced, they proceeded with development only if the potential gains exceeded the estimated uncertainties, and implemented innovations in a stepwise manner. These results indicate a need for greater use of existing decision-support tools such as problem-structuring methods to enable more precise diagnoses, simulations to better understand new innovations, and optimization to better evaluate their theoretical large-scale potential.

  • Jonsson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: rikard.jonsson@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Woxblom, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lotta.woxblom@skogforsk.se
  • Björheden, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: rolf.bjorheden@skogforsk.se
  • Nordström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: eva-maria.nordstrom@slu.se
  • Blagojevic, University of Novi Sad, Department of Water Management, Trg D. Obradovica 8, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: bosko.blagojevic@polj.edu.rs
  • Lindroos, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ola.lindroos@slu.se
article id 10732, category Research article
Ana Aza, A. Maarit I. Kallio, Timo Pukkala, Ari Hietala, Terje Gobakken, Rasmus Astrup. (2022). Species selection in areas subjected to risk of root and butt rot: applying Precision forestry in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 3 article id 10732. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10732
Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; growth modelling; precision forestry; root and butt rot severity; tree species selection
Highlights: We present the best species to plant on previously spruce-dominated sites with different site indexes and rot levels; We recommend planting Norway spruce on low-rot sites, Scots pine on higher-rot sites, and allowing natural regeneration on low site indexes; We demonstrate the Precision forestry method for determining the optimal tree species in heterogenous stands; In the case study, the method increased net present value by approximately 6% on average.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Norway’s most common tree species, Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Norway spruce), is often infected with Heterobasidion parviporum Niemelä & Korhonen and Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref.. Because Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) is less susceptible to rot, it is worth considering if converting rot-infested spruce stands to pine improves economic performance. We examined the economically optimal choice between planting Norway spruce and Scots pine for previously spruce-dominated clear-cut sites of different site indexes with initial rot levels varying from 0% to 100% of stumps on the site. While it is optimal to continue to plant Norway spruce in regions with low rot levels, shifting to Scots pine pays off when rot levels get higher. The threshold rot level for changing from Norway spruce to Scots pine increases with the site index. We present a case study demonstrating a practical method (“Precision forestry”) for determining the tree species in a stand at the pixel level when the stand is heterogeneous both in site indexes and rot levels. This method is consistent with the concept of Precision forestry, which aims to plan and execute site-specific forest management activities to improve the quality of wood products while minimising waste, increasing profits, and maintaining environmental quality. The material for the study includes data on rot levels and site indexes in 71 clear-cut stands. Compared to planting the entire stand with a single species, pixel-level optimised species selection increases the net present value in almost every stand, with average increase of approximately 6%.

  • Aza, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, PO Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6416-6697 E-mail: anfe@nmbu.no (email)
  • Kallio, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, PO Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway E-mail: maarit.kallio@nmbu.no
  • Pukkala, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.pukkala@uef.fi
  • Hietala, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, PO Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: ari.hietala@nibio.no
  • Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, PO Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
  • Astrup, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, PO Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: rasmus.astrup@nibio.no
article id 10712, category Research article
Kenneth Olofsson, Johan Holmgren. (2022). Co-registration of single tree maps and data captured by a moving sensor using stem diameter weighted linking. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 3 article id 10712. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10712
Keywords: airborne laser scanning; terrestrial laser scanning; field plot; mobile laser scanning; simultaneous location and mapping; stem map
Highlights: A stem diameter weighted linking algorithm for tree maps was introduced which improves linking accuracy; A new simultaneous location and mapping-based co-registration method for stem maps measured with moving sensors was introduced that operates with high linking accuracy.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A new method for the co-registration of single tree data in forest stands and forest plots applicable to static as well as dynamic data capture is presented. This method consists of a stem diameter weighted linking algorithm that improves the linking accuracy when operating on diverse diameter stands with stem position errors in the single tree detectors. A co-registration quality metric threshold, QT, is also introduced which makes it possible to discriminate between correct and incorrect stem map co-registrations with high probability (>99%). These two features are combined to a simultaneous location and mapping-based co-registration method that operates with high linking accuracy and that can handle sensors with drifting errors and signal bias. A test with simulated data shows that the method has an 89.35% detection rate. The statistics of different settings in a simulation study are presented, where the effect of stem density and position errors were investigated. A test case with real sensor data from a forest stand shows that the average nearest neighbor distances decreased from 1.90 m to 0.51 m, which indicates the feasibility of this method.

  • Olofsson, Section of Forest Remote Sensing, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2836-2316 E-mail: kenneth.olofsson@slu.se (email)
  • Holmgren, Section of Forest Remote Sensing, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7112-8015 E-mail: johan.holmgren@slu.se
article id 10660, category Research article
Åsa Gustafsson, Jimmy Johansson. (2022). Identifying present drivers of product development and describing roles of identified actors primarily affecting the development of harvesters: a multiple-case study. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 3 article id 10660. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10660
Keywords: forest operations; logging contractor; industry driver; interview; softwood lumber supply chain
Highlights: Legislators, logging contractors, and expert and research organizations are present drivers of product development of harvesters; They appear to prioritize meeting legal regulations and lowering costs for logging contractors as they outline requirements for manufacturing harvesters.
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Forest operations involve several different actors. Each actor imposes their own requirements on the harvester in relation to their differing roles in the industry, whether they are concerned with the harvester itself, information, environmental concerns, etc. The manufacturers of harvesters need to meet the requirements imposed by multiple actors, among them logging contractors, whose survival depends on their harvesters. This paper aims to identify the present drivers of product development and describe the roles of the actors who have been identified as those currently affecting the development of harvesters. A multiple-case study of harvester manufacturers was conducted. In total, 4 cases were studied. Each case was comprised of five interviewees: two from each harvesting manufacturer, two logging contractors, and one dealer. Following 20 interviews and 3 validation interviews (with experts from both the industry and academia), the paper concludes that the present drivers of product development of harvesters are legislators, logging contractors, and expert and research organizations. Harvester manufacturers appear to develop harvesters aligned with requirements coming from both logging contractors and legislators. Logging contractors are the primary customers, and they prioritize requirements that reduce cost and improve work environments. Legislators, and expert and research organizations are supporting development in relation to current regulations.

  • Gustafsson, Department of Accounting and Logistics, Linnaeus University, Universitetsplatsen 1, 352 52 Växjö, Sweden E-mail: asa.gustafsson@lnu.se (email)
  • Johansson, Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, Linnaeus University, 391 82 Kalmar, Sweden E-mail: jimmy.johansson@lnu.se
article id 10707, category Research article
Martin Goude, Urban Nilsson, Euan Mason, Giulia Vico. (2022). Comparing basal area growth models for Norway spruce and Scots pine dominated stands. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10707. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10707
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; basal area; Picea abies; National Forest Inventory; regression; difference equation; long-term experiment
Highlights: Models were developed that predict basal area growth for Scot pine and Norway spruce stands in Sweden; There were no apparent differences in the ability to predict basal area development between a linear regression model for basal area growth or a compatible growth and yields model for basal area; The model based on data from the 80s had similar performance as the models with data from the 2000s, showing that both can reliably be used to predict forest development.
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Models that predict forest development are essential for sustainable forest management. Constructing growth models via regression analysis or fitting a family of sigmoid equations to construct compatible growth and yield models are two ways these models can be developed. In this study, four species-specific models were developed and compared. A compatible growth and yield stand basal area model and a five-year stand basal area growth model were developed for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). The models were developed using data from permanent inventory plots from the Swedish national forest inventory and long-term experiments. The species-specific models were compared, using independent data from long-term experiments, with a stand basal area growth model currently used in the Swedish forest planning system Heureka (Elfving model). All new models had a good, relatively unbiased fit. There were no apparent differences between the models in their ability to predict basal area development, except for the slightly worse predictions for the Norway spruce growth model. The lack of difference in the model comparison showed that despite the simplicity of the compatible growth and yield models, these models could be recommended, especially when data availability is limited. Also, despite using more and newer data for model development in this study, the currently used Elfving model was equally good at predicting basal area. The lack of model difference indicate that future studies should instead focus on model development for heterogeneous forests which are common but lack in growth and yield modelling research.

  • Goude, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2179-292X E-mail: martin.goude@slu.se (email)
  • Nilsson, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se
  • Mason, School of Forestry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand E-mail: euan.mason@canterbury.ac.nz
  • Vico, Department of Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: giulia.vico@slu.se
article id 10695, category Research article
Ana de Lera Garrido, Terje Gobakken, Hans Ole Ørka, Erik Næsset, Ole M. Bollandsås. (2022). Estimating forest attributes in airborne laser scanning based inventory using calibrated predictions from external models. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10695. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10695
Keywords: forest inventory; LIDAR; calibration; area-based approach; spatial transferability; temporal transferability
Highlights: Three approaches to calibrate temporal and spatial external models using field observations from different numbers of local plots are presented; Calibration produced satisfactory results, reducing the mean difference between estimated and observed values in 89% of all trials; Using few calibration plots, ratio-calibration provided the lowest mean difference; Calibration using 20 plots gave comparable results to a local forest inventory.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest management inventories assisted by airborne laser scanner data rely on predictive models traditionally constructed and applied based on data from the same area of interest. However, forest attributes can also be predicted using models constructed with data external to where the model is applied, both temporal and geographically. When external models are used, many factors influence the predictions’ accuracy and may cause systematic errors. In this study, volume, stem number, and dominant height were estimated using external model predictions calibrated using a reduced number of up-to-date local field plots or using predictions from reparametrized models. We assessed and compared the performance of three different calibration approaches for both temporally and spatially external models. Each of the three approaches was applied with different numbers of calibration plots in a simulation, and the accuracy was assessed using independent validation data. The primary findings were that local calibration reduced the relative mean difference in 89% of the cases, and the relative root mean squared error in 56% of the cases. Differences between application of temporally or spatially external models were minor, and when the number of local plots was small, calibration approaches based on the observed prediction errors on the up-to-date local field plots were better than using the reparametrized models. The results showed that the estimates resulting from calibrating external models with 20 plots were at the same level of accuracy as those resulting from a new inventory.

  • de Lera Garrido, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: ana.de.lera@nmbu.no (email)
  • Gobakken, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
  • Ørka, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: hans-ole.orka@nmbu.no
  • Næsset, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@nmbu.no
  • Bollandsås, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: ole.martin.bollandsas@nmbu.no
article id 10663, category Research article
Back Tomas Ersson, Lars-Göran Sundblad, Jussi Manner. (2022). Cost analysis of seedling supply systems adapted for mechanized tree planting: a case study from southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10663. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10663
Keywords: logistics; silviculture; reforestation; tree planting machine; containerized seedling; seedling handling; system analysis
Highlights: The total cost of cardboard box concepts that increase the productivity of tree planting machines is higher than of the cultivation tray system (5–49% in the basic scenario); Increasing the boxes’ packing densities and/or the planting machines’ hourly cost increases the boxes’ cost-competitiveness; Packing density is a key factor in achieving highly cost-efficient seedling supply systems for mechanized tree planting.
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Because today’s tree planting machines do a good job silviculturally, the Nordic forest sector is interested in finding ways to increase the planting machines’ productivity. Faster seedling reloading increases machine productivity, but that solution might require investments in specially designed seedling packaging. The objective of our study was to compare the cost-efficiency of cardboard box concepts that increase the productivity of tree planting machines with that of today’s two most common seedling packaging systems in southern Sweden. We modelled the total cost of these five different seedling packaging systems using data from numerous sources including manufacturers, nurseries, contractors, and forest companies. Under these southern Swedish conditions, the total cost of cardboard box concepts that increase the productivity of intermittently advancing tree planting machines was higher than the cost of the cultivation tray system (5–49% in the basic scenario). However, the conceptual packaging system named ManBox_fast did show promise, especially with increasing primary transport distances and increased planting machine productivities and hourly costs. Thus, our results show that high seedling packing density is of fundamental importance for cost-efficiency of cardboard box systems designed for mechanized tree planting. Our results also illustrate how different factors in the seedling supply chain affect the cost-efficiency of tree planting machines. Consequently, our results underscore that the key development factor for mechanized tree planting in the Nordic countries is the development of cost-efficient seedling handling systems between nurseries and planting machines.

  • Ersson, SLU, School of Forest Management, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2442-7482 E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se (email)
  • Sundblad, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lars-goran.sundblad@skogforsk.se
  • Manner, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4982-3855 E-mail: jussi.manner@skogforsk.se
article id 10606, category Research article
Benjamin Allen, Michele Dalponte, Ari M. Hietala, Hans Ole Ørka, Erik Næsset, Terje Gobakken. (2022). Detection of Root, Butt, and Stem Rot presence in Norway spruce with hyperspectral imagery. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10606. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10606
Keywords: Picea abies; Heterobasidion; remote sensing; root rot; hyperspectral imagery; forest pathology
Highlights: Hyperspectral imagery can be used to detect Root, Butt, and Stem Rot in Picea abies with moderate accuracy; Spectral derivatives improved classification accuracy; Bands around 540, 700, and 1650 nm tended to be the most important for classification models.
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Pathogenic wood decay fungi such as species of Heterobasidion are some of the most serious forest pathogens in Europe, causing rot of tree boles and loss of growth, with estimated economic losses of eight hundred million euros per year. In conifers with low resinous heartwood such as species of Picea and Abies, these fungi are commonly confined to heartwood and thus external infection signs on the bark or foliage of trees are normally absent. Consequently, determining the extent of disease presence in a forest stand with field surveys is not practical for guiding forest management decisions such as optimal rotation time. Remote sensing technologies such as airborne laser scanning and aerial imagery are already used to reduce the reliance on fieldwork in forest inventories. This study aimed to use remote sensing to detect rot in spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) forests in Norway. An airborne hyperspectral imager provided information for classifying the presence or absence of rot in a single-tree-based framework. Ground reference data showing the presence of rot were collected by harvest machine operators during the harvest of forest stands. Random forest and support vector machine algorithms were used to classify the presence and absence of rot. Results indicate a 64% overall classification accuracy for presence-absence classification of rot, although additional work remains to make the classifications usable for practical forest management.

  • Allen, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: benjamin.allen@nmbu.no (email)
  • Dalponte, Department of Sustainable Agro-ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione E. Mach, Via E. Mach 1, 38098 San Michele all’Adige (TN), Italy E-mail: michele.dalponte@fmach.it
  • Hietala, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Innocamp Steinkjer, Skolegata 22, NO-7713 Steinkjer, Norway E-mail: Ari.Hietala@nibio.no
  • Ørka, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: hans-ole.orka@nmbu.no
  • Næsset, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@nmbu.no
  • Gobakken, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
article id 10599, category Research article
Anu Laakkonen, Teppo Hujala, Jouni Pykäläinen. (2022). Defining the systemic development of the Finnish pulp and paper industry’s business network. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10599. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10599
Keywords: forest cluster; competence; Actors-Resources-Activities framework; coopetition; historical pathways
Highlights: Systemic view helps to understand the phenomena reshaping business field networks; Forest sector companies operate in complex, dynamic, and international environment; Actors-Resources-Activities framework -based analysis of Finnish pulp and paper industry’s network development; The role of actors, resources, and activities have varied between different phases; Network structure altered due to radical changes in the operating environment.
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Companies operate in a nested and complex system where global challenges shape their environments and put pressure on business activities. Systemic understanding of the past and ongoing changes within a national industry help to analyze the global influences and identify phenomena that reshape business collaborations. To address this issue in the case of a forest sector, this study constructs a systemic picture of the historical development of the Finnish pulp and paper industry’s business network and analyzes it qualitatively through the Actors-Resources-Activities framework. Books discussing the history of the Finnish forest industry were used as secondary data, which were analyzed with a theory-based content analysis method. The analysis revealed four development phases during which the network has evolved from rather simple one emphasizing cooperation organizations (1st) to a more complex one with stronger roles of the state and individual influencers (2nd), and then emphasizing export and advocacy associations (3rd), before returning to be rather simple, based around three large multinationals and the EU playing an important role (4th). The industry is concerned about securing its key resources, with varying foci. Research and technological innovation activities play an important role together with cooperative interactions. Overall, actors favor a business-as-usual strategy, which is overruled only by a radical change in the operating environment, leading to notable changes in the network. Thus, a suggestion for all actors within the forest sector is that actively detecting and interpreting change signals in the whole environment can help actors in pursuing sustainable activities.

  • Laakkonen, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6384-7773 E-mail: anu.laakkonen@uef.fi (email)
  • Hujala, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7905-7602 E-mail: teppo.hujala@uef.fi
  • Pykäläinen, School of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jouni.pykalainen@uef.fi
article id 10627, category Research article
Christian Kuehne, J. Paul McLean, Kobra Maleki, Clara Antón-Fernández, Rasmus Astrup. (2022). A stand-level growth and yield model for thinned and unthinned even-aged Scots pine forests in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10627. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10627
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; mortality; volume growth; seemingly unrelated regression; production forestry; system of equations
Highlights: The presented growth and yield model consists of component equations for dominant height, stem density, total basal area, and total stem volume; The component equations were fitted simultaneously using seemingly unrelated regression; The model is capable to forecast and compare outcomes of varying thinning regimes; The new component equations better represent the improved growing conditions for Scots pine in Norway.
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Management of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Norway requires a forest growth and yield model suitable for describing stand dynamics of even-aged forests under contemporary climatic conditions with and without the effects of silvicultural thinning. A system of equations forming such a stand-level growth and yield model fitted to long-term experimental data is presented here. The growth and yield model consists of component equations for (i) dominant height, (ii) stem density (number of stems per hectare), (iii) total basal area, (iv) and total stem volume fitted simultaneously using seemingly unrelated regression. The component equations for stem density, basal area, and volume include a thinning modifier to forecast stand dynamics in thinned stands. It was shown that thinning significantly increased basal area and volume growth while reducing competition related mortality. No significant effect of thinning was found on dominant height. Model examination by means of various fit statistics indicated no obvious bias and improvement in prediction accuracy in comparison to existing models in general. An application of the developed stand-level model comparing different management scenarios exhibited plausible long-term behavior and we propose this is therefore suitable for national deployment.

  • Kuehne, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: christian.kuehne@nibio.no (email)
  • McLean, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: paul.mclean@nibio.no
  • Maleki, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: kobra.maleki@nibio.no
  • Antón-Fernández, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: clara.anton.fernandez@nibio.no
  • Astrup, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Division of Forestry and Forest Resources, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: rasmus.astrup@nibio.no
article id 10608, category Research article
Lennart Noordermeer, Erik Næsset, Terje Gobakken. (2022). Effects of harvester positioning errors on merchantable timber volume predicted and estimated from airborne laser scanner data in mature Norway spruce forests. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10608. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10608
Keywords: forest inventory; ALS; forest harvester; GNSS; precision forestry
Highlights: Timber volume was estimated using harvester and airborne laser scanner (ALS) data acquired with different scanners over eight years; The year of ALS acquisition did not have a significant effect on errors in timber volume estimates; Accuracies of timber volume estimates decreased significantly with increasing levels of positioning error; When using inaccurately positioned harvester data, larger grid cells are beneficial.
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Newly developed positioning systems in cut-to-length harvesters enable georeferencing of individual trees with submeter accuracy. Together with detailed tree measurements recorded during processing of the tree, georeferenced harvester data are emerging as a valuable tool for forest inventory. Previous studies have shown that harvester data can be linked to airborne laser scanner (ALS) data to estimate a range of forest attributes. However, there is little empirical evidence of the benefits of improved positioning accuracy of harvester data. The two objectives of this study were to (1) assess the accuracy of timber volume estimation using harvester data and ALS data acquired with different scanners over multiple years and (2) assess how harvester positioning errors affect merchantable timber volume predicted and estimated from ALS data. We used harvester data from 33 commercial logging operations, comprising 93 731 harvested stems georeferenced with sub-meter accuracy, as plot-level training data in an enhanced area-based inventory approach. By randomly altering the tree positions in Monte Carlo simulations, we assessed how prediction and estimation errors were influenced by different combinations of simulated positioning errors and grid cell sizes. We simulated positioning errors of 1, 2, …, 15 m and used grid cells of 100, 200, 300 and 400 m2. Values of root mean square errors obtained for cell-level predictions of timber volume differed significantly for the different grid cell sizes. The use of larger grid cells resulted in a greater accuracy of timber volume predictions, which were also less affected by positioning errors. Accuracies of timber volume estimates at logging operation level decreased significantly with increasing levels of positioning error. The results highlight the benefit of accurate positioning of harvester data in forest inventory applications. Further, the results indicate that when estimating timber volume from ALS data and inaccurately positioned harvester data, larger grid cells are beneficial.

  • Noordermeer, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NMBU, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: lennart.noordermeer@nmbu.no (email)
  • Næsset, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NMBU, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@nmbu.no
  • Gobakken, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NMBU, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
article id 10598, category Research article
Argo Orumaa, Kajar Köster, Arvo Tullus, Tea Tullus, Marek Metslaid. (2022). Forest fires have long-term effects on the composition of vascular plants and bryophytes in Scots pine forests of hemiboreal Estonia. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10598. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10598
Keywords: disturbance; bryophytes; understorey vegetation; vascular plants; hemiboreal forest; fire chronosequence; wildfire
Highlights: We recorded 31 vascular plant and 39 bryophyte species in a chronosequence of Scots pine stands with 12–183 years since fire; Time since fire affected the compositional patterns of vascular plants and bryophytes; The richness of liverworts was higher in recently burned stands due to the presence of Cephaloziella spp.; The richness of dwarf-shrubs increased with longer period since fire.
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Since fire frequency is expected to increase globally due to climate change, it is important to understand its effects on forest ecosystems. We studied the long-term patterns in species diversity, cover and composition of vascular plants and bryophytes after forest fire and the site-related factors behind them. Research was carried out in northwestern Estonia, using a chronosequence of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands, located on nutrient poor sandy soils, where fires had occurred 12, 23, 38, 69, 80 and 183 years ago. In every stand three 100 m2 vegetation plots were established to collect floristic and environmental information. The effects on floristic characteristics of time since fire, light, and soil variables were evaluated with linear mixed models, followed by backward variable selection. Compositional variation was analysed with non-metric multidimensional scaling, Multi-response Permutation Procedures, and Indicator Species Analysis. Altogether, 31 vascular plant and 39 bryophyte species were found in vegetation plots. The cover of the vascular plant and bryophyte layers increased with a longer time since fire. Soil and light variables impacted the richness of several vascular plant and bryophyte groups, whereas only the richness of liverworts and dwarf-shrubs correlated with time since fire. Considerable compositional differences were observed in vascular plant and bryophyte assemblages between recently vs. long-time ago burned stands. To conclude, time since fire significantly impacted compositional patterns of vascular plants and bryophytes in pine forests on nutrient poor soils, although time-related trends in species richness were less evident.

  • Orumaa, Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006, Tartu, Estonia E-mail: argo.orumaa@emu.ee (email)
  • Köster, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 111 (Yliopistokatu 7), 80130, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kajar.koster@helsinki.fi
  • Tullus, Department of Botany, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Lai 40, Tartu, 51003, Estonia E-mail: arvo.tullus@ut.ee
  • Tullus, Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006, Tartu, Estonia E-mail: tea.tullus@emu.ee
  • Metslaid, Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51006, Tartu, Estonia E-mail: marek.metslaid@emu.ee
article id 10544, category Research article
Lars Sprengel, Heinrich Spiecker, Shuirong Wu. (2022). Two subject specific modelling approaches to construct base-age invariant polymorphic site index curves with varying asymptotes. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10544. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10544
Keywords: generalized algebraic difference approach; stem analysis; dummy variable approach; gnls; nonlinear mixed-effects models; nlme; Zhongtiaoshan forest region
Highlights: Base-age invariant families of height growth curves with polymorphism and varying asymptotes are presented for the seven economically most important tree species in Zhongtiaoshan forest region, China; The nonlinear fixed-effects approach outperforms the nonlinear mixed-effects approach according to the AIC, but according to RMSE and bias these results are not fully supported.
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For constructing growth and yield models the concept of site index as measure of productivity is crucial. Here, we use nonlinear mixed-effects models (NLME) with random individual effects and nonlinear models with dummy variables as fixed individual effects (NLFE) to fit mechanistic growth functions to stem analysis data of the economically most important tree species in Zhongtiaoshan forest region, China. The Richards and Lundqvist function are formulated into five dynamic equations (R1, R2, L1, L2 and L3) applying the generalized algebraic difference approach (GADA), which inherit polymorphism, varying asymptotes and base-age invariance. According to Akaike information criterion the R1 model as NLFE fits height growth data of Pinus tabuliformis Carrière, Pinus armandii Franch., Quercus liaotungensis Koidz., Quercus aliena Blume and Betula platyphylla Sukaczev best, while for Quercus variabilis Blume R2 as NLFE fits height growth data best. For Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr L1 as NLME has been selected as best model, as R1 and R2 both as NLFE and NLME are not extrapolating the comparably short length of height growth data well enough. However, according to the root mean square error and bias differences between model fits of both the selected equation and the chosen model fitting approach are not so clear. Presented families of height growth curves serve as planning tools to identify site index and therefore assess productivity of forest stands in the studied region. A direct comparison of the productivity of forest stands of the same tree species is possible due to base-age invariance of the selected models.

  • Sprengel, Chair of Forest Growth and Dendroecology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6332-7911 E-mail: lars.sprengel@iww.uni-freiburg.de (email)
  • Spiecker, Chair of Forest Growth and Dendroecology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany E-mail: instww@uni-freiburg.de
  • Wu, Research Institute of Forest Policy and Information, Chinese Academy of Forestry, No. 1 Dongxiaofu, Haidian District, Beijing 100091, China E-mail: shuirongwu@126.com
article id 10520, category Research article
Shaoqin Yang, Lita Yi, Nuonan Ye, Mengyuan Wu, Meihua Liu. (2022). Spatial pattern dynamics of Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia in mixed broad-leaved forests on Tianmu Mountain, eastern China, 1996–2012. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10520. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10520
Keywords: forest dynamics; spatial distribution; East Asia; evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forests
Highlights: Spatial distribution pattern monitoring of Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia was performed over 16 years in a 1 ha plot; The importance value of C. myrsinifolia decreased between 1996 and 2012; The spatial distribution pattern changed at a spatial scale of 0–25 m; The drivers of the variation in spatial distribution were intra- and interspecific mutual relationships.
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Studies of the spatial patterns of dominant plant species may provide significant insights into processes and mechanisms that maintain stand stability. This study was performed in a permanent 1 ha plot in evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forests on Tianmu Mountain. Based on two surveys (1996 and 2012), the dynamics of the spatial distribution pattern of the dominant population (Cyclobalanopsis myrsinifolia (Blume) Oersted) and the intra- and interspecific relationships between C. myrsinifolia and other dominant species populations were analyzed using Ripley’s K(r) function. We identified the importance value of a species in a community, which is the sum of the relative density, relative frequency, and relative dominance. The drivers of spatial distribution variation and the maintenance mechanisms of the forest were discussed. The results showed that the importance value of C. myrsinifolia within the community decreased over the past 16 years. The C. myrsinifolia population exhibited a significantly aggregated distribution within a spatial scale of 0–25 m in 1996 whereas it changed to a random distribution at scales larger than 5.5 m in 2012. From 1996 to 2012, the spatial distribution patterns between C. myrsinifolia and Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinsk. and between C. myrsinifolia and Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook did not change significantly. In 1996, C. myrsinifolia and Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. were positively associated at the scale of 0–25 m; this relationship was strongly significant at the scale of 6–10 m. However, there was no association between the populations of two species in terms of the spatial distribution at the scale of 0–25 m in 2012. Our findings indicate that the drivers of variation in the spatial distribution of the C. myrsinifolia population were intra- and interspecific mutual relationships as well the seed-spreading mechanism of this species.

  • Yang, Zhejiang Forest Resources Monitoring Center, Hangzhou 310020, China E-mail: 20080095@zafu.edu.cn
  • Yi, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: yilita@zafu.edu.cn
  • Ye, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: 542243187@qq.com
  • Wu, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: 326585523@qq.com
  • Liu, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A & F University, Lin’an 311300, China E-mail: mhliu@zafu.edu.cn (email)
article id 10662, category Research article
Kari T. Korhonen, Arto Ahola, Juha Heikkinen, Helena M. Henttonen, Juha-Pekka Hotanen, Antti Ihalainen, Markus Melin, Juho Pitkänen, Minna Räty, Maria Sirviö, Mikael Strandström. (2021). Forests of Finland 2014–2018 and their development 1921–2018. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 5 article id 10662. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10662
Keywords: biodiversity; National Forest Inventory; growing stock; forest resources; forest damage
Highlights: Current volume of growing stock, 2500 M m3, is 1.7 times the volume in the 1920s; Annual volume increment is 107.8 M m3, which is double the increment estimated in the 1930s; Serious damage is observed on 2% of the forests available for wood supply; The amount of dead wood is on average 5.8 m3 per ha on productive forest.
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We describe the methodology applied in the 12th national forest inventory of Finland (NFI12) and describe the state of Finland’s forests as well as the development of some key parameters since 1920s. According to the NFI12, the area of forestry land (consisting of productive and poorly productive forest, unproductive land, and other forestry land) is 26.2 M ha. The area of forestry land has decreased from 1920s to 1960s due to expansion of agriculture and built-up land. 20% of the forestry land is not available for wood supply and 13% is only partly available for wood supply. The area of peatlands is 8.8 M ha, which is one third of the forestry land. 53% of the current area of peatlands is drained. The volume of growing stock, 2500 M m3, is 1.7 times the volume estimated in NFI1 in the 1920s for the current territory of Finland. The estimated annual volume increment is 107.8 M m3. The increment estimate has doubled since the estimate of NFI2 implemented in late 1930s. The annual mortality is estimated to 7 M m3, which is 0.5 M m3 more than according to the previous inventory. Serious or complete damage was observed on 2% of the productive forest available for wood supply. The amount of dead wood is on average 5.8 m3 ha–1 in productive forests. Since the NFI9 (1996–2003) the amount of dead wood has increased in South Finland and decreased in North Finland both in protected forests and forests available for wood supply (FAWS). The area of natural or almost natural forests on productive forest is 380 000 ha, out of this, 42 000 ha are in FAWS and 340 000 ha in protected forests.

  • Korhonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@luke.fi (email)
  • Ahola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: arto.ahola@luke.fi
  • Heikkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juha.heikkinen@luke.fi
  • Henttonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: helena.henttonen@luke.fi
  • Hotanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@luke.fi
  • Ihalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anttivj.ihalainen@elisanet.fi
  • Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi
  • Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 68, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.pitkanen@luke.fi
  • Räty, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: minna.raty@luke.fi
  • Sirviö, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: maria.sirvio@uudenmaanliitto.fi
  • Strandström, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), P.O. Box 2, FI-00790, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mikael.strandstrom@luke.fi
article id 10573, category Research article
Jari Miina, Inka Bohlin, Torgny Lind, Jonas Dahlgren, Kari Härkönen, Tuula Packalen, Anne Tolvanen. (2021). Lessons learned from assessing the cover and yield of bilberry and lingonberry using the national forest inventories in Finland and Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 5 article id 10573. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10573
Keywords: forest management planning; berry models; field measurements; predictions
Highlights: Model-based predictions of the berry yields of an average crop year are produced using the Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI); Inventory-based estimates of seasonal berry yields are produced using the Swedish NFI observations; The inventory-based method provides seasonal estimates, whereas models can be utilised to integrate vegetation cover and berry yields in numerical multi-objective forest planning.
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Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea L.) can be a part of healthy diet and are important for many animals. Two approaches are described to assessing their vegetation cover and berry yield via national forest inventory (NFI) observations. The aim was to provide estimates and predictions of the abundance and yield of the species at regional and national levels in Finland and Sweden. In Finland, the model-based predictions are used in evaluating the impacts of cutting intensity on forest berries needed in forest-related decision making. In Sweden, seasonal inventory-based estimates are used to evaluate the annual national and regional berry yields, and in a forecasting system aimed at large public and berry enterprises. Based on the NFI sample plots measured between 2014 and 2018, the total annual yields are estimated to be 208 Mkg of bilberry and 246 Mkg of lingonberry on productive forest land (increment at least 1 m3 ha–1 year–1) in Finland, and 336 and 382 Mkg respectively in Sweden (average of NFI inventories in 2015–2019). The predicted development of berry yields is related to the intensity of cuttings in alternative forest management scenarios: lower removals favoured bilberry, and higher removals lingonberry. The model-based method describes the effects of stand development and management on berry yields, whereas the inventory-based method can calibrate seasonal estimates through field observations. In providing spatially and timely more accurate information concerning seasonal berry yields, an assessment of berry yields should involve the elements of both inventory-based and model-based approaches described in this study.

  • Miina, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8639-4383 E-mail: jari.miina@luke.fi (email)
  • Bohlin, Swedish University of Agricultural sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: inka.bohlin@slu.se
  • Lind, Swedish University of Agricultural sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: torgny.lind@slu.se
  • Dahlgren, Swedish University of Agricultural sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jonas.dahlgren@slu.se
  • Härkönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.harkonen@luke.fi
  • Packalen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Finland, P.O. Box 30, FI-00023 Government, Finland E-mail: tuula.packalen@mmm.fi
  • Tolvanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Paavo Havaksentie 3, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: anne.tolvanen@luke.fi
article id 10525, category Research article
Markus Melin, Tiina Ylioja, Leena Aarnio, Katri Hamunen, Seppo Nevalainen, Antti Pouttu, Heli Viiri. (2021). Emergence levels of pine shoot beetles from roundwood piles of Scots pine and the cascading damage in the surrounding forests. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 5 article id 10525. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10525
Keywords: forest management; forestry; Tomicus piniperda; Tomicus minor; roundwood; legislation; timber storage
Highlights: Emerged pine shoot beetles were counted from piles of harvested Scots pine, and the shoot damage in the surrounding forests was measured; Damage was noticeable up to a distance of 40–60 m, being more severe near large piles; For piles smaller than 50 m3 the level of damage (fallen shoots) was mainly below known thresholds for growth losses; Logs with harvester-damaged bark were significantly less colonized by the beetles.
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Bark beetles are amongst the most aggressive pest agents of coniferous forests. Due to this, many boreal countries have designated laws aiming to lower the risk of bark beetle epidemics. Finland’s forest legislation has pre-emptive measures targeted against bark beetles, and for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), the law concerns pine shoot beetles (Tomicus spp.). This study used data collected around 25 piles of Scots pine roundwood that were harvested in the winter but left in the forest until the following November. Thus, the pine shoot beetles were able to use the piles for breeding. We assessed the number of emerged insects from the piles and the cascading damage they caused in the surrounding forests. All roundwood piles, regardless of their volume, were used by the beetles for breeding. Highest densities of beetle exit holes were found from the parts of the log with thick and intact bark. If the bark of the log was damaged by the harvester head, the number of beetles decreased significantly. Depending on the volume of the roundwood pile, the cascading damage (fallen shoots) was noticeable up to ca. 40–60 m from the roundwood pile. Storing of piles smaller than 50 m3 did not cause excess damage. The number of fallen shoots per tree was generally below the known thresholds for when growth losses can occur. However, the study was conducted in mature forests, and it can be assumed that the recorded damage levels would severely affect the growth of young pines, raising the question of where to store the roundwood. As with other bark beetles, the role of Tomicus beetles as damage agents may change in the future, but based on this as well as past studies, the species can be viewed as a notable damage agents only around long-term wood storage sites in the current northern conditions.

  • Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi (email)
  • Ylioja, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tiina.ylioja@luke.fi
  • Aarnio, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: leena.aarnio@luke.fi
  • Hamunen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: katri.hamunen@luke.fi
  • Nevalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.nevalainen@gmail.com
  • Pouttu, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: antti.pouttu@kolumbus.fi
  • Viiri, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; UPM-Kymmene Oyj, UPM Forest, Peltokatu 26 C, PL 85, FI-33100, Tampere, Finland E-mail: heli.viiri@upm.com
article id 10528, category Research article
Jaana Luoranen, Heli Viiri. (2021). Comparison of the planting success and risks of pine weevil damage on mineral soil and drained peatland sites three years after planting. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10528. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10528
Keywords: survival; planting; mechanical site preparation; ground vegetation; forest regeneration; Hylobius abietis
Highlights: The planting success was poorer on peatland sites than on mineral soil; Dense ground vegetation cover is more probable on peatland than on mineral soil; No differences in pine weevil feeding damage on mineral soil and peatland were found; Cultivated mineral soil reduced the vegetation cover, feeding damage and seedling mortality.
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Over 20% of regeneration operations will be on drained peatland in the next decade in Finland. There are only a few studies comparing the planting success and the risk of pine weevil (Hylobius abetis (L.) feeding damage on mineral soil and drained peatland. Thirty sites planted with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) container seedlings in 2009 in Southern and Central Finland were inventoried three growing seasons after planting. Prediction models for the probability of survival, pine weevil damage and the presence of ground vegetation cover were done separately for peatland and mineral soil sites. The planting success was 17% lower on peatland sites (1379 surviving seedlings ha–1) than on mineral soil (1654 seedlings ha–1). The factors explaining the survival were the ground vegetation cover and type of the planting spot on the peatland, and the ground vegetation cover on mineral soil. On mineral soil, 76% of the planting spots were on cultivated mineral soil while on peatland only 28% of the seedlings were planted on similar spots. There were also fewer seedlings that were surrounded by dense ground vegetation on mineral soil (4%) than on peatland (14%). Pine weevil feeding damage did not differ significantly on peatland (23%) or mineral soil (18%). The more time there was from clear-cutting, the more the probability of pine weevil feeding damage was reduced on both soil classes. Additionally, cover vegetation in the vicinity of the seedlings increased on mineral soil. Cultivated planting spots, especially those covered by mineral soil, prevented pine weevil feeding and reduced the harmful effects of vegetation on the seedlings both on mineral soil and peatland.

article id 10515, category Research article
Alwin A. Hardenbol, Anton Kuzmin, Lauri Korhonen, Pasi Korpelainen, Timo Kumpula, Matti Maltamo, Jari Kouki. (2021). Detection of aspen in conifer-dominated boreal forests with seasonal multispectral drone image point clouds. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10515. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10515
Keywords: Populus tremula; deciduous trees; mixed forest; protected areas; tree species classification; unmanned aerial vehicles
Highlights: Four boreal tree species (Scots pine, Norway spruce, birches and European aspen) classified with an overall accuracy of 95%; Presence of European aspen detected with excellent accuracy (UA: 97%, PA: 96%); Late spring is the best time for species classification by remote sensing; Best time to separate aspen from birch was when birch had leaves, but aspen did not.
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Current remote sensing methods can provide detailed tree species classification in boreal forests. However, classification studies have so far focused on the dominant tree species, with few studies on less frequent but ecologically important species. We aimed to separate European aspen (Populus tremula L.), a biodiversity-supporting tree species, from the more common species in European boreal forests (Pinus sylvestris L., Picea abies [L.] Karst., Betula spp.). Using multispectral drone images collected on five dates throughout one thermal growing season (May–September), we tested the optimal season for the acquisition of mono-temporal data. These images were collected from a mature, unmanaged forest. After conversion into photogrammetric point clouds, we segmented crowns manually and automatically and classified the species by linear discriminant analysis. The highest overall classification accuracy (95%) for the four species as well as the highest classification accuracy for aspen specifically (user’s accuracy of 97% and a producer’s accuracy of 96%) were obtained at the beginning of the thermal growing season (13 May) by manual segmentation. On 13 May, aspen had no leaves yet, unlike birches. In contrast, the lowest classification accuracy was achieved on 27 September during the autumn senescence period. This is potentially caused by high intraspecific variation in aspen autumn coloration but may also be related to our date of acquisition. Our findings indicate that multispectral drone images collected in spring can be used to locate and classify less frequent tree species highly accurately. The temporal variation in leaf and canopy appearance can alter the detection accuracy considerably.

  • Hardenbol, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0615-505X E-mail: alwin.hardenbol@uef.fi (email)
  • Kuzmin, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; University of Eastern Finland, Department of Geographical and Historical Studies, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: anton.kuzmin@uef.fi
  • Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi
  • Korpelainen, University of Eastern Finland, Department of Geographical and Historical Studies, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pasi.korpelainen@uef.fi
  • Kumpula, University of Eastern Finland, Department of Geographical and Historical Studies, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.kumpula@uef.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi
  • Kouki, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.kouki@uef.fi
article id 10485, category Research article
Felicia Dahlgren Lidman, Emma Holmström, Tomas Lundmark, Nils Fahlvik. (2021). Management of spontaneously regenerated mixed stands of birch and Norway spruce in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10485. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10485
Keywords: Betula pendula; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; natural regeneration; mixed forest; land expectation value
Highlights: The absence of forest management does not always mean economic loss; With dense spontaneous regeneration of birch and Norway spruce, the first competition release can have a high impact on future stem development; Significantly different effects on stand volume production and diameter development of Norway spruce can be expected with different biomass harvest strategies.
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Timber production and profitability were evaluated for spontaneously-regenerated mixtures on two formerly clearcut areas. The abandoned areas developed into birch-dominated (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) stands with successional ingrowth of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.). An experiment with randomized treatments within blocks was established, using three management strategies and one unthinned control, resulting in variation in optimal rotation age, merchantable volume and species composition. The management strategies were evaluated based on total production (volume) by using measured growth data 42 years after clearcutting and the modelled future stand development. The long-term effects of spontaneous regeneration and management strategies were evaluated based on land expectation value (LEV) and compared with a fifth management strategy using artificial regeneration and intense thinnings. 12 years after treatment, at a stand age of 42 years, the unthinned control had produced the highest total stem volume. At interest rates of 2% or higher, the unmanaged forest was an economically viable strategy, even compared to an intensive management strategy with a preferred merchantable timber species. Interest rates clearly impacted the profitability of the different management strategies. This study shows that when spontaneous regeneration is successful and dense, the first competition release can have a high impact on the development of future crop trees and on the species mixture.

article id 10244, category Research article
Hans Ole Ørka, Endre H. Hansen, Michele Dalponte, Terje Gobakken, Erik Næsset. (2021). Large-area inventory of species composition using airborne laser scanning and hyperspectral data. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10244. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10244
Keywords: airborne laser scanning; Dirichlet regression; hyperspectral; species proportions; species-specific forest inventory
Highlights: A methodology for using hyperspectral data in the area-based approach is presented; Hyperspectral data produced satisfactory results for species composition in 90% of the cases; Parametric Dirichlet regression is an applicable method to predicting species proportions; Normalization and a tree-based selection of pixels provided the overall best results; Both visible to near-infrared and shortwave-infrared sensors gave acceptable results.
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Tree species composition is an essential attribute in stand-level forest management inventories and remotely sensed data might be useful for its estimation. Previous studies on this topic have had several operational drawbacks, e.g., performance studied at a small scale and at a single tree-level with large fieldwork costs. The current study presents the results from a large-area inventory providing species composition following an operational area-based approach. The study utilizes a combination of airborne laser scanning and hyperspectral data and 97 field sample plots of 250 m2 collected over 350 km2 of productive forest in Norway. The results show that, with the availability of hyperspectral data, species-specific volume proportions can be provided in operational forest management inventories with acceptable results in 90% of the cases at the plot level. Dominant species were classified with an overall accuracy of 91% and a kappa-value of 0.73. Species-specific volumes were estimated with relative root mean square differences of 34%, 87%, and 102% for Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), and deciduous species, respectively. A novel tree-based approach for selecting pixels improved the results compared to a traditional approach based on the normalized difference vegetation index.

  • Ørka, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7492-8608 E-mail: hans-ole.orka@nmbu.no (email)
  • Hansen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Norwegian Forest Extension Institute, Honnevegen 60, NO-2836 Biri, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5174-4497 E-mail: eh@skogkurs.no
  • Dalponte, Department of Sustainable Agro-ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione E. Mach, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, TN, Italy ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9850-8985 E-mail: michele.dalponte@fmach.it
  • Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5534-049X E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
  • Næsset, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@nmbu.no
article id 10494, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Ari Laurén, Leena Stenberg, Samuli Launiainen, Kersti Leppä, Mika Nieminen. (2021). Defining guidelines for ditch depth in drained Scots pine dominated peatland forests. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 10494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10494
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; peatland; drainage; ditch network maintenance; process model; water table
Highlights: Process-based hydrological model was applied to drained peatland forests representing a wide range of conditions in Finland; Ditch depth keeping the median July–August water table below 0.35 m was defined; Ditch depth depended on climatic conditions, stand volume, peat properties, and ditch spacing; Shallower ditches than recommended in practice proved to be sufficient in most situations.
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We used a process-based hydrological model SUSI to improve guidelines for ditch network maintenance (DNM) operations on drained peatland forests. SUSI takes daily weather data, ditch depth, strip width, peat properties, and forest stand characteristics as input and calculates daily water table depth (WTD) at different distances from ditch. The study focuses on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated stands which are the most common subjects of DNM. Based on a literature survey, and consideration of the tradeoffs between forest growth and detrimental environmental impacts, long term median July–August WTD of 0.35 m was chosen as a target WTD. The results showed that ditch depths required to reach such WTD depends strongly on climatic locations, stand volume, ditch spacing, and peat thickness and type. In typical ditch cleaning areas in Finland with parallel ditches placed about 40 m apart and tree stand volumes exceeding 45 m3 ha–1, 0.3–0.8 m deep ditches were generally sufficient to lower WTD to the targeted depth of 0.35 m. These are significantly shallower ditch depths than generally recommended in operational forestry. The main collector ditch should be naturally somewhat deeper to permit water outflow. Our study brings a firmer basis on environmentally sound forestry on drained peatlands.

  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi (email)
  • Laurén, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ari.lauren@uef.fi
  • Stenberg, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: leena.stenberg@luke.fi
  • Launiainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: samuli.launiainen@luke.fi
  • Leppä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kersti.leppa@luke.fi
  • Nieminen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@luke.fi
article id 10468, category Research article
Arto Haara, Juho Matala, Markus Melin, Janne Miettinen, Kari T. Korhonen, Tuula Packalen, Jari Varjo. (2021). Economic effects of grouse-friendly forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 10468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10468
Keywords: grouse; simulation; trade-offs; game keeping; interest rate
Highlights: The economic effects of grouse friendly forest management were evaluated by simulating alternative forest management approaches on four large forest holdings in different parts of Finland; The grouse-friendly management of forest holdings was possible with minor effects on the economics in most cases: only in one case was the reduction of NPV more than 5% during a 30-year simulation period; The interest rates had an impact on the differences between the economic effects of the forest management approaches.
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Traditional timber production may have negative effects on other ecosystem services. Therefore, new forest management guidelines have been developed in order to enhance a habitat suitable for wildlife. In Finland, a recent example of this is grouse-friendly forest management (GFFM) which emphasises the preservation of grouse species (Tetronidae) habitats. This study aimed to analyse the economic effects of these guidelines. An analysis was made on how the application of GFFM affected the Net Present Value (NPV) in a 30-year simulation of forest management of four large forest holdings located from south to north in Finland. In the simulations, traditional forest management practices were compared to two levels of GFFM. Five levels of interest rate were used, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%. In most of the simulations, the NPV was reduced by about 1% or less due to the application of GFFM in comparison to the traditional reference forest management. Only in one case with more intensive GFFM, was the reduction of NPV more than 5%. The interest rates had an impact on the differences between the management approaches. For example, a low interest rate resulted in a higher thinning intensity in GFFM in comparison to traditional forest management, which lead to a higher NPV in GFFM. To sum up, it seems that it would be possible to manage forest holdings in a grouse-friendly manner with minor effects on the economics.

  • Haara, LUKE ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6895-5300 E-mail: arto.haara@luke.fi (email)
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yli opistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi
  • Miettinen, Finnish Wildlife Agency, Ratatie 41, FI-91501 Muhos, Finland E-mail: janne.miettinen@riista.fi
  • Korhonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland, (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yli opistokatu 6B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@luke.fi
  • Packalen, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 30, FI-00023 GOVERNMENT, Finland E-mail: tuula.packalen@mmm.fi
  • Varjo, Finnish Wildlife Agency, Sompiontie 1, FI-00730 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jari.varjo@riista.fi
article id 10462, category Research article
Yrjö Nuutinen, Jari Miina, Timo Saksa, Dan Bergström, Johanna Routa. (2021). Comparing the characteristics of boom-corridor and selectively thinned stands of Scots pine and birch. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 3 article id 10462. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10462
Keywords: biomass; forestry; first thinning; geometrical thinning; systematic thinning
Highlights: After boom-corridor thinning (BCT), the number of stems per hectare was higher than that after selective thinning. The number of future crop trees was at the same level; The removal of the simulated intermediate thinnings and clearcutting in BCT treatments was 10–18% higher than in selective thinning. The saw log volumes were at the same level in both treatments.
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Young, dense forest in Finland and Sweden urgently need to receive first thinning. In such stands, conventional selective thinning methods make the harvester work time consuming and, thus, costly. To make small-sized trees economically competitive as raw material for bioenergy and biorefining, new harvesting technologies and/or thinning methods need to be developed. A potential solution is boom-corridor thinning (BCT), rendering effective cutting work. The aim of this study was to describe and compare the stand structure of two Scots pine stands (Pinus sylvestris L.) and one birch-dominated (Betula pendula Roth with natural downy birch, B. pubescens Ehrh.) stand after BCT and selective thinning at the first thinning phase. Furthermore, simulations were conducted to predict the future stand development after the first thinning treatments. The density of the growing stock was 16–46% higher after BCT treatment than after selective thinning because BCT stands included more small and supressed trees with a dbh < 100 mm. However, the numbers of future crop trees with a dbh > 140 mm per hectare were at the same level in both treatments. The stem volume removal per hectare did not differ between treatments. However, simulation of stand development and intermediate thinning and clearcutting revealed that the total removal volume was 10–18% higher in BCT stands compared to selectively thinned ones. The saw log volumes harvested did, however, not differ between treatments. This study shows that BCT generates stands with higher biodiversity compared to conventional thinning as higher levels of biomass removal can be reached throughout stand rotations.

  • Nuutinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: yrjo.nuutinen@luke.fi (email)
  • Miina, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.miina@luke.fi
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
  • Bergström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Dept of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Section of Forest Operations, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: dan.bergstrom@slu.se
  • Routa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johanna.routa@luke.fi
article id 10496, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Harri Mäkinen, Kjell Andreassen, Mikko Peltoniemi. (2021). Models for integrating and identifying the effect of senescence on individual tree survival probability for Norway spruce. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 2 article id 10496. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10496
Keywords: forest dynamics; model comparison; between-tree competition; mortality model
Highlights: The effect of senescence was integrated into an individual tree survival model; The best model showed good fit for managed, unmanaged and old-growth stands; The probability for a large tree to survive decreased with increasing stand age; The best performed model included an interaction term between stem diameter and stand age and also stand age as a separate independent variable.
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Ageing and competition reduce trees’ ability to capture resources, which predisposes them to death. In this study, the effect of senescence on the survival probability of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) was analysed by fitting alternative survival probability models. Different model formulations were compared in the dataset, which comprised managed and unmanaged plots in long-term forest experiments in Finland and Norway, as well as old-growth stands in Finland. Stand total age ranged from 19 to 290 years. Two models were formulated without an age variable, such that the negative coefficient for the squared stem diameter described a decreasing survival probability for the largest trees. One of the models included stand age as a separate independent variable, and three models included an interaction term between stem diameter and stand age. According to the model including stand age and its interaction with stem diameter, the survival probability curves could intersect each other in stands with a similar structure but a different mean age. Models that did not include stand age underestimated the survival rate of the largest trees in the managed stands and overestimated their survival rate in the old-growth stands. Models that included stand age produced more plausible predictions, especially for the largest trees. The results supported the hypothesis that the stand age and senescence of trees decreases the survival probability of trees, and that the ageing effect improves survival probability models for Norway spruce.

  • Siipilehto, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi (email)
  • Mäkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production systems, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1820-6264 E-mail: harri.makinen@luke.fi
  • Andreassen, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: kjellandreassen@gmail.com
  • Peltoniemi, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, P.O. Box 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2028-6969 E-mail: mikko.peltoniemi@luke.fi
article id 10409, category Research article
Noé Dumas, Mathieu Dassot, Jonathan Pitaud, Jérôme Piat, Lucie Arnaudet, Claudine Richter, Catherine Collet. (2021). Four-year-performance of oak and pine seedlings following mechanical site preparation with lightweight excavators. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 2 article id 10409. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10409
Keywords: vegetation control; reforestation; seedling growth; seedling survival
Highlights: Mechanical site preparation (MSP) with lightweight excavators controls highly competitive plant species (Molinia caerulea, Pteridium aquilinum) much more efficiently than MSP with conventional methods; This MSP approach improves four-year survival and growth of pine seedlings, but it is less evident for oak seedlings.
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Mechanical site preparation methods that used tools mounted on lightweight excavators and that provided localised intensive preparation were tested in eight experimental sites across France where the vegetation was dominated either by Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench or Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Two lightweight tools (Deep Scarifier: DS; Deep Scarifier followed by Multifunction Subsoiler: DS+MS) were tested in pine (Pinus sylvestris L., Pinus nigra var. corsicana (Loudon) Hyl. or Pinus pinaster Aiton) and oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. or Quercus robur L.) plantations. Regional methods commonly used locally (herbicide, disk harrow, mouldboard plow) and experimental methods (repeated herbicide application; untreated control) were used as references in the experiments. Neighbouring vegetation cover, seedling survival, height and basal diameter were assessed over three to five years after plantation. For pines growing in M. caerulea, seedling diameter after four years was 37% and 98% greater in DS and DS+MS, respectively, than in the untreated control. For pines growing in P. aquilinum, it was 62% and 107% greater in the same treatments. For oak, diameter was only 4% and 15% greater in M. caerulea, and 13% and 25% greater in P. aquilinum, in the same treatments. For pines, the survival rate after four years was 26% and 32% higher in M. caerulea and 64% and 70% higher in P. aquilinum, in the same treatments. For oak, it was 3% and 29% higher in M. caerulea and 37% and 31% higher in P. aquilinum. Herbicide, when applied for three or four years after planting, provided the best growth performances for pines growing in M. caerulea and P. aquilinum and for oaks growing in P. aquilinum. For these species and site combinations, DS+MS and DS treatments reduced the neighbouring vegetation cover for one to four years following site preparation.

  • Dumas, Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR Silva, 54000 Nancy, France E-mail: noe.dumas@inrae.fr
  • Dassot, EcoSustain, Environmental Engineering Office, Research and Development, 31, rue de Volmerange, 57330 Kanfen, France; Institut National de l’Information Géographique et Forestière, 1 rue des Blanches Terres, 54250 Champigneulles, France E-mail: mathieu.dassot@ign.fr
  • Pitaud, Office National des Forêts, Département Recherche Développement et Innovation, route d’Amance, 54280 Champenoux, France E-mail: jonathan.pitaud@onf.fr
  • Piat, Office National des Forêts, Département Recherche Développement et Innovation, 3 rue du petit château, 60200 Compiègne, France E-mail: jerome.piat@onf.fr
  • Arnaudet, Office National des Forêts, Département Recherche Développement et Innovation, 100 boulevard de la Salle, 45760 Boigny-sur-Bionne, France E-mail: lucie.arnaudet@onf.fr
  • Richter, Office National des Forêts, Département Recherche Développement et Innovation, Boulevard de Constance, 77300 Fontainebleau, France E-mail: claudine.richter@onf.fr
  • Collet, Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, UMR Silva, 54000 Nancy, France ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0861-7796 E-mail: catherine.collet@inrae.fr (email)
article id 10460, category Research article
Hanna Lundmark, Lars Östlund, Torbjörn Josefsson. (2021). Continuity forest or second-generation forest? Historic aerial photos provide evidence of early clear-cutting in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 10460. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10460
Keywords: continuous cover forestry; forest history; aerial photography; satellite image; clear-cutting; clear-felling
Highlights: In the early 1900s clear-cutting had been applied to 10% of the forest land in the study area situated in Västernorrland province, northern Sweden; By the end of the 1940s 40% of the study area had been clear-cut and constituted second-generation forest; 50–70 years is too short of a time frame for assessing the continuity of a forest in the study area.
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Modern forestry, which mainly consists of clear-cutting, is one of the most important factors influencing today’s boreal forests. In Sweden, the breaking point for modern forestry is generally considered to be around 1950. Recently, our common knowledge of the implementation of clear-cutting in Sweden has increased, and new research indicates that clear-cutting systems were already applied before the 1950s. In this case study, we used aerial photographs from the 1940s to analyze the extent of contemporaneous clear-cuts and even-aged young forests in an area in northern Sweden. Our results show that almost 40% of the study area had already been clear-cut by the end of the 1940s, but also that clear-cutting had been applied to 10% of the forest land in the early 1900s. This implies that the historical development of forestry in northern Sweden is more complex than previously thought, and that certain proportions of the forest land were already second-generation forests in the 1950s. Our results have implications for the use of concepts such as “continuity forest”, suggesting that this concept should employ a time frame of at least 100 years.

  • Lundmark, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8402-7152 E-mail: hanna.lundmark@slu.se
  • Östlund, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7902-3672 E-mail: lars.ostlund@slu.se
  • Josefsson, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8734-5778 E-mail: torbjorn.josefsson@slu.se (email)
article id 10391, category Research article
Victoria A.M. Poljatschenko, Lauri T. Valsta. (2021). Carbon emissions displacement effect of Finnish mechanical wood products by dominant tree species in a set of wood use scenarios. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 10391. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10391
Keywords: avoided emissions; mechanical forest industry; substitution effect; wooden construction
Highlights: Wood product consumption patterns are combined with production-based displacement factors to estimate displacement factors for logs by tree species; The main tree species in Finland have somewhat unequal displacement factors; Historical and projected wood use scenarios show large variation in the levels of avoided emissions between individual years and scenarios.
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The carbon emissions displacement effect of Finnish logs for mechanical wood products by dominant tree species (Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris L.; Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.; Birch, Betula spp.) was assessed by combining information from previous studies of current consumption patterns with displacement factors (DF) for structural construction, non-structural construction, and energy usage. We did not conduct additional life cycle analyses compared to the current literature. Our aim was to identify the factors that most extensively influence the displacement effect and to estimate the overall climate effect of Finnish logs in light of current production levels of mechanical forest industry. The analyses were based on information from both statistics and proprietary sources. Contrary to previous studies, we provide DFs by main tree species in Finland, which has been an unidentified area of research to date. Additionally, we apply a more detailed classification of structural and non-structural wood products. This study did not include effects on the forest carbon sink, as they depend case-wise on forest resources and forest management. According to our results, with current production and consumption trends, the average displacement effects for domestic Scots pine, Norway spruce, and birch logs were 1.28, 1.16, and 1.43 Mg C/Mg C, respectively. The corresponding overall annual displacement effect caused by the current production of sawn wood and wood-based panels was 12.3 Tg CO2 for Finland for the BAU scenario and varied between 8.6 and 16.3 Tg CO2 depending on the wood use scenario.

  • Poljatschenko, Simosol Oy, Hämeenkatu 10, FI-11100 Riihimäki, Finland E-mail: victoria.poljatschenko@simosol.fi (email)
  • Valsta, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Latokartanonkaari 7, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: lauri.valsta@helsinki.fi
article id 10371, category Research article
Katalin Waga, Jukka Malinen, Timo Tokola. (2021). Locally invariant analysis of forest road quality using two different pulse density airborne laser scanning datasets. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 10371. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10371
Keywords: ALS; DEM; forest road quality; reference DEM; unpaved forest road
Highlights: Airborne laser scanning is used to assess forest road quality; High-pulse data analysis classified roads with good performance; Two-step classification further improved the accuracy; A reference surface improved the classification results of the low pulse data; 66–75% of the roads were correctly classified using the reference surface.
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Two different pulse density airborne laser scanning datasets were used to develop a quality assessment methodology to determine how airborne laser scanning derived variables with the use of reference surface can determine forest road quality. The concept of a reference DEM (Digital Elevation Model) was used to guarantee locally invariant topographic analysis of road roughness. Structural condition, surface wear and flatness were assessed at two test sites in Eastern Finland, calculating surface indices with and without the reference DEM. The high pulse density dataset (12 pulses m–2) gave better classification results (77% accuracy of the correctly classified road sections) than the low pulse density dataset (1 pulse m–2). The use of a reference DEM increased the precision of the road quality classification with the low pulse density dataset when the classification was performed in two-steps. Four interpolation techniques (Inverse Weighted Distance, Kriging, Natural Neighbour and Spline) were compared, and spline interpolation provided the best classification. The work shows that applying a spline reference DEM it is possible to identify 66% of the poor quality road sections and 78% of the good ones. Locating these roads is essential for road maintenance.

  • Waga, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1496-7012 E-mail: katalin.waga@uef.fi (email)
  • Malinen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; Metsäteho Ltd., Vernissakatu 1, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5023-1056 E-mail: jukka.malinen@uef.fi
  • Tokola, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.tokola@uef.fi
article id 10360, category Research article
Mikko Kukkonen, Eetu Kotivuori, Matti Maltamo, Lauri Korhonen, Petteri Packalen. (2021). Volumes by tree species can be predicted using photogrammetric UAS data, Sentinel-2 images and prior field measurements. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 10360. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10360
Keywords: forest inventory; satellite image; open data; drone; stereo matching; unmanned aircraft system
Highlights: A UAS-based species-specific forest inventory approach that avoids new field measurements is presented; Models were constructed using previously measured training plots and remotely sensed data; Bi-seasonal Sentinel-2 data were beneficial in the prediction of species-specific volumes; RMSE values associated with the prediction of volumes by tree species and total volume at the validation plot level were 33.4–62.6% and 9.0%, respectively.
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Photogrammetric point clouds obtained with unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) have emerged as an alternative source of remotely sensed data for small area forest management inventories (FMI). Nonetheless, it is often overlooked that small area FMI require considerable field data in addition to UAS data, to support the modelling of forest attributes. In this study, we propose a method whereby tree volumes by species are predicted with photogrammetric UAS data and Sentinel-2 images, using models fitted with airborne laser scanning data. The study area is in a managed boreal forest area in Eastern Finland. First, we predicted total volume with UAS point cloud metrics using a prior regression model fitted in another area with ALS data. Tree species proportions were then predicted by k nearest neighbor (k-NN) imputation based on bi-seasonal Sentinel-2 images without measuring new field plot data. Species-specific volumes were then obtained by multiplying the total volume by species proportions. The relative root mean square error (RMSE) values for total and species-specific volume predictions at the validation plot level (30 m × 30 m) were 9.0%, and 33.4–62.6%, respectively. Our approach appears promising for species-specific small area FMI in Finland and in comparable forest conditions in which suitable field plots are available.

  • Kukkonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kukkonen@uef.fi (email)
  • Kotivuori, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eetu.kotivuori@uef.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi
  • Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi
  • Packalen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: petteri.packalen@uef.fi
article id 10369, category Research article
Tiina Laine, Ville Kankaanhuhta, Juho Rantala, Timo Saksa. (2020). Effects of spot mounding and inverting on growth of conifers, exposed mineral soil and natural birch regeneration. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10369. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10369
Keywords: boreal forest; regeneration; site preparation; mounding; young stand management
Highlights: There were 21% fewer naturally regenerated birches ha–1 in inverted areas (22 951) compared to spot mounded areas (29 086); Spot mounding exposed slightly, but not statistically significantly, larger area of mineral soil than inverting; There was no difference in seedling mortality or growth between the site preparation methods.
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In Nordic forests, consistent evidence about better seedling survival rate and increased growth due to site preparation have been obtained in numerous studies. Proper site preparation method can reduce costs of the whole regeneration chain through its effects on survival of planted seedlings, abundance of natural regeneration and competition in early stand development. This study compared the natural regeneration of birches (silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and downy birch (B. pubescens Ehrh.)), amount of exposed mineral soil, and growth of planted seedlings between spot mounding and inverting site preparation methods. Present study was conducted in eight forest stands established in 2012 or 2015. Even though difference was not statistically significant, inverting exposed less mineral soil than spot mounding and thus reduced the natural regeneration of birch seedlings by 6135 seedlings ha–1 compared to spot mounding. However, the variation between regeneration areas was remarkable. There was no difference in seedling mortality or growth between the site preparation methods. In order to achieve high growth of conifers, moderate amount of exposed mineral soil and thus less naturally regenerated birch, inverting should be favored over spot mounding.

  • Laine, Metsä Group, P.O. Box 208, FI-70101 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: tiina.laine@metsagroup.com (email)
  • Kankaanhuhta, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankaanhuhta@luke.fi
  • Rantala, Metsä Group, P.O. Box 10, FI-02020 METSÄ, Finland E-mail: juho.rantala@metsagroup.com
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
article id 10334, category Research article
Annija Kārkliņa, Guntis Brūmelis, Iluta Dauškane, Didzis Elferts, Lāsma Freimane, Māra Kitenberga, Zane Lībiete, Roberts Matisons, Āris Jansons. (2020). Effect of salvage-logging on post-fire tree establishment and ground cover vegetation in semi-natural hemiboreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10334. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10334
Keywords: management; forest fire; natural disturbance; legacies; understory vegetation
Highlights: Effect of salvage logging on post-fire understory vegetation was assessed; Effect of salvage logging differed depending on forest types; In dry-poor stands, Calluna vulgaris was hindering other plant species; In wet stands, logging had positive effect on understory vegetation diversity; Salvage logging enhanced the effect of natural disturbance in dry-rich stands.
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Fire is a common disturbance in boreal forests causing changes in biological diversity at various spatial scales. In the past 100 years, forest management has limited fire outbreaks, but in the future, the fire-affected forest area is expected to increase in many regions due to climate change. Burned forests are typically salvage-logged, but the effect of this type of management versus natural regeneration on biological diversity is not well understood, particularly the mid-term effect to tree establishment and understory vegetation composition and diversity. Various management methods were used after a large fire in 1992 in a peatland-forest complex and neighbouring managed forests, which created an experimental setup for study of the effect of management after fire in the Sliteres National park, northwestern Latvia. Understory vegetation was described in plots using a design of four forest and three management types: natural regeneration (unmanaged) and managed sites with salvage logging followed by no further human intervention and salvage logging with planting. Post-fire management had different effect in each forest type. Species richness was higher in forest types with salvage logging than in natural regenerated sites on rich wet and rich dry forest types, but not for the poor forest types. Tree regeneration was generally greater in salvage-logged stands, but differed between forest types. Species composition was related to tree regeneration and canopy openness. In contrast to other studies, salvage logging had a positive mid-term effect to ground vegetation diversity and tree establishment in the studied stands, implying potential for concomitant management and conservation of ground cover vegetation in semi-natural stands.

  • Kārkliņa, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: annija.karklina@silava.lv (email)
  • Brūmelis, University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas street 1, LV-1004, Riga, Latvia E-mail: guntis.brumelis@lu.lv
  • Dauškane, University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas street 1, LV-1004, Riga, Latvia E-mail: iluta.dauskane@lu.lv
  • Elferts, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia; University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas street 1, LV-1004, Riga, Latvia E-mail: didzis.elferts@lu.lv
  • Freimane, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: lasma.freimane@silava.lv
  • Kitenberga, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: mara.kitenberga@silava.lv
  • Lībiete, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: zane.libiete@silava.lv
  • Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: robism@inbox.lv
  • Jansons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv
article id 10291, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Andras Balazs, Annika Kangas. (2020). Comparison of photogrammetric canopy models from archived and made-to-order aerial imagery in forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 5 article id 10291. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10291
Keywords: distribution; prediction; forest resources; mapping; aerial imaging; digital stereo-photogrammetry
Highlights: Two photogrammetric canopy models were tested in forest inventory: one based on archived standard aerial imagery acquired for ortho-mosaic production and another based on stereo-photogrammetrically oriented aerial imaging adjusted for stereo-photogrammetric canopy modelling; Both data sets were tested in the estimation of forest variables; Despite the differences in imaging parameters, there was little difference in their performance in predicting the forest inventory variables.
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In remote sensing-based forest inventories 3D point cloud data, such as acquired from airborne laser scanning, are well suited for estimating the volume of growing stock and stand height, but tree species recognition often requires additional optical imagery. A combination of 3D data and optical imagery can be acquired based on aerial imaging only, by using stereo photogrammetric 3D canopy modeling. The use of aerial imagery is well suited for large-area forest inventories, due to low costs, good area coverage and temporally rapid cycle of data acquisition. Stereo-photogrammetric canopy modeling can also be applied to previously acquired imagery, such as for aerial ortho-mosaic production, assuming that the imagery has sufficient stereo overlap. In this study we compared two stereo-photogrammetric canopy models combined with contemporary satellite imagery in forest inventory. One canopy model was based on standard archived imagery acquired primarily for ortho-mosaic production, and another was based on aerial imagery whose acquisition parameters were better oriented for stereo-photogrammetric canopy modeling, including higher imaging resolution and greater stereo-coverage. Aerial and satellite data were tested in the estimation of growing stock volume, volumes of main tree species, basal area and diameter and height. Despite the better quality of the latter canopy model, the difference of the accuracy of the forest estimates based on the two different data sets was relatively small for most variables (differences in RMSEs were 0–20%, depending on variable). However, the estimates based on stereo-photogrammetrically oriented aerial data retained better the original variation of the forest variables present in the study area.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
article id 10385, category Research article
Perttu Anttila, Tuomas Nummelin, Kari Väätäinen, Juha Laitila. (2020). The effect of winter weather on timber truck tare weights. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 4 article id 10385. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10385
Keywords: forestry logistics; payload; tare weight; weather data
Highlights: In a one-year follow-up study of eight timber trucks in Finland, up to 6–12% increase in tare weights was observed in wintertime; Compared with summertime tare weights, the maximum increase varied between 1560 kg and 3100 kg; Potential payload loss was explained by temperature, relative humidity and precipitation.
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In wintertime, the payload capacity of a timber truck is reduced by snow that accumulates on the structures of the truck. The aim of this study was to quantify the potential payload loss due to snow and winter accessories and to predict the loss with weather variables. Tare weights of eight timber trucks were collected at mill receptions in Finland over a one-year period. Monthly and annual loss of potential payload was estimated using the tare measurements in summer months as a reference. Each load was also connected with weather data at the location and time of delivery and payload loss explained by the weather data with the aid of regression models. The maximum loss of payload varied between 1560 kg and 3100 kg. On a monthly basis, the highest losses occurred in January, when the median values varied between 760 kg and 2180 kg. Over the year, the payload loss ranged between the trucks from 0.5% to 1.5% (from 1.9% and 5.1% in January) of the total number of loads in the study. Payload loss was found to increase with decreasing temperature, increasing relative humidity and increasing precipitation. Although the average payload loss was not very high, the biggest losses occur just during the season of highest capacity utilization. Big differences were also found in the tare weights between the trucks. The results of the study give incentive to develop truck and trailer structures that reduce the adherence of snow.

  • Anttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6131-392X E-mail: perttu.anttila@luke.fi (email)
  • Nummelin, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomas.nummelin@luke.fi
  • Väätäinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.vaatainen@luke.fi
  • Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4431-3319 E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi
article id 10370, category Research article
Juha Lappi, Timo Pukkala. (2020). Analyzing ingrowth using zero-inflated negative binomial models. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 4 article id 10370. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10370
Keywords: regeneration; continuous cover forestry; count data; generalized linear model; overdispersion; right-censoring
Highlights: Models were developed to describe ingrowth in national forest inventory data; The data were more dispersed than Poisson data and included many zeros; Fixed-effects models had larger zero-inflation probability and overdispersion parameter than mixed-effect models; Mixed-effects models had larger likelihood than fixed-effects models but provided biased predictions; Prediction of right-censored ingrowth may be useful owing to large overdispersion.
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Ingrowth is an important element of stand dynamics in several silvicultural systems, especially in continuous cover forestry. Earlier predictive models for ingrowth in Finnish forests are few and not based on up-to-date statistical methods. Ingrowth is here defined as the number of trees over 1.3 m entering a plot. This study developed new ingrowth models for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) using data from the permanent sample plots of the Finnish national forest inventory. The data were over-dispersed compared to a Poisson process and had many zeros. Therefore, a zero-inflated negative binomial model was used. The total and species-specific stand basal areas, temperature sum and fertility class were used as predictors in the ingrowth models. Both fixed-effects and mixed-effects models were fitted. The mixed-effects model versions included random plot effects. The mixed-effects models had larger likelihoods but provided biased predictions. Also censored prediction was considered where only a certain maximum number of ingrowth trees were accepted for a plot. The models predicted most pine ingrowth in pine-dominated stands on sub-xeric and xeric sites where stand basal area was low. The predicted amount of spruce ingrowth was maximized when the basal area of spruce was 13 m2 ha–1. Increasing temperature sum increased spruce ingrowth. Predicted birch ingrowth decreased with increasing stand basal area and towards low fertility classes. An admixture of pine increased the predicted amount of spruce ingrowth.

  • Lappi, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.lappi.sjk@gmail.com (email)
  • Pukkala, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.pukkala@uef.fi
article id 10347, category Research article
Matti Katila, Tuomas Rajala, Annika Kangas. (2020). Assessing local trends in indicators of ecosystem services with a time series of forest resource maps. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 4 article id 10347. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10347
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; satellite images; k-nearest neighbour estimation; Landsat; Mann-Kendall test; multitemporal inventory data; temporal trend analysis
Highlights: Untitled Document Contextual Mann-Kendall test detects significant trends in time-series of forest maps; Trends become more consistent as the areal unit size used for test input increases; Changes in different scales reflect different phenomena in forests; Significant trends were detected even after multiple testing correction.
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Since the 1990’s, forest resource maps and small area estimates have been produced by combining national forest inventory (NFI) field plot data, optical satellite images and numerical map data using a non-parametric k-nearest neighbour method. In Finland, thematic maps of forest variables have been produced by the means of multi-source NFI (MS-NFI) for eight to ten times depending on the geographical area, but the resulting time series have not been systematically utilized. The objective of this study was to explore the possibilities of the time series for monitoring the key ecosystem condition indicators for forests. To this end, a contextual Mann-Kendall (CMK) test was applied to detect trends in time-series of two decades of thematic maps. The usefulness of the observed trends may depend both on the scale of the phenomena themselves and the uncertainties involved in the maps. Thus, several spatial scales were tested: the MS-NFI maps at 16 × 16 m2 pixel size and units of 240 × 240 m2, 1200 × 1200 m2 and 12  000 × 12  000 m2 aggregated from the MS-NFI map data. The CMK test detected areas of significant increasing trends of mean volume on both study sites and at various unit sizes except for the original thematic map pixel size. For other variables such as the mean volume of tree species groups, the proportion of broadleaved tree species and the stand age, significant trends were mostly found only for the largest unit size, 12  000 × 12  000 m2. The multiple testing corrections decreased the amount of significant p-values from the CMK test strongly. The study showed that significant trends can be detected enabling indicators of ecosystem services to be monitored from a time-series of satellite image-based thematic forest maps.

  • Katila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6946-5736 E-mail: matti.katila@luke.fi (email)
  • Rajala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomas.rajala@luke.fi
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
article id 10269, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Helena M. Henttonen, Timo P. Pitkänen, Sakari Sarkkola, Juha Heikkinen. (2020). Re-calibrating stem volume models – is there change in the tree trunk form from the 1970s to the 2010s in Finland? Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 4 article id 10269. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10269
Keywords: TLS; OLS; regression; terrestrial laser scanning
Highlights: TLS data showed that trunk form has changed in Finland from the 1970s; Significant differences were observed for all tree species; The trees in TLS data are on average more slender than in the old data.
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The tree stem volume models of Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver and downy birch currently used in Finland are based on data collected during 1968–1972. These models include four different formulations of a volume model, with three different combinations of independent variables: 1) diameter at height of 1.3 m above ground (dbh), 2) dbh and tree height (h) and 3) dbh, h and upper diameter at height of 6 m (d6). In recent National Forest Inventories of Finland, a difference in the mean volume prediction between the models with and without the upper diameter as predictor has been observed. To analyze the causes of this difference, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used to acquire a large dataset in Finland during 2017–2018. Field-measured predictors and volumes predicted using spline functions fitted to the TLS data were used to re-calibrate the current volume models. The trunk form is different in these two datasets. The form height is larger in the new data for all diameter classes, which indicates that the tree trunks are more slender than they used to be. One probable reason for this change is the increase in stand densities, which is at least partly due to changed forest management. In models with both dbh and h as predictors, the volume is smaller a given h class in the data new data than in the old data, and vice versa for the diameter classes. The differences between the old and new models were largest with pine and smallest with birch.

  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi (email)
  • Henttonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: helena.henttonen@luke.fi
  • Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5389-8713 E-mail: timo.p.pitkanen@luke.fi
  • Sarkkola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.sarkkola@luke.fi
  • Heikkinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3527-774X E-mail: juha.heikkinen@luke.fi
article id 10373, category Research article
Chintan Sheth, Aparajita Datta, Devathi Parashuram. (2020). Persistent loss of biologically-rich tropical forests in the Indian Eastern Himalaya. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 3 article id 10373. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10373
Keywords: deforestation; Arunachal Pradesh; biodiversity hotspot; Buceros bicornis; hornbill nest trees; illegal logging; north-east India
Highlights: We found a high rate of deforestation occurring in a state managed reserve forest in Indian Eastern Himalaya; Fine-scale analysis showed considerable forest loss around nesting trees for hornbills; Forest monitoring, protection and honest governance are required to effectively protect forests in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot.
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Using fine-resolution satellite imagery from multiple satellite data products, we assessed the change in forest cover of a state-managed Reserve Forest (RF) located in India’s Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hot-spot. 4.6% of forest cover was lost from Papum RF between 2013 and 2017 at the rate of 8.2 km2 year–1. Three species of hornbills: Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis Linnaeus, 1758, Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus (Shaw, 1811) and Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris (Shaw, 1808), that are functionally important are found here with nesting habitat in the areas affected by illegal logging. Therefore, we assessed the habitat loss within a 1 km radius around 29 nest trees. From 2011 to 2019, forest cover declined from 38.55 km2 to 21.94 km2 around these hornbill nest trees. Illegal logging is the main driver that is depleting forest cover within this important bird area. Our results highlight the ongoing threats to biologically-rich forests and the need for urgent measures to halt this loss. We suggest that this study has practical implications for the monitoring and governance of state-managed forests in Arunachal Pradesh.

  • Sheth, #4 Ananda Nilaya, 4th Main Road, Siddhivinayaka Layout, Bengaluru 560097, Karnataka, India E-mail: chintz604@gmail.com
  • Datta, Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311,“Amritha”, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysore 570017, Karnataka, India E-mail: aparajita@ncf-india.org (email)
  • Parashuram, Nature Conservation Foundation, 1311,“Amritha”, 12th Main, Vijayanagar 1st Stage, Mysore 570017, Karnataka, India; Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EN, United Kingdom E-mail: dp608@cam.ac.uk
article id 10341, category Research article
Arta Bārdule, Edgars Jūrmalis, Zane Lībiete, Ilze Pauliņa, Jānis Donis, Agita Treimane. (2020). Use of retail market data to assess prices and flows of non-wood forest products in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 3 article id 10341. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10341
Keywords: forest berries; mushrooms; provisional ecosystem services; retail prices; spatial flows of NWFPs; tree sap
Highlights: Retail prices of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) may be used to study lifestyle-related consumption patterns; While retail sales of NWFPs may increase household budgets, this source of income is highly variable due to varying meteorological conditions; NWFP retail price analysis illustrates aspect of household economies not recorded in official statistics and cash flows of declared income.
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In northern Europe, largest part of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are gathered for recreational purposes and household consumption, but considerable amount of forest berries and mushrooms are sold as well. Retail market, largely invisible for the official statistics, reveals the lifestyle-related aspects of NWFP trade and may help to understand the flows of this ecosystem service when information on wholesale trade is inaccessible. The prices and flows of most common NWFPs – edible berries, mushrooms and tree sap – in the retail market in Latvia in 2017 and 2018 were analysed based on direct interviews with the sellers in marketplaces and telephone interviews with online retailers. The mean retail prices of NWFPs were compared between statistical regions and years and correlated with socio-economic data and forest characteristics. The directions of the NWFP flows were analysed according to the place of origin and place of retail sales. The highest prices were recorded for stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus Pers.) and Boletes spp. among mushrooms, for wild strawberries (Fragaria vesca L.) among berries and for maple (Acer platanoides L.) sap in the product group of tree sap. The retail price of the same products differed between years, most likely due to the product availability, largely caused by meteorological conditions. In more than half of the cases of recorded sales, NWFPs were consumed in the same region as they were gathered. For other cases of sales, the capital, Rīga, was the main service benefitting area of NWFP retail trade, and the largest part of the products originated from the two closest statistical regions.

  • Bārdule, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169 E-mail: arta.bardule@silava.lv (email)
  • Jūrmalis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169 E-mail: edgars.jurmalis@silava.lv
  • Lībiete, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169 E-mail: zane.libiete@silava.lv
  • Pauliņa, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169 E-mail: paulina.ilze@gmail.com
  • Donis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169 E-mail: janis.donis@silava.lv
  • Treimane, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV-2169; University of Latvia, Jelgavas str. 1, Riga, Latvia, LV-1004 E-mail: agita.treimane@silava.lv
article id 10273, category Research article
Lasse Aro, Anssi Ahtikoski, Jyrki Hytönen. (2020). Profitability of growing Scots pine on cutaway peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 3 article id 10273. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10273
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; afforestation; bare land value; financial performance; peat cutaway area; stand-level optimization
Highlights: The potential wood production on cutaway peatlands can be high; Afforestation with seeding or planting was profitable at 3% rate of interest; In northern Finland, the afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization affected the bare land value.
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A major after-use option for former peat harvesting areas has been afforestation. The profitability of afforestation with Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris L.) was studied in two 31–32-year old experiments in southern and northern Finland. The stands were established by seeding and planting, and various fertilization treatments and drainage intensities were tested. The financial performance for each plot was assessed in three steps. First, the costs occurred during the measurement time were summed up according to their present value. Then, for the rest of the rotation (i.e., from the age of 31/32 onwards) the stand management was optimized in order to maximize the net present value (MaxNPV). Finally, bare land values (BLVs) were calculated by summing up the present value of costs and the MaxNPV and converting the sum of the series into infinity. The afforestation method did not affect the mean annual increment (MAI; 9.2–9.5 m3 ha–1 a–1) in the southern experiment. In the northern experiment the afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization had significant effects on the MAI of the stands. The average MAI of the planted pines was 8.9 m3 ha–1 a–1, and for seeded pines it was 7.5 m3 ha–1 a–1. The BLV at an interest rate of 3% was positive for all stands in both regions. In the northern region afforestation method, ditch spacing and fertilization also had a significant effect on the BLV. When the interest rate was 5%, almost two thirds of the stands had a negative BLV in both regions.

  • Aro, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 4A, FI-20520 Turku, Finland E-mail: lasse.aro@luke.fi (email)
  • Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Paavo Havaksentie 3, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1658-3813 E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
  • Hytönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Teknologiakatu 7, FI-67100 Kokkola, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8475-3568 E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@luke.fi
article id 10247, category Research article
Agnese Marcelli, Walter Mattioli, Nicola Puletti, Francesco Chianucci, Damiano Gianelle, Mirko Grotti, Gherardo Chirici, Giovanni D' Amico, Saverio Francini, Davide Travaglini, Lorenzo Fattorini, Piermaria Corona. (2020). Large-scale two-phase estimation of wood production by poplar plantations exploiting Sentinel-2 data as auxiliary information. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 10247. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10247
Keywords: national forest inventories; Sentinel-2; design-based inference; first-phase tessellation stratified sampling; regression estimator; second-phase stratified sampling; simulation study
Highlights: A two-phase sampling for large-scale assessment of fast-growing forest crops is developed; Vegetation indices from Sentinel-2 are exploited in a linear regression estimator; The linear regression estimator turns out to be better than the estimator based on the sole sample information; The approach represents a reference for supporting outside-forest resource monitoring and assessment.
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Growing demand for wood products, combined with efforts to conserve natural forests, have supported a steady increase in the global extent of planted forests. Here, a two-phase sampling strategy for large-scale assessment of the total area and the total wood volume of fast-growing forest tree crops within agricultural land is presented. The first phase is performed using tessellation stratified sampling on high-resolution remotely sensed imagery and is sufficient for estimating the total area of plantations by means of a Monte Carlo integration estimator. The second phase is performed using stratified sampling of the plantations selected in the first phase and is aimed at estimating total wood volume by means of an approximation of the first-phase Horvitz-Thompson estimator. Vegetation indices from Sentinel-2 are exploited as freely available auxiliary information in a linear regression estimator to improve the design-based precision of the estimator based on the sole sample data. Estimators of the totals and of the design-based variances of total estimators are presented. A simulation study is developed in order to check the design-based performance of the two alternative estimators under several artificial distributions supposed for poplar plantations (random, clustered, spatially trended). An application in Northern Italy is also reported. The regression estimator turns out to be invariably better than that based on the sole sample information. Possible integrations of the proposed sampling scheme with conventional national forest inventories adopting tessellation stratified sampling in the first phase are discussed.

  • Marcelli, University of Tuscia, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems, Viterbo, Italy; Fondazione Edmund Mach, Department of Sustainable Agro-Ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, Italy E-mail: agnese.marcelli@student.unisi.it (email)
  • Mattioli, University of Tuscia, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems, Viterbo, Italy; CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: walter.mattioli@crea.gov.it
  • Puletti, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: nicola.puletti@crea.gov.it
  • Chianucci, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: fchianucci@gmail.com
  • Gianelle, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Department of Sustainable Agro-Ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all’Adige, Italy E-mail: damiano.gianelle@fmach.it
  • Grotti, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy; University of Roma La Sapienza, Department of Architecture and Design, Rome, Italy E-mail: mirkogrotti@gmail.com
  • Chirici, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: gherardo.chirici@unifi.it
  • D' Amico, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: giovanni.damico@unifi.it
  • Francini, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy; University of Molise, Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Campobasso, Italy E-mail: saverio.francini@gmail.com
  • Travaglini, University of Firenze, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, Florence, Italy E-mail: davide.travaglini@unifi.it
  • Fattorini, University of Siena, Department of Economics and Statistics, Siena, Italy E-mail: lorenzo.fattorini@unisi.it
  • Corona, CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Arezzo, Italy E-mail: piermaria.corona@crea.gov.it
article id 10211, category Research article
Gernot Erber, Raffaele Spinelli. (2020). Timber extraction by cable yarding on flat and wet terrain: a survey of cable yarder manufacturer’s experience. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 10211. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10211
Keywords: forest soils; soil compaction; logging equipment; sensitive soils
Highlights: Survey of all European cable yarder manufacturers on flat-terrain yarding; Manufacturers are frequently contacted concerning flat-terrain yarding; Forest resource inaccessibility, regulatory and environmental considerations are most important motivations; Lack of clearance, tree stability and installation costs are major challenges; Mobile, self-anchoring tail spar is considered a chief adaptation; Cost-competitiveness with ground-based systems cannot be achieved without subsidies; Increasing environmental awareness and climate change present opportunity to expand flat-terrain cable yarding.
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Cable yarding is a general solution for load handling on sites not accessible to ground-based machinery, and is typically associated with steep terrain. On flat terrain, such conditions can primarily be found on soft or wet soils, most frequently encountered in Central and Northern European countries. Today, changed environmental and market conditions may offer an unprecedented opportunity to the actual implementation of cable yarding on flat terrain in commercial operations. The study goal was to collect cable yarder manufacturers experience regarding the use and adaption of cable yarding technology on flat terrain. European manufacturers of cable yarding technology were interviewed about customer experience, particular challenges, adaptation potential, future potential and main hurdles for the expansion of cable yarding on flat terrain. Almost all manufacturers have received requests for flat-terrain yarding technology solutions, primarily from Germany. Temporal or permanent inaccessibility, regulatory or environmental reasons were the most frequent motivation for considering cable yarding technology. Installation was considered particularly challenging (clearance, stable anchoring). Potential adaptations included higher towers, artificial anchors, mechanized bunching before extraction and un-guyed yarder-systems. An artificial, highly mobile, self-anchoring tail spar was considered the most useful adaptation. While concerned about limited profitability and qualified labour shortage, most manufacturers demonstrated a positive or neutral view concerning the expansion of cable yarding on flat terrain. However, cable yarding is not considered to be cost-competitive wherever ground-based systems can be employed and cable yarding is not subsidized.

  • Erber, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, Institute of Forest Engineering, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, 1190 Vienna, Austria ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1606-5258 E-mail: gernot.erber@boku.ac.at (email)
  • Spinelli, CNR-IBE Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istituto per la BioEconomia, Via Madonna del Piano 10, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, I-50019, Italy; AFORA, University of the Sunshine Coast, Locked Bag 4, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9545-1004 E-mail: spinelli@ivalsa.cnr.it
article id 10143, category Research article
Olga Grigorieva, Olga Brovkina, Alisher Saidov. (2020). An original method for tree species classification using multitemporal multispectral and hyperspectral satellite data. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 2 article id 10143. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10143
Keywords: boreal forest; phenological period; space spectroscopy; spectral signature
Highlights: Differences between spectral reflectance of tree species are statistically significant in the sub-seasons of spring, first half of summer, and main autumn; Classification using multitemporal multispectral data is more productive than is classification using a single hyperspectral image; the method improves recent forest mapping in the study regions.
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This study proposes an original method for tree species classification by satellite remote sensing. The method uses multitemporal multispectral (Landsat OLI) and hyperspectral (Resurs-P) data acquired from determined vegetation periods. The method is based on an original database of spectral features taking into account seasonal variations of tree species spectra. Changes in the spectral signatures of forest classes are analyzed and new spectral–temporal features are created for the classification. Study sites are located in the Czech Republic and northwest (NW) Russia. The differences in spectral reflectance between tree species are shown as statistically significant in the sub-seasons of spring, first half of summer, and main autumn for both study sites. Most of the errors are related to the classification of deciduous species and misclassification of birch as pine (NW Russia site), pine as mixture of pine and spruce, and pine as mixture of spruce and beech (Czech site). Forest species are mapped with accuracy as high as 80% (NW Russia site) and 81% (Czech site). The classification using multitemporal multispectral data has a kappa coefficient 1.7 times higher than does that of classification using a single multispectral image and 1.3 times greater than that of the classification using single hyperspectral images. Potentially, classification accuracy can be improved by the method when applying multitemporal satellite hyperspectral data, such as in using new, near-future products EnMap and/or HyspIRI with high revisit time.

  • Grigorieva, A.F. Mozhaysky’s Military-Space Academy, Krasnogo Kursanta Street 19a, 197198, Saint Petersburg, Russia E-mail: alenka12003@gmail.com
  • Brovkina, Global Change Research Institute CAS, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00, Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: brovkina.o@czechglobe.cz (email)
  • Saidov, A.F. Mozhaysky’s Military-Space Academy, Krasnogo Kursanta Street 19a, 197198, Saint Petersburg, Russia E-mail: celestial.azura@gmail.com
article id 10243, category Research article
Laura Pikkarainen, Jaana Luoranen, Antti Kilpeläinen, Teppo Oijala, Heli Peltola. (2020). Comparison of planting success in one-year-old spring, summer and autumn plantings of Norway spruce and Scots pine under boreal conditions. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10243. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10243
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; seedling damage; forest regeneration; field performance; planting season
Highlights: In Norway spruce, 84% of all plantings were successful, whereas in Scots pine, the corresponding number was 52%; The major reason for poor planting results was poor work quality; An extended planting season is possible for Norway spruce in southern and central Finland; In Scots pine, there are still large uncertainties in the success of summer and autumn plantings.
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In Nordic countries, tree planting of seedlings is mainly performed during spring and early summer. Interest has increased in extending the planting window throughout the unfrozen growing season. This study compared the success of one-year-old spring, summer and autumn plantings in practical forestry in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in southern and central Finland. Planting success was based on the number of viable seedlings per hectare relative to a species-specific target density. The influence of different factors to poor planting results were determined, including quality of site preparation and planting, and sources of natural damage. Overall, in Norway spruce, 85, 69 and 84% and in Scots pine 53, 55 and 40% of spring, summer and autumn plantings succeeded. In Norway spruce, the planting results were consistent between the southern and central regions, whereas in Scots pine, the success was slightly lower in the south. The poor work quality and a low density of appropriate planting spots, contributed to poor planting results, regardless of planting season, region or tree species. Considering different damages, especially mammal damage contributed to the failure of Scots pine spring plantings, whereas in summer plantings, corresponding single failure reason could not be identified. Based on our findings, extending the planting season of Norway spruce could be recommended in both regions. For Scots pine, there is still significant uncertainty about the success of summer and autumn plantings, partially due to the limited number of plantings available for analyses.

  • Pikkarainen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonkatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: laura.pikkarainen@uef.fi (email)
  • Luoranen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Production Systems, Neulaniementie 5, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: jaana.luoranen@luke.fi
  • Kilpeläinen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonkatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.kilpelainen@uef.fi
  • Oijala, Metsä Group, Metsä Forest, Kuormaajantie 7, FI-40320 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: teppo.oijala@metsagroup.com
  • Peltola, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonkatu 7, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@uef.fi
article id 10242, category Research article
Shisheng Long, Siqi Zeng, Falin Liu, Guangxing Wang. (2020). Influence of slope, aspect and competition index on the height-diameter relationship of Cyclobalanopsis glauca trees for improving prediction of height in mixed forests. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10242. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10242
Keywords: secondary forest; effect; improved Hegyi_I; topographic feature; tree height estimation
Highlights: In this study, the effects of slope, aspect and competition index (CI) on the H-DBH relationship were explored and an improved CI was developed and included to improve predictions of Cyclobalanopsis glauca tree height; It was found that the effects were statistically significant and considering slope, aspect and CI for developing the H-DBH models significantly increased the H prediction accuracy.
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Diameter at breast height (DBH) and height (H) of trees are two important variables used in forest management plans. However, collecting the measurements of H is time-consuming and costly. Instead, the H-DBH relationship is modeled and used to estimate H. But, ignoring the effects of slope, aspect and tree competition on the H-DBH relationship often impedes the improvement of H predictions. In this study, to improve predictions of Cyclobalanopsis glauca (Thunb.) Oerst. tree H in mixed forests, we compared eleven H-DBH models and examined the influence of slope and aspect on the H-DBH relationship using 426 trees. We then improved Hegyi competition index and explored its effect on the H predictions by including it in the selected models. Results showed 1) There were statistically significant effects of slope and aspect on the H-DBH relationship; 2) The log transformation and exponential model performed best for sunny- and shady-steep, respectively, and the Gompertz’s model was optimal for both sunny- and shady-gentle; 3) Compared with the whole dataset, the division of the data into the slope and aspect sub-datasets significantly reduced the RMSE of H predictions; 4) Compared with the selected models without competition index, adding the original Hegyi and improved Hegyi_I into the models improved the H predictions but only the models containing the improved Hegyi_I significantly increased the prediction accuracy at the significant level of 0.1. This study implied that modeling the H-DBH relationship under different slopes and aspects and including the improved Hegyi_I provided the great potential to improve the H predictions.

  • Long, Faculty of Forestry, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China E-mail: shisheng3604@21cn.com
  • Zeng, Faculty of Forestry, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China E-mail: zengsiqi@21cn.com
  • Liu, Faculty of Forestry, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China E-mail: liufl680@126.com
  • Wang, Research Center of Forestry Remote Sensing & Information Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China; Department of Geography and Environmental Resources, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA E-mail: gxwang@siu.edu (email)
article id 10196, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Jari Miina, Timo Saksa, Ron Store, Kauko Kärkkäinen, Mika Härkönen. (2020). Low cost prediction of time consumption for pre-commercial thinning in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10196. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10196
Keywords: forest vegetation management; early cleaning; release treatment; linear mixed model; topographic wetness index; work productivity
Highlights: Time consumption (TC) in pre-commercial thinning (PCT) can be predicted by variables describing site and stands conditions and previous silvicultural management; Applying variables available in forest resources data the field-assessment of worksite difficulty factors is not needed; The TC model could facilitate the predictions of the labour costs of PCT in forest information systems.
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The time consumption (TC) of pre-commercial thinning (PCT) varies greatly among sites, stands and forest workers. The TC in PCT is usually estimated by field-assessed work difficulty factors. In this study, a linear mixed model for the TC in PCT was prepared by utilizing forest resources data (FRD). The modelling data included 11 848 and validation data included 3035 worksites with TC information recorded by forest workers within the period of 2008–2018. The worksites represented a range of site and stand conditions across a broad geographical area in Finland. Site and stand characteristics and previous management logically explained the TC in PCT. The more fertile the site, the more working time was needed in PCT. On sites of medium fertility, TC in the initial PCT increased with stand age by 0.5 h ha–1 yr–1. Site wetness increased the TC. PCT in summer was more time consuming than in spring. Small areas were more time consuming to PCT per hectare than larger ones. The between-forest worker variation involved in the TC was as high as 35% of the variation unexplained by the TC model. The coefficient of determination in validation data was 19.3%, RMSE 4.75 h ha–1 and bias –1.6%. The TC model based on FRD was slightly less precise than the one based on field-assessed work difficulty factors (removal quantity and type and terrain difficulty): RMSE 4.9 h ha–1 vs. 4.1 h ha–1 (52% vs. 43%). The TC model could be connected to forest information systems where it would facilitate the predictions of the labour costs of PCT without field-assessing work difficulty factors.

  • Uotila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@luke.fi (email)
  • Miina, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6 B, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.miina@luke.fi
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Survontie 9, FI-40500 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
  • Store, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Teknologiakatu 7, FI-67100 Kokkola, Finland E-mail: ron.store@luke.fi
  • Kärkkäinen, E-mail: kauko.karkkainen@gmail.com
  • Härkönen, Tornator Oyj, Pielisentie 2–6, FI-81700 Lieksa, Finland E-mail: mika.harkonen@tornator.fi
article id 10084, category Research article
Mihails Čugunovs, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Jari Kouki. (2020). Proximity to charred logs in burned forests likely affects decomposition processes in the soil. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10084. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10084
Keywords: coarse woody debris; forest fire; prescribed burning; cellulose decomposition; tea-bag method
Highlights: Standardised organic substrate decomposition was tentatively observed to be faster adjacent to non-charred downed logs than away from the logs or adjacent to charred logs; A spatial linkage was observed between non-charred logs and decomposition in the soil in burned boreal forests; Proximity to a charred log may provide a micro-environment where decomposition rates differ from the surrounding forest soil.
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We studied the spatial decomposition rates of standardised organic substrates in soils (burned boreal pine-dominated sub-xeric forests in eastern Finland), with respect to charred and non-charred coarse woody debris (CWD). Decomposition rates of rooibos plant litter inside teabags (C:N = 42.870 ± 1.841) and pressed-sheet Nordic hardwood pulp (consisting of mainly alpha-cellulose) were measured at 0.2 m distance from 20 charred (LC0.2) and 40 non-charred logs (LNC0.2). We also measured decomposition at 60 plots located 3–10 m away from downed logs (L3,10). The rooibos decomposition rate constant ‘k’ was 8.4% greater at the LNC0.2 logs than at the L3,10 or LC0.2 logs. Cellulose decomposed more completely in 1 micron mesh bags at LNC0.2 (44% of buried bags had leftover material) than at LC0.2 (76%) or L3,10 (70%). Decomposition of cellulose material was rapid but varied greatly between sampling plots. Our results indicate that decomposition of the standardised organic matter was more rapid close to CWD pieces than further away. However, only the plots located near non-charred logs (LNC0.2) exhibited high decomposition rates, with no corresponding increase observed at the charred logs (LC0.2). This suggests a possible noteworthy indirect effect of forest burning on soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition rates close to charred CWD after forest fires. We urge for more studies on this tentative observation as it may affect the estimates on how fires affect carbon cycling in forests.

  • Čugunovs, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mihails.cugunovs@gmail.com (email)
  • Tuittila, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8861-3167 E-mail: eeva-stiina.tuittila@uef.fi
  • Kouki, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2624-8592 E-mail: jari.kouki@uef.fi
article id 10051, category Research article
Anna-Kaisa Kosenius, Artti Juutinen, Liisa Tyrväinen. (2020). The role of state-owned commercial forests and firm features in nature-based tourism business performance. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10051. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10051
Keywords: business performance; entrepreneurial attitude; forest-based tourism business; forest management practices; landscape trading; recreational value trading
Highlights: State-owned commercial forests provide an important part of nature-based tourism enterprises’ service scope; Increase in turnover during five years vary depending on provided services; Entrepreneurial attitude associates with willingness to participate in a landscape and recreational value trading scheme; Increasing international demand for nature-based tourism promotes business possibilities, needs attention to forest environments and smooth co-operation between actors.
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Nature-based tourism (NBT) is a growing industry within regions rich in natural amenities worldwide. An important feature of NBT business is the dependence on the quality of surrounding environment. This paper addresses the role of the management of commercial forests owned by the state in Finnish Lapland. The paper explores the NBT entrepreneurs’ willingness to participate in a proposed new landscape and recreational value trading (LRVT) and elaborates the effect of entrepreneur and enterprise characteristics, such as entrepreneurial attitude, venture size, and a variety of services offered to customers, on the experienced and expected growth of NBT enterprise. The survey data on NBT enterprises were analyzed with ordered and binary logit models. The willingness of enterprises to participate in LRVT depended on the venture size, entrepreneurial attitude, and type of activities offered to customers. The results show that relatively young and small-sized enterprises have faced difficulties in developing their business. Entrepreneurial experience, risk-taking and intention to develop new business associate positively with expected increase in turnover.

  • Kosenius, University of Helsinki, Department of Economics and Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1528-8145 E-mail: anna-kaisa.kosenius@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Juutinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Paavo Havaksentie 3, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4300-5365 E-mail: artti.juutinen@luke.fi
  • Tyrväinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9941-8228 E-mail: liisa.tyrvainen@luke.fi
article id 10147, category Research article
Mika Aalto, Olli-Jussi Korpinen, Tapio Ranta. (2019). Feedstock availability and moisture content data processing for multi-year simulation of forest biomass supply in energy production. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 4 article id 10147. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10147
Keywords: bioenergy; simulation; forest resources; data analysis; geographic information system
Highlights: A method for allocating forest biomass availability for a multi-year simulation model was developed; The possibility to take the quality change of feedstock into account by moisture estimations was studied; A method to estimate weather data for moisture estimation equations with fewer parameters was presented.
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Simulation and modeling have become more common in forest biomass studies. Dynamic simulation has been used to study the supply chain of forest biomass with numerous different models. A robust predictive multi-year model requires biomass availability data, where annual variation is included spatially and temporally. This can be done by using data from enterprises, but in some cases relevant data is not accessible. Another option is to use forest inventory data to estimate biomass availability, but this data must be processed in the correct form to be utilized in the model. This study developed a method for preparing forest inventory data for a multi-year simulation supply model using the theoretical availability of feedstock. Methods for estimating quality changes during roadside storage are also presented, including a possible parameter estimation to decrease the amount of data needed. The methods were tested case by case using the inventory database “Biomass Atlas” and weather data from a weather station in Mikkeli, Finland. The data processing method for biomass allocation produced a reasonable quantity of stands and feedstock, having a realistic annual supply with variation for the demand point. The results of the study indicate that it is possible to estimate moisture content changes using weather data. The estimations decreased the accuracy of the model and, therefore, estimations should be kept minimal. The presented data preparation method can generate a supply of forest biomass for the simulation model, but the validity of the data must be ensured for correct model behavior.

  • Aalto, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7768-1145 E-mail: mika.aalto@lut.fi (email)
  • Korpinen, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: olli-jussi.korpinen@lut.fi
  • Ranta, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, School of Energy Systems, Laboratory of Bioenergy, Lönnrotinkatu 7, FI-50100 Mikkeli, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5464-5136 E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi
article id 10016, category Research article
Ivars Kļaviņš, Arta Bārdule, Zane Lībiete, Dagnija Lazdiņa, Andis Lazdiņš. (2019). Impact of biomass harvesting on nitrogen concentration in the soil solution in hemiboreal woody ecosystems. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 4 article id 10016. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10016
Keywords: nitrogen concentration; stump harvesting; whole-tree harvesting; soil solution; hemiboreal forest; short-rotation coppice
Highlights: Soil solution nitrogen concentrations in whole-tree harvesting sites are higher in sites of medium to high fertility than in sites of low fertility; In whole-tree harvesting and stem-only harvesting sites, soil solution nitrogen concentrations are highest 2 to 3 years after harvesting; The risks of nitrogen leaching immediately after harvesting are higher in traditional forestry systems compared to short-rotation cropping.
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Considering the increasing use of wood biomass for energy and the related intensification of forest management, the impacts of different intensities of biomass harvesting on nutrient leaching risks must be better understood. Different nitrogen forms in the soil solution were monitored for 3 to 6 years after harvesting in hemiboreal forests in Latvia to evaluate the impacts of different biomass harvesting regimes on local nitrogen leaching risks, which potentially increase eutrophication in surface waters. In forestland dominated by Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L. or Norway spruce Picea abies L. (Karst.), the soil solution was sampled in: (i) stem-only harvesting (SOH), (ii) whole‐tree harvesting, with only slash removed (WTH), and (iii) whole‐tree harvesting, with both slash and stumps harvested (WTH + SB), subplots. In agricultural land, sampling was performed in an initially fertilised hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L.× P. tremuloides Michx.) short-rotation coppice (SRC), where above-ground biomass was harvested. In forestland, soil solution N (nitrogen) concentrations were highest in the second and third year after harvesting. Mean annual values in WTH subplots of medium to high fertility sites exceeded the mean values in SOH subplots and control subplots (mature stand where no harvesting was performed) for the entire study period; the opposite trend was observed for the low-fertility site. Biomass harvesting in the hybrid aspen SRC only slightly affected NO3-N (nitrate nitrogen) and NH4+-N (ammonium nitrogen) concentrations in the soil solution within 3 years after harvesting, but a significant decrease in the TN (total nitrogen) concentration in the soil solution was found in plots with additional N fertilisation performed once initially.

  • Kļaviņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia; University of Latvia, Raiņa blvd 19-125, LV 1586, Riga, Latvia E-mail: ivars.klavins@silava.lv (email)
  • Bārdule, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia; University of Latvia, Raiņa blvd 19-125, LV 1586, Riga, Latvia E-mail: arta.bardule@silava.lv
  • Lībiete, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: zane.libiete@silava.lv
  • Lazdiņa, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: dagnija.lazdina@silava.lv
  • Lazdiņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: andis.lazdins@silava.lv
article id 10010, category Research article
Panu Halme, Jenna Purhonen, Emma-Liina Marjakangas, Atte Komonen, Katja Juutilainen, Nerea Abrego. (2019). Dead wood profile of a semi-natural boreal forest – implications for sampling. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 4 article id 10010. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10010
Keywords: coarse woody debris; coniferous forest; forest structure; fine woody debris; forest disturbance dynamics; saproxylic
Highlights: We constructed a full dead wood profile of a semi-natural boreal forest; Abundance-diameter distributions were different among tree species; Extensive sampling is needed if focus on large dead wood and rare tree species.
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Dead wood profile of a forest is a useful tool for describing forest characteristics and assessing forest disturbance history. Nevertheless, there are few studies on dead wood profiles, including both coarse and fine dead wood, and on the effect of sampling intensity on the dead wood estimates. In a semi-natural boreal forest, we measured every dead wood item over 2 cm in diameter from 80 study plots. From eight plots, we further recorded dead wood items below 2 cm in diameter. Based on these data we constructed the full dead wood profile, i.e. the overall number of dead wood items and their distribution among different tree species, volumes of different size and decay stage categories. We discovered that while the number of small dead wood items was immense, their number dropped drastically from the diameter below 1 cm to diameters 2–3 cm. Different tree species had notably different abundance-diameter distribution patterns: spruce dead wood comprised most strikingly the smallest diameter fractions, whereas aspen dead wood comprised a larger share of large-diameter items. Most of the dead wood volume constituted of large pieces (>10 cm in diameter), and 62% of volume was birch. The variation in the dead wood estimates was small for the numerically dominant tree species and smallest diameter categories, but high for the sub-dominant tree species and larger size categories. In conclusion, the more the focus is on rare tree species and large dead wood items, the more comprehensive should the sampling be.

  • Halme, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; School of Resource Wisdom, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: panu.halme@jyu.fi (email)
  • Purhonen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: jenna.e.i.purhonen@jyu.fi
  • Marjakangas, Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway E-mail: emma-liina.marjakangas@ntnu.no
  • Komonen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; School of Resource Wisdom, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: atte.komonen@jyu.fi
  • Juutilainen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: kjuutilainen@yahoo.com
  • Abrego, Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: nerea.abrego@helsinki.fi
article id 10187, category Research article
Timo Pukkala, Kjersti Holt Hanssen, Kjell Andreassen. (2019). Stem taper and bark functions for Norway spruce in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 3 article id 10187. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10187
Keywords: forest management; Picea abies; Kozak model; variable-exponent taper function
Highlights: New variable-exponent stem taper and bark functions were developed for Norway spruce; Both fixed and mixed-effects models were developed; Site index and tree age had statistically significant but small effects on stem taper.
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Based on data from long-term experimental fields with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), we developed new stem taper and bark functions for Norway. Data was collected from 477 trees in stands across Norway. Three candidate functions which have shown good performance in previous studies (Kozak 02, Kozak 97 and Bi) were fitted to the data as fixed-effects models. The function with the smallest Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was then chosen for additional analyses, fitting 1) site index-dependent and 2) age-dependent versions of the model, and 3) fitting a mixed-effects model with tree-specific random parameters. Kozak 97 was found to be the function with the smallest AIC, but all three tested taper functions resulted in fairly similar predictions of stem taper. The site index-dependent function reduced AIC and residual standard error and showed that the effect of site index on stem taper is different in small and large trees. The predictions of the age-independent and age-dependent models were very close to each other. Adding tree-specific random parameters to the model clearly reduced AIC and residual variation. However, the results suggest that the mixed-effects model should be used only when it is possible to calibrate it for each tree, otherwise the fixed-effects Kozak 97 model should be used. A model for double bark thickness was also fitted as fixed-effects Kozak 97 model. The model behaved logically, predicting larger relative but smaller absolute bark thickness for small trees.

article id 10043, category Research article
Outi Manninen, Rainer Peltola. (2019). Continuous picking may increase bilberry yields. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 3 article id 10043. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10043
Keywords: sustainability; Vaccinium myrtillus; wild forest berries; collectable goods
Highlights: Bilberry fruit production and fruit set increased under continuous picking by rake in three-year study; Bilberry flower number and fruit mass were not affected by picking; Bilberry compensated for biomass loss; The highest relative deciduous species abundance was found in the picking treatment plots at the end of the experiment.
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Accumulated knowledge about the health benefits of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) has increased the demand and utilization of wild bilberries. Intensive berry picking by metal rakes is believed to cause damage in bilberry stands in areas under continuous picking pressure, and hence expected to hamper the production of berries in forthcoming years. We conducted an experiment to examine the effect of continuous bilberry picking by metal rake on the number of bilberry flowers and fruits, fruit mass, compensation for biomass loss after picking, and plant functional type abundance in the understorey in northern Finland. Bilberry lost less than 0.5% of its biomass annually during the three-year study period due to rake harvesting. The number of flowers was not significantly affected by damage caused by picking, while both fruit production and fruit set increased without any indication of reduced fruit mass, and biomass loss was fully compensated. Moreover, the relative abundance of plant functional types was not affected by picking during the study. We suggest that the low intensity and timing of damage act as a buffer against the adverse effects of picking on bilberry fruit production. On the basis of this study, it is reasonable to anticipate that there are no indications that current intensive berry picking would not be on a sustainable level.

  • Manninen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Paavo Havaksentie 3, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: outi.manninen@luke.fi (email)
  • Peltola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: rainer.peltola@luke.fi
article id 10150, category Research article
Petri Forsström, Jouni Peltoniemi, Miina Rautiainen. (2019). Seasonal dynamics of lingonberry and blueberry spectra. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 10150. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10150
Keywords: understory; remote sensing; boreal forest vegetation; berries; flowers; goniometer; FIGIFIGO
Highlights: Seasonal series of multiangular spectra for lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.); Decidous blueberry has strong seasonal pattern while temporal variations of evergreen lingonberry were linked to phenological stages of flowering and berrying; Detection of flowers and berries from shrub spectra was possible; Collected spectral data are openly available through SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.
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Accurate mapping of the spatial distribution of understory species from spectral images requires ground reference data which represent the prevailing phenological stage at the time of image acquisition. We measured the spectral bidirectional reflectance factors (BRFs, 350–2500 nm) at varying view angles for lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) throughout the growing season of 2017 using Finnish Geospatial Research Institute’s FIGIFIGO field goniometer. Additionally, we measured spectra of leaves and berries of both species, and flowers of lingonberry. Both lingonberry and blueberry showed seasonality in visible and near-infrared spectral regions which was linked to occurrences of leaf growth, flowering, berrying, and leaf senescence. The seasonality of spectra differed between species due to different phenologies (evergreen vs. deciduous). Vegetation indices, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), moisture stress index (MSI), plant senescence reflectance index (PSRI), and red-edge inflection point (REIP2), showed characteristic seasonal trends. NDVI and PSRI were sensitive to the presence of flowers and berries of lingonberry, while with blueberry the effects were less evident. Off-nadir observations supported differentiating the dwarf shrub species from each other but showed little improvement for detection of flowers and berries. Lingonberry and blueberry can be identified by their spectral signatures if ground reference data are available over the entire growing season. The spectral data measured in this study are reposited in the publicly open SPECCHIO Spectral Information System.

  • Forsström, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2357-2517 E-mail: petri.forsstrom@aalto.fi (email)
  • Peltoniemi, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Department of Geodesy and Geodynamics, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4701-128X E-mail: jouni.peltoniemi@nls.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10089, category Research article
Arto Haara, Annika Kangas, Sakari Tuominen. (2019). Economic losses caused by tree species proportions and site type errors in forest management planning. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 10089. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10089
Keywords: forest inventory; value of information; uncertainty; sub-optimality loss
Highlights: Errors in tree species proportions caused more economic losses for forest owners than site type errors; Economic losses due to sub-optimal treatments were observed from 26.5% to 31.7% of plots, depending on the remote sensing data set used; Even with the most accurate remote sensing data set, namely ALS data set, NPV losses were on average 124.4 € ha–1 with 3% interest rate.
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The aim of this study was to estimate economic losses, which are caused by forest inventory errors of tree species proportions and site types. Our study data consisted of ground truth data and four sets of erroneous tree species proportions. They reflect the accuracy of tree species proportions in four remote sensing data sets, namely 1) airborne laser scanning (ALS) with 2D aerial image, 2) 2D aerial image, 3) 3D and 2D aerial image data together and 4) satellite data. Furthermore, our study data consisted of one simulated site type data set. We used the erroneous tree species proportions to optimise the timing of forest harvests and compared that to the true optimum obtained with ground truth data. According to the results, the mean losses of Net Present Value (NPV) because of erroneous tree species proportions at an interest rate of 3% varied from 124.4 € ha–1 to 167.7 € ha–1. The smallest losses were observed using tree species proportions predicted using ALS data and largest using satellite data. In those stands, respectively, in which tree species proportion errors actually caused economic losses, they were 468 € ha–1 on average with tree species proportions based on ALS data. In turn, site type errors caused only small losses. Based on this study, accurate tree species identification seems to be very important with respect to operational forest inventory.

  • Haara, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: arto.haara@luke.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8637-5668 E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5429-3433 E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi
article id 10088, category Research article
Antti-Jussi Lindroos, Kira Ryhti, Tomi Kaakkurivaara, Jori Uusitalo, Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari. (2019). Leaching of heavy metals and barium from forest roads reinforced with fly ash. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 10088. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10088
Keywords: recycling; lysimeter; fly ash; forest road rehabilitation; environmental impact assessment; low-volume road
Highlights: Heavy metal concentrations were generally low in percolation and ditch water samples of ash roads, but elevated concentrations were found in some parts of ash roads; Risk for heavy metal leaching is negligible if road parts producing high concentrations are rare.
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The aim of this study was to determine the effect of leaching of heavy metals (Cr, As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Co, Mo) and earth-alkaline metal, barium (Ba), on the percolation and ditch water quality from the forest roads that contained ash in the road structures. Water quality was studied in the immediate vicinity below the ash layers as well as deeper in the road structure. Water quality was also determined in the drainage water in ditches that crossed the forest roads. A mixture of wood and peat based fly ash was used in the road structures. The treatments were: 1) no ash, 2) a 15 cm layer of ash/gravel mixture, 3) a 20 cm layer of ash/gravel mixture, 4) a 25 cm layer of ash, and 5) a 50 cm layer of ash. Large variation in the concentrations of Cr, As, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mo and Ba in the percolation water, even within the same treatment, caused difficulties to generalize the results. The concentrations of Cr, As, Ni, Pb, Mo and Ba in water samples were high in some treatment plot lysimeters containing ash compared to the control (no ash). On the other hand, many lysimeters had low and similar concentrations in water samples in the treatment plots containing ash compared to concentrations in the control plots. The ash in the roads did not affect the concentrations in the ditches. The leaching is uneven and seems to take place only from some parts of the ash layer. Risk for leaching is minimal if such parts are not widely spread.

  • Lindroos, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: antti.lindroos@luke.fi (email)
  • Ryhti, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kira.ryhti@helsinki.fi
  • Kaakkurivaara, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tomi.kaakkurivaara@gmail.com
  • Uusitalo, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Korkeakoulunkatu 7, FI-33720 Tampere, Finland E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
  • Helmisaari, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: helja-sisko.helmisaari@helsinki.fi
article id 10048, category Research article
Urszula Zajączkowska, Karina Kaczmarczyk, Janusz Liana. (2019). Birch sap exudation: influence of tree position in a forest stand on birch sap production, trunk wood anatomy and radial bending strength. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 2 article id 10048. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10048
Keywords: biomechanics; wood anatomy; forest edge; xylem sap
Highlights: Birch trees along the forest edge exude more xylem sap but less concentrated than the trees from the interior; Radial bending strength of wood in birch trunk is higher in the trees from forest edge; Trees exhibit higher bending strength in western side of the trunk, where the number of vessels and the wood potential conductivity index are smaller.
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It is commonly accepted that the period of early-spring xylem sap exudation marks a stage during which a positive pressure builds inside the tree trunks. This state changes when leaves appear, initiating water transport within the trunk. It is unknown, however, how the wood anatomical structure and its mechanical resistance influences the sap. We present the results of research on the relationship between exudation of sap from Betula pendula Roth trees from the interior of a forest stand and from its edge, and the anatomical structure of the trunk wood and its bending strength. During the period between March 21 and April 18, we performed five sets of measurements of sap exudation from trees at the edge of the stand and from the forest interior. The resulting radial wood samples were tested for bending strength using a fractometer. We tested the sap for electrolytic conductivity and sugars content. For the anatomical analysis of the wood, we determined the number of vessels per 1 mm2, average vessel lumen area and potential conductivity index. We found that the trees along the edge of the stand exude more sap, but it is less concentrated than the sap from the trees from the interior. Bending strength perpendicular to wood fibres is higher in the trees from the stand edge and in the western side of the trunk, where the number of vessels per 1 mm2 and conductivity index are smaller. Seemingly, this is the result of western winds, which are dominant in Poland.

  • Zajączkowska, Department of Forest Botany, Faculty of Forestry, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: urszula.zajaczkowska@wl.sggw.pl (email)
  • Kaczmarczyk, Department of Forest Botany, Faculty of Forestry, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: karina.kaczmarczyk@wl.sggw.pl
  • Liana, Department of Forest Botany, Faculty of Forestry, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 159 Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: janusz.liana@wl.sggw.pl
article id 10019, category Research article
Junyan Liu, Junfeng Tang, Si-Chong Chen, Wenbao Ma, Zheng Zheng, Tingfa Dong. (2019). Do tree cavity density and characteristics vary across topographical habitats in the tropics? A case study from Xishuangbanna, southwest China. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 10019. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10019
Keywords: heterogeneity; cavity-dependant animals; tropical rainforest; biodiversity conservation
Highlights: Cavities were significantly more abundant in high- and low-slope than high-plateau habitats; There are more “butt hollow” cavities in high-slope habitat and they occurred at a lower height; More “crack” cavities in low-slope habitat and they had a narrower entrance diameter; Certain types of cavities are concentrated in specific habitats, which provide opportunities for forest management and biodiversity conservation.
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Despite the influence of cavities on the survival and distribution of cavity-dependent fauna, the variation in the density and characteristics of tree cavities across different habitat types in tropical forests is unknown. In this study, we surveyed 26 312 living trees from 376 species and compared cavity density and characteristics (height, size, type, and orientation) across five habitat types (valley, low-slope, high-slope, high-gully, and high-plateau) in a 20-hectare tropical rainforest in southwest China. From a total of 2047 cavities, we found that cavity density was mainly driven by habitat rather than tree species richness or diameter at breast height (DBH), and the characteristics of cavities were not uniformly distributed across habitats. Cavities were significantly more abundant in high- and low-slope than high-plateau habitats. Compared with other habitats, more “butt hollow” cavity types were found in high-slope habitat and they occurred at a lower tree height, whereas more “crack” cavities were found in low-slope habitat and they had a narrower entrance diameter. Although the mean orientation of cavities faced towards the northeast, cavity orientation varied significantly across habitat types. Our results indicate that certain types of cavities are concentrated in specific habitat types, which can provide avenues for forest management and biodiversity conservation. We highlight the importance of habitat heterogeneity in providing resources for cavity nesters.

  • Liu, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China; Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China E-mail: liujunyan2300@163.com
  • Tang, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China E-mail: jft@nn.ch
  • Chen, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Wakehurst Place, West Sussex RH17 6TN, UK; Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Swiss Institute for Dryland Environmental and Energy Research, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Beer-Sheva 8499000, Israel E-mail: chensichong0528@gmail.com
  • Ma, Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Forests and Wetlands Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Forestry, Chengdu 610081, China E-mail: mawenbao_2000@126.com
  • Zheng, Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China E-mail: dioeco@outlook.com
  • Dong, Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Biodiversity Conservation (Sichuan Province) and Institute of Plant Adaptation and Utilization in Southwest Mountains, China West Normal University, Nanchong, Sichuan 637009, China E-mail: dongtf@aliyun.com (email)
article id 9968, category Research article
Hubert Lachowicz, Anna Bieniasz, Rafał Wojtan. (2019). Variability in the basic density of silver birch wood in Poland. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 9968. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9968
Keywords: Betula pendula; tree age; forest habitat type; thickness of trees; geographical location; physical properties of wood
Highlights: Location, tree age and forest habitat type, and the interactions between those factors, have a statistically significant impact on the basic density of silver birch wood; The average basic density of silver birch wood increases with the age of the tree.
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This work presents the findings of a study concerning variability in the basic density of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) wood, depending on the geographical location of tree stands, the age and thickness of the trees, the forest habitat type, and interactions between some of these factors. The study was carried out on wood from trees aged approximately 30, 50 and 70 years in 12 forest districts located throughout Poland. In total 4777 wood samples, taken from 306 trees from 51 test plots, were measured. The location, the age of the trees, the thickness of the trees and the forest habitat type, as well as interactions between these factors, proved to have a significant influence on the basic density of silver birch wood. The highest mean values of the basic density of the birch wood were found in Sokołów forest district on the FBF habitat type (549 kg m–3) and in Giżycko forest district on the FMBF habitat type (548 kg m–3). For the entire set of examined material, the average values of the basic density of wood increase with tree age. For the examined material originating in FBF and FMBF habitats the average values of basic density showed no significant differences; however, in the cases of the forest districts of Giżycko, Łobez and Rudziniec, significant differences in the analysed property were observed.

  • Lachowicz, Department of Forest Utilization, Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159 02-787 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: hubert.lachowicz@wl.sggw.pl
  • Bieniasz, Department of Forest Utilization, Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159 02-787 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: anna.bieniasz@wl.sggw.pl (email)
  • Wojtan, Laboratory of Dendrometry and Forest Productivity, Warsaw University of Life Sciences SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159 02-787 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: rwojtan@wl.sggw.pl
article id 9918, category Research article
Ari Nikula, Vesa Nivala, Juho Matala, Kari Heliövaara. (2019). Modelling the effect of habitat composition and roads on the occurrence and number of moose damage at multiple scales. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 9918. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9918
Keywords: forestry; Alces alces; damage probability; forest damage; forest plantation; habitat selection; habitat modelling; zero-inflated negative binomial distribution
Highlights: The occurrence and number of moose damage were modelled with a zero-inflated count model; An admixture of mature forests within plantations increased the number of damage; Vicinity of inhabited areas and roads reduced damage; Plantations in landscapes with a large amount of pine-dominated thinning forests had less damage in Lapland; Damage risk assessment should include characteristics specific to each region.
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We modelled the effect of habitat composition and roads on the number and occurrence of moose (Alces alces L.) damage in Ostrobothnia and Lapland using a zero-inflated count model. Models were developed for 1 km2, 25 km2 and 100 km2 landscapes consisting of equilateral rectangular grid cells. Count models predict the number of damage, i.e. the number of plantations and zero models the probability of a landscape being without damage for a given habitat composition. The number of moose damage in neighboring grid cells was a significant predictor in all models. The proportion of mature forest was the most frequent significant variable, and an increasing admixture of mature forests among plantations increased the number and occurrence of damage. The amount of all types of plantations was the second most common significant variable predicting increasing damage along with increasing amount of plantations. An increase in thinning forests as an admixture also increased damage in 1 km2 landscapes in both areas, whereas an increase in pine-dominated thinning forests in Lapland reduced the number of damage in 25 km2 landscapes. An increasing amount of inhabited areas in Ostrobothnia and the length of connecting roads in Lapland reduced the number of damage in 1 and 25 km2 landscapes. Differences in model variables between areas suggest that models of moose damage risk should be adjusted according to characteristics that are specific to the study area.

  • Nikula, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ari.nikula@luke.fi (email)
  • Nivala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and Environment, Ounasjoentie 6, FI-96200 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: vesa.nivala@luke.fi
  • Matala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.matala@luke.fi
  • Heliövaara, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.heliovaara@helsinki.fi
article id 10055, category Research article
Jaakko Repola, Hannu Hökkä, Hannu Salminen. (2018). Models for diameter and height growth of Scots pine, Norway spruce and pubescent birch in drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 5 article id 10055. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10055
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatlands; forest drainage; mixed model; tree growth model
Highlights: Tree growth strongly correlated with site drainage status; Between-tree competition had a higher impact on tree diameter growth than on height growth; Growth predicted by the constructed models were calibrated using NFI11 data to ensure generally applicable growth predictions level in whole country.
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The aim of this study was to develop individual-tree diameter and height growth models for Scots pine, Norway spruce, and pubescent birch growing in drained peatlands in Finland. Trees growing in peatland sites have growth patterns that deviate from that of trees growing in mineral soil sites. Five-year growth was explained by tree diameter, different tree and stand level competition measures, management operations and site characteristics. The drainage status of the site was influencing growth directly or in interaction with other variables. Site quality had a direct impact but was also commonly related to current site drainage status (need for ditch maintenance). Recent thinning increased growth of all species and former PK fertilization increased growth of pine and birch. Temperature sum was a significant predictor in all models and altitude for spruce and birch. The data were a subsample of the 7th National Forest Inventory (NFI) sample plots representing northern and southern Finland and followed by repeated measurements for 15–20 yrs. Growth levels predicted by the models were calibrated using NFI11 data to remove bias originating from the sample of the modelling data. The mixed linear models technique was used in model estimation. The models will be incorporated into the MOTTI stand simulator to replace the current peatlands growth models.

  • Repola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@luke.fi (email)
  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90014 University OF Oulu, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi
  • Salminen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.salminen@luke.fi
article id 10000, category Research article
Hamed Yousefzadeh, Rasta Rajaei, Anna Jasińska, Łukasz Walas, Yann Fragnière, Gregor Kozlowski. (2018). Genetic diversity and differentiation of the riparian relict tree Pterocarya fraxinifolia (Juglandaceae) along altitudinal gradients in the Hyrcanian forest (Iran). Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 5 article id 10000. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10000
Keywords: plant variation; Caucasian wingnut; population genetics; refugium; riparian forest; river system
Highlights: The Caucasian wingnut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia Spach) is an emblematic and relict riparian tree with limited distribution in Hyrcanian forest which investigating its genetic population structure and diversity along altitudinal gradients, and migration patterns are novel; We concluded that rivers are the main seed dispersal vector among P. fraxinifolia populations and there was no trend from upstream to downstream; The high level of gene flow and uniform genetic diversity along each river system suggest the “classical” metapopulation structure of the species.
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Riparian trees, especially relict trees, are attractive and important for research to understand both past and recent biogeographical and evolutionary processes. Our work is the first study to elucidate the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of the canopy-dominating riparian Pterocarya fraxinifolia (Juglandaceae) along two altitudinal gradients in different river systems of the Hyrcanian forest, which is one of the most important refugium of relict trees in Western Eurasia. Altitudinal gradients were chosen along two river systems at 100, 400 and 900 m a.s.l. Leaf samples were collected from 116 trees, and the genetic diversity was evaluated with eight SSR markers. Overall, 39 alleles were identified for all of the populations studied. The observed heterozygosity (Ho) varied from 0.79 to 0.87 (with a mean of 0.83). The results of the AMOVA analysis indicated that the variation within populations was 88%, whereas the variation among populations was 12% for all of the gradients. A structure analysis indicated that 93% of the trees were grouped in the same gradient. The genetic distance based on Fst confirmed the structure result and indicated a high rate of gene flow among the investigated populations. Based on high gene flow (low differentiation of the population along the same river) and the clearly distinct genetic structure of the investigated gradients, it can be concluded that rivers are the main seed dispersal vector among P. fraxinifolia populations. The genetic diversity of P. fraxinifolia did not show any trend from upstream to downstream. The high level of gene flow and uniform genetic diversity along each river suggest the “classical” metapopulation structure of the species.

  • Yousefzadeh, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Mazandaran, Iran E-mail: h.yousefzadeh@modares.ac.ir (email)
  • Rajaei, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Mazandaran, Iran E-mail: r.rajaei@modares.ac.ir
  • Jasińska, Laboratory of Systematics and Geography, Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Parkowa 5, PL-62-035 Kornik, Poland E-mail: jasiak9@wp.pl
  • Walas, Laboratory of Systematics and Geography, Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Parkowa 5, PL-62-035 Kornik, Poland E-mail: lukaswalas@wp.pl
  • Fragnière, Department of Biology and Botanic Garden, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland E-mail: yann.fragniere@unifr.ch
  • Kozlowski, Department of Biology and Botanic Garden, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; Natural History Museum Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 6, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland E-mail: gregor.kozlowski@unifr.ch
article id 10013, category Research article
Hardo Becker, Jürgen Aosaar, Mats Varik, Gunnar Morozov, Kristiina Aun, Ülo Mander, Kaido Soosaar, Veiko Uri. (2018). Annual net nitrogen mineralization and litter flux in well-drained downy birch, Norway spruce and Scots pine forest ecosystems. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 10013. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10013
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; Betula pubescens; drained peatland forests; ammonification; effect of tree species; swamp; nitrification; transitional bog
Highlights: The net nitrogen mineralization (NNM) flux in drained peat soils depends largely on the C/N ratio and tree species; The soil NNM process is affected by trees through organic litter input into soil; Pine stand in low-fertility drained transitional bog is dominated by net ammonification; Birch and spruce stands on the fertile drained peat soil with higher pH and N content are dominated by net nitrification.
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The main aim of the current study was to estimate the annual net nitrogen mineralization (NNM) flux in stands of different tree species growing on drained peatlands, as well as to clarify the effect of tree species, soil properties and litter on annual NNM dynamics. Three study sites were set up in May 2014: a downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) stand and a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stand in Oxalis full-drained swamp (ODS) and a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand in Myrtillus full-drained swamp (MDS). The NNM flux was estimated using the in situ method with incubated polyethylene bags. The highest value of NNM was found in stands that were growing on fertile ODS: 127.5 kg N ha–1 yr–1 and 87.7 kg N ha–1 yr–1, in the downy birch stand and in the Norway spruce stand, respectively. A significantly lower annual NNM flux (11.8 kg N ha–1 yr–1) occurred in the Scots pine stand growing in MDS. Nitrification was highest at fertile ODS sites and ammonification was the highest at the low fertility MDS site. For all study sites, positive correlation was found between soil temperature and NNM intensity. The difference in annual NNM between the downy birch stand and the Norway spruce stand growing on similar drained fertile peatlands was due to litter quality. The annual N input into the soil through leaf litter was the highest at the downy birch site where also the C/N ratio of litter was the lowest. The second highest N input into the soil was found in the spruce stand and the lowest in the pine stand.

  • Becker, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: hardo.becker@emu.ee (email)
  • Aosaar, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jyrgen.aosaar@emu.ee
  • Varik, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: mats.varik@emu.ee
  • Morozov, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: gunnar.morozov@emu.ee
  • Aun, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kristiina.aun@emu.ee
  • Mander, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology & Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: ulo.mander@ut.ee
  • Soosaar, Department of Geography, Institute of Ecology & Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kaido.soosaar@ut.ee
  • Uri, Chair of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: veiko.uri@emu.ee
article id 10002, category Research article
Bayasaa Tumenjargal, Futoshi Ishiguri, Haruna Aiso-Sanada, Yusuke Takahashi, Bayartsetseg Baasan, Ganbaatar Chultem, Jyunichi Ohshima, Shinso Yokota. (2018). Geographic variations of wood properties of Larix sibirica naturally grown in Mongolia. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 10002. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10002
Keywords: natural forests; basic density; dynamic Young’s modulus; nondestructive testing; stress-wave velocity
Highlights: Significant differences (p  < 0.01) among five stands were found in tree height, stress-wave velocity of stems, dynamic Young’s modulus of stems and logs, annual ring width, and latewood percentage, suggesting that there was geographic variation of mechanical properties of wood in Larix sibirica (Münchh.) Ledeb. grown in Mongolia; Dynamic Young’s modulus of logs in L. sibirica trees can be predicted by stress-wave velocity of stems; Stem diameter of L. sibirica naturally grown in Mongolia is closely related to radial growth at initial stage of growth, especially within the first twenty years.
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Geographic variations in growth, stress-wave velocity of stem, dynamic Young’s modulus of stems and logs, annual ring width, latewood percentage and basic density were investigated for Larix sibirica (Münchh.) Ledeb. naturally grown in Mongolia. A total of 250 trees with 20 to 30 cm in stem diameter at a height of 1.3 m above ground level were selected from each natural stand in five different provenances in Mongolia. In addition, five trees in each stand were cut for measuring dynamic Young’s modulus of stems and logs, annual ring width, latewood percentage and basic density. Mean values of stress-wave velocity of stems in each stand ranged from 2.92 to 3.41 km s–1, and the mean value of five stands was 3.23 km s–1. Mean values of dynamic Young’s modulus of logs in each stand ranged from 5.17 to 9.72 GPa. A significant correlation (r = 0.798, p < 0.01) was found between stress-wave velocity of stems and dynamic Young’s modulus of logs. Among the five stands, the highest and the lowest values of average annual ring number were 193 and 44, respectively. Mean values of basic density in five trees within each stand were examined and ranged from 0.52 to 0.56 g cm–3. Significant differences among five stands were found in tree height, stress-wave velocity of stem, dynamic Young’s modulus of stems and logs, annual ring width and latewood percentage, suggesting that L. sibirica trees naturally grown in Mongolia have geographic variations in mechanical properties of wood.

  • Tumenjargal, Faculty of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 321-8505, Japan; United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan; Research and Training Institute of Forestry and Wood Industry, Mongolian University Science and Technology, Ulaanbaatar 14191, Mongolia E-mail: t_bayasaa88@yahoo.com
  • Ishiguri, Faculty of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 321-8505, Japan E-mail: ishiguri@cc.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp (email)
  • Aiso-Sanada, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687, Japan E-mail: haiso@ffpri.affrc.go.jp
  • Takahashi, Faculty of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 321-8505, Japan E-mail: zo.r.by0814@gmail.com
  • Baasan, Research and Training Institute of Forestry and Wood Industry, Mongolian University Science and Technology, Ulaanbaatar 14191, Mongolia E-mail: bayartsetseg@must.edu.mn
  • Chultem, Research and Training Institute of Forestry and Wood Industry, Mongolian University Science and Technology, Ulaanbaatar 14191, Mongolia E-mail: ganbaatar_ch@must.edu.mn
  • Ohshima, Faculty of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 321-8505, Japan E-mail: joshima@cc.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp
  • Yokota, Faculty of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 321-8505, Japan E-mail: yokotas@cc.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp
article id 7763, category Research article
Sergei Senko, Mikko Kurttila, Timo Karjalainen. (2018). Prospects for Nordic intensive forest management solutions in the Republic of Karelia. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 7763. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7763
Keywords: forest management; thinning; forestry; Russia; SWOT
Highlights: SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) and multi-criteria decision support analysis were combined to examine the potential for Nordic intensive forest management solutions (NIFMS) in Karelia, Russia; NIFMS looks promising for Karelian forestry; Improving quality-and-value of timber and sustained yield are the highly prioritized strengths; Unprepared forestry regulations are the main threat that needs to be taken into account.
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In this study, the prospects for future forest management in Republic of Karelia, Russia were analyzed. Forestry has an important role in the economy of Karelia. However, productivity and profitability in the forestry sector are extremely low, forest stand structure and quality are weak, the commercial forest land of coniferous species has declined and the wood processing industry struggles with a deficit of raw materials. The situation is typical to many forest regions in Russia with extensive forest management cited as one reason for the current situation. In contrast, the Nordic countries have significant experience in intensive and sustainable forest management and the results have been to a large extent positive. The transfer of Nordic intensive forest management solutions (NIFMS) could improve forestry in Karelia. SWOT analysis, combined with the multi-criteria decision support (MCDS) method was used to identify local operational environments and to assign priorities. Major threats included unprepared regulations, poor road infrastructure, insecure investments, low forestry productivity, forest degradation, high investment costs and a negative attitude to intensive forestry. The main opportunities are high forest resource potential in Karelia, favorable authority development programs, proven Nordic expertise, wood-based energy development and availability of new technology. Results also showed that the main weaknesses that might influence the NIFMS in Karelia are slow return on investments, low market demand for energy wood, high costs associated with young forest thinnings, high demand for skilled specialists and a lack of investment in research and development.

  • Senko, University of Eastern Finland (UEF), School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, FI-80111 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sergei.senko@uef.fi (email)
  • Kurttila, The Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kurttila@luke.fi
  • Karjalainen, &#8224; Deceased E-mail: tjk@nn.fi
article id 10006, category Research article
Matti Maltamo, Tomi Karjalainen, Jaakko Repola, Jari Vauhkonen. (2018). Incorporating tree- and stand-level information on crown base height into multivariate forest management inventories based on airborne laser scanning. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 10006. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10006
Keywords: forest inventory; LIDAR; alpha shape; crown height; nearest neighbor; mixed-effects model
Highlights: The most accurate tree-level alternative is to include crown base height (CBH) to nearest neighbour imputation; Also mixed-effects models can be applied to predict CBH using tree attributes and airborne laser scanning (ALS) metrics; CBH prediction can be included with an accuracy of 1–1.5 m to forest management inventory applications.
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This study examines the alternatives to include crown base height (CBH) predictions in operational forest inventories based on airborne laser scanning (ALS) data. We studied 265 field sample plots in a strongly pine-dominated area in northeastern Finland. The CBH prediction alternatives used area-based metrics of sparse ALS data to produce this attribute by means of: 1) Tree-level imputation based on the k-nearest neighbor (k-nn) method and full field-measured tree lists including CBH observations as reference data; 2) Tree-level mixed-effects model (LME) prediction based on tree diameter (DBH) and height and ALS metrics as predictors of the models; 3) Plot-level prediction based on analyzing the computational geometry and topology of the ALS point clouds; and 4) Plot-level regression analysis using average CBH observations of the plots for model fitting. The results showed that all of the methods predicted CBH with an accuracy of 1–1.5 m. The plot-level regression model was the most accurate alternative, although alternatives producing tree-level information may be more interesting for inventories aiming at forest management planning. For this purpose, k-nn approach is promising and it only requires that field measurements of CBH is added to the tree lists used as reference data. Alternatively, the LME-approach produced good results especially in the case of dominant trees.

  • Maltamo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi (email)
  • Karjalainen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tomimkarjalainen@gmail.com
  • Repola, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@luke.fi
  • Vauhkonen, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, 80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.vauhkonen@luke.fi
article id 9983, category Research article
Mika Rekola, Jaakko Nippala, Päivi Tynjälä, Anne Virtanen. (2018). Modelling competences and anticipating the future competence needs in the forest sector. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 9983. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9983
Keywords: forest sector; competence modelling; human resources; work life; future needs
Highlights: The most frequently used practices of modelling competences in Finnish forest sector organisations were superior-subordinate review discussions and quantitative surveys; Competence modelling was used for several human resources functions but surprisingly not for hiring and compensation; The experts interviewed underlined the need for generic competences in the future, especially they highlighted the importance of information processing and personal self-management skills.
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This explorative study examined practices of competence modelling in the forest sector organisations and how organisations anticipate changes in competence needs in the future. Semi-structured in-depth interviews (n=10) were conducted amongst forest sector experts in Finland and data was analysed by thematic analysis. The findings showed that the practices of modelling competences were diverse, most frequently used ones being superior-subordinate review discussions and quantitative competence surveys. In addition to these formal systems, informal modelling, especially on the team level and in smaller companies was also frequent. Organisations used competence modelling for several human resources functions, such as appraisal, motivation and promotion of employees. Surprisingly hiring and compensation functions were not mentioned. Perceptions related to competence modelling were generally speaking positive. The most important challenges were the lack of further actions and sometimes the extraordinary burden to the employees. When anticipating the future, the experts interviewed mentioned several commonly recognised trends, e.g., development of information technology, fragmentation of working life and structural changes in labour markets. All these require more generic competences related to information processing and personal self-management, especially respondents highlighted the importance of self-awareness skills. It is concluded that several useful practices for competence modelling already exist and that present study provides a basis for further quantitative further study.

  • Rekola, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.rekola@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Nippala, Suomen Partiolaiset – Finlands Scouter ry, Töölönkatu 55, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jaakko.nippala@partio.fi
  • Tynjälä, Finnish Institute for Educational Research, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: paivi.a.tynjala@jyu.fi
  • Virtanen, Finnish Institute for Educational Research, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: anne.virtanen@jyu.fi
article id 9946, category Research article
Frauke Fedderwitz, Niklas Björklund, Velemir Ninkovic, Göran Nordlander. (2018). Does the pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) prefer conifer seedlings over other main food sources? Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 9946. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9946
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; forest regeneration; feeding preference; herbivore; plant tissues
Highlights: Adult pine weevils feed on seedlings and mature conifers, but cause economic damage only on seedlings; Their feeding preferences for branches and roots over seedlings were tested in a laboratory experiment; The only clear preference was for Norway spruce roots; Results support new approaches of seedling protection attempting to redirect pine weevils from planted seedlings to other food sources.
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Adult pine weevils (Hylobius abietis (L.)) feed on the tender bark of branches and roots of mature conifer trees and on the stem bark of conifer seedlings. Their feeding on mature trees does not cause any economic damage, but their feeding on planted seedlings is so devastating that the pine weevil is considered one of the most important forest pest insects in Europe. We asked whether the pine weevil prefers seedlings over other regularly utilized food sources. This question is of particular interest because new approaches to seedling protection are based on decreasing any preference for seedlings by using less palatable plants or by enhancing their defence (by genetic selection or by methyl jasmonate treatment). In a laboratory choice experiment we tested pine weevil feeding preferences for seedlings compared with branches and roots from mature trees (separately for Norway spruce and Scots pine). Pine weevils preferred roots, but not branches, of Norway spruce over seedlings of the same species. With Scots pine there were no clear preferences, but the weevils showed a tendency to prefer roots over seedlings. These results provide support for seedling protection approaches that attempt to redirect pine feeding from planted seedlings to other food sources.

  • Fedderwitz, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: frauke.fedderwitz@slu.se (email)
  • Björklund, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: niklas.bjorklund@slu.se
  • Ninkovic, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: velemir.ninkovic@slu.se
  • Nordlander, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: goran.nordlander@slu.se
article id 9940, category Research article
Esteban Ceriani-Nakamurakare, Sergio Ramos, Carolina A. Robles, María V. Novas, María F. D´Jonsiles, Paola Gonzalez-Audino, Cecilia Carmarán. (2018). Metagenomic approach of associated fungi with Megaplatypus mutatus (Coleoptera: Platypodinae). Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 9940. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9940
Keywords: ambrosia; forest pest; metagenomic; fungi; Platypodinae; insect-fungus interactions
Highlights: There were no significant effects of host plant and location on fungal richness; Two fungal species, belonging to Fusarium and Candida genera, were present in all the studied associations; Results suggest that host plant identity would not be crucial to determine the composition of fungal communities associated to Megaplatypus mutatus.
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Megaplatypus mutatus is a major forest pest in Argentina and an emerging pest in Europe. In this study the multitrophic interactions between M. mutatus and associated fungi were assessed with a metagenomics approach (454-pyrosequencing). A total of 270 collection points from insect galleries from three locations in Argentina were pooled for pyrosequencing analyses. Two hosts, Populus deltoides and Casuarina cunninghamiana, were independently evaluated to characterize the fungal communities associated to M. mutatus; compare the culture-independent approach with previous culturing studies, in terms of data recovery related to the fungal community composition, and test the specificity of the fungal communities amongst locations and hosts. A Generalized Linear Mixed Model was performed to compare the fungal richness in each dataset, which showed no significant differences between taxa richness amongst locations. Principal Coordinates Analyses showed a separation between fungal communities within the same host, suggesting that host identity would not be crucial to determine the specificity in fungal communities. Candida insectalens and one Fusarium species, present in all hosts and locations, achieved 37.6% of the total relative frequency per taxa. These results complement the data from culturing methods previously reported, thus improving the accuracy and understanding of the fungal assemblages associated to M. mutatus.

  • Ceriani-Nakamurakare, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Depto. Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental. Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET- Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO). Buenos Aires, (C1428EHA) Argentina E-mail: cerianinaka@gmail.com
  • Ramos, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Concordia. Entre Ríos, (E3200) Argentina E-mail: ramos.sergio@inta.gob.ar
  • Robles, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Depto. Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental. Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET- Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO). Buenos Aires, (C1428EHA) Argentina E-mail: carorobles@bg.fcen.uba.ar
  • Novas, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Depto. Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental. Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET- Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO). Buenos Aires, (C1428EHA) Argentina E-mail: vicnovas@bg.fcen.uba.ar
  • D´Jonsiles, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Depto. Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental. Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET- Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Micología y Botánica (INMIBO). Buenos Aires, (C1428EHA) Argentina E-mail: lalijonsi@gmail.com
  • Gonzalez-Audino, Centro de Investigaciones de Plagas e Insecticidas (CITEFA-CONICET). Buenos Aires, (B1603ALO) Argentina E-mail: pgonzalezaudino@citedef.gob.ar
  • Carmarán, Centro de Investigaciones de Plagas e Insecticidas (CITEFA-CONICET). Buenos Aires, (B1603ALO) Argentina E-mail: carmaran@bg.fcen.uba.ar (email)
article id 9933, category Research article
Timo Saksa, Jari Miina, Hilkka Haatainen, Kauko Kärkkäinen. (2018). Quality of spot mounding performed by continuously advancing mounders. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 2 article id 9933. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9933
Keywords: soil preparation; slash; logging residues; forest regeneration; mixed modelling
Highlights: The number and quality of mounds varied considerably according to the operating conditions;The main factors reducing the quality of spot mounding were steep terrain, a thick humus layer, fresh logging residues, stoniness and soil texture;With careful selection of timing and conditions for mounding, the quality obtained by continuously advancing mounders can be improved.
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Operating conditions affecting the quality of spot mounding by Bracke continuously advancing mounders were investigated on 66 regeneration areas (124 ha) in eastern Finland. The quality of mounds was classified as suitable (good or acceptable after additional compression) or unsuitable for planting. Models were constructed for the number of suitable planting spots obtained per hectare (good and acceptable mounds), the probability of successful mounding (≥1600 planting spots ha–1) and the probability of creating a suitable mound as a function of terrain, site and soil characteristics, as well as slash conditions (removed, fresh or dry logging residues). The average number of mounds created was 1892 ± 290 mounds ha–1, of which 1398 ± 325 mounds ha–1 (74%) were classified as suitable for planting. The quality of spot mounding was reduced by steep terrain, a thick humus layer and fresh logging residues. Stoniness and soil texture also affected the number of planting spots created. Mounding after logging residues had dried increased the number of planting spots by 191 spots ha–1 compared with mounding in the presence of fresh residues. Removing residues did not significantly increase the number of planting spots compared with mounding amongst dry residues. A thick humus layer, very stony soil, steep slopes and valley terrain decreased the number of planting spots by 150–450 spots ha–1. The number and quality of mounds varied considerably according to the operating conditions, but with careful selection of timing and sites the quality obtained by a continuously advancing mounder can be improved.

  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi (email)
  • Miina, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.miina@luke.fi
  • Haatainen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hilkka.haatainen@storaenso.com
  • Kärkkäinen, Tornator Oyj, Muuntamontie 2, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kauko.karkkainen@tornator.fi
article id 7699, category Research article
Dalytė Matulevičiūtė, Jurga Motiejunaite, Domas Uogintas, Ričardas Taraškevičius, Mindaugas Dagys, Valerijus Rašomavičius. (2018). Decline of a protected coastal pine forest under impact of a colony of great cormorants and the rate of vegetation change under ornithogenic influence. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 2 article id 7699. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7699
Keywords: coniferous forests; piscivorous birds; Baltic Sea; habitats
Highlights: We studied vegetation and its changes in a pine forest affected by a colony of great cormorants; Vegetation in the colony varied according to the period of bird influence and the stand elevation above sea level; Considerable vegetation changes occur in several years after bird colony establishment; Pine forest ecosystem cease to exist following a decade of bird activity.
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We investigated the impact of a colony of great cormorants on the vegetation of the old growth Pinus sylvestris L. forest on the Curonian Spit peninsula, Lithuania. We studied the characteristics and rates of plant cover changes under varying length and intensity of bird influence. Plant species numbers, as well as the coverage of plants with different ecological requirements, varied according to the period of bird influence, but the resulting vegetation also depended upon the stand elevation above sea level. In our study, the initial increase in plant species richness at the start of bird nesting was not obvious and was of a transient character, due to the weak invasion of non-forest species and the rapid decline of forest plants. The colony area showed obvious and rapid vegetation changes during the investigation period. According to the calculated colony expansion rates, after 6–7 years of impact from birds the tree layer decreased by about four fold; the shrub layer decreased by about two fold; the field layer decreased by about 15 fold; and the dwarf shrub and bottom layers disappeared. The coverage by oligotrophic species decreased by more than four fold, while the coverage by eutrophic species increased by more than 60 fold. After 9–10 years of ornithogenic impact, all the trees were dead, and the protected coniferous forest ecosystem, with its characteristic plant species, had ceased to exist as such.

  • Matulevičiūtė, Institute of Botany, Nature Research Centre, Žaliųjų ežerų Str. 49, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7550-1860 E-mail: dalyte.matuleviciute@botanika.lt (email)
  • Motiejunaite, Institute of Botany, Nature Research Centre, Žaliųjų ežerų Str. 49, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6949-1990 E-mail: jurga.motiejunaite@botanika.lt
  • Uogintas, Institute of Botany, Nature Research Centre, Žaliųjų ežerų Str. 49, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3937-1218 E-mail: domas.uogintas@botanika.lt
  • Taraškevičius, Geology and Geography Institute, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, LT-08412 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5110-6142 E-mail: taraskevicius@geo.lt
  • Dagys, Institute of Ecology, Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, LT-08412 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9342-3464 E-mail: dagys@ekoi.lt
  • Rašomavičius, Institute of Botany, Nature Research Centre, Žaliųjų ežerų Str. 49, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1314-4356 E-mail: valerijus.rasomavicius@botanika.lt
article id 9923, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Terje Gobakken, Stefano Puliti, Marius Hauglin, Erik Naesset. (2018). Value of airborne laser scanning and digital aerial photogrammetry data in forest decision making. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 9923. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9923
Keywords: forest inventory; value of information; uncertainty; remote sensing; cost-plus-loss; data quality
Highlights: Airborne laser scanning (ALS) and digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) are nearly equally valuable for harvest scheduling decisions even though ALS data is more precise; Large underestimates of stand volume are most dangerous errors for forest owner because of missed cutting probabilities; Relative RMSE of stand volume and the mean volume in a test area explain 77% of the variation between the expected losses due to errors in the data in the published studies; Increasing the relative RMSE of volume by 1 unit, increased the losses in average by 4.4 € ha–1.
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Airborne laser scanning (ALS) has been the main method for acquiring data for forest management planning in Finland and Norway in the last decade. Recently, digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) has provided an interesting alternative, as the accuracy of stand-based estimates has been quite close to that of ALS while the costs are markedly smaller. Thus, it is important to know if the better accuracy of ALS is worth the higher costs for forest owners. In many recent studies, the value of forest inventory information in the harvest scheduling has been examined, for instance through cost-plus-loss analysis. Cost-plus-loss means that the quality of the data is accounted for in monetary terms through calculating the losses due to errors in the data in the forest management planning context. These costs are added to the inventory costs. In the current study, we compared the losses of ALS and DAP at plot level. According to the results, the data produced using DAP are as good as data produced using ALS from a decision making point of view, even though ALS is slightly more accurate. ALS is better than DAP only if the data will be used for more than 15 years before acquiring new data, and even then the difference is quite small. Thus, the increased errors in DAP do not significantly affect the results from a decision making point of view, and ALS and DAP data can be equally well recommended to the forest owners for management planning. The decision of which data to acquire, can thus be made based on the availability of the data on first hand and the costs of acquiring it on the second hand.

  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 68, FI-80170 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi (email)
  • Gobakken, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
  • Puliti, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: stefano.puliti@nibio.no
  • Hauglin, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: marius.hauglin@nmbu.no
  • Naesset, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@nmbu.no
article id 7803, category Research article
Lingbo Dong, Pete Bettinger, Huiyan Qin, Zhaogang Liu. (2018). Reflections on the number of independent solutions for forest spatial harvest scheduling problems: a case of simulated annealing. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 7803. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7803
Keywords: simulated annealing; forest management planning; combinatorial optimization; neighborhood search; adjacency constraint
Highlights: No one particular neighborhood search technique of simulated annealing was found to be universally acceptable; The optimal number of independent solutions necessary for addressing the area restriction harvest scheduling model was described with a negative logarithmic function that was related with the problem size. However, optimal number of independent solutions necessary was not sensitive to the problem size for non-spatial and unit restriction harvest scheduling model problems, which should be somewhat above 250 independent runs; The types of adjacency constraints have moderate effects on the number of independent solutions, but these effects are not significant.
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To assess the quality of results obtained from heuristics through statistical procedures, a number of independently generated solutions to the same problem are required, however the knowledge of how many solutions are necessary for this purpose using a specific heuristic is still not clear. Therefore, the overall aims of this paper are to quantitatively evaluate the effects of the number of independent solutions generated on the forest planning objectives and on the performance of different neighborhood search techniques of simulated annealing (SA) in three increasing difficult forest spatial harvest scheduling problems, namely non-spatial model, area restriction model (ARM) and unit restriction model (URM). The tested neighborhood search techniques included the standard version of SA using the conventional 1-opt moves, SA using the combined strategy that oscillates between the conventional 1-opt moves and the exchange version of 2-opt moves, and SA using the change version of 2-opt moves. The obtained results indicated that the number of independent solutions generated had clear effects on the conclusions of the performances of different neighborhood search techniques of SA, which indicated that no one particular neighborhood search technique of SA was universally acceptable. The optimal number of independent solutions generated for all alternative neighborhood search techniques of SA for ARM problems could be estimated using a negative logarithmic function based on the problem size, however the relationships were not sensitive (i.e., 0.13 < p < 0.78) to the problem size for non-spatial and URM harvest scheduling problems, which should be somewhat above 250 independent runs. The types of adjacency constraints did moderately affect the number of independent solutions necessary, but not significantly. Therefore, determining an optimal number of independent solutions generated is a necessary process prior to employing heuristics in forest management planning practices.

  • Dong, College of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China E-mail: farrell0503@126.com
  • Bettinger, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens 30602, GA, USA E-mail: pbettinger@warnell.uga.edu
  • Qin, College of Economic and Management, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China E-mail: huiyanqin@hotmail.com
  • Liu, College of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China E-mail: lzg19700602@163.com (email)
article id 7791, category Research article
Tadeusz B. Splawinski, Sylvie Gauthier, Nicole J. Fenton, Daniel Houle, Yves Bergeron. (2018). The colonization of young fire initiated stands by the crustose lichen Trapeliopsis granulosa and its potential effect on conifer establishment and stand succession. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 7791. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7791
Keywords: establishment; Pinus banksiana; forest ecology; lichen woodland; stand succession.; Trapeliopsis granulosa
Highlights: T. granulosa is a poor seedbed for jack pine establishment; The presence of extensive T. granulosa cover can limit ongoing tree recruitment, thereby maintaining open lichen woodland; Dry open conditions favor the establishment of T. granulosa; Stands with significant T. granulosa cover may be good candidates for afforestation initiatives due to lower evaporation potential and decreased water stress.
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The resilience of closed-crown coniferous stands within the boreal forest of North America is highly dependent on successful re-establishment of tree species following fire. A shift from closed-crown forest to open lichen woodland is possible following poor natural regeneration during the initial establishment phase, followed by the development of extensive lichen cover, which may hinder ongoing recruitment. We examined the development of the crustose lichen Trapeliopsis granulosa (Hoffm.) 18 to 21 years following fire within six sites in the boreal forest of northwestern Quebec, and explored its potential to affect ongoing recruitment during early successional stages of stand development. Germination and survivorship trials were conducted within the laboratory to determine the establishment rate of Pinus banksiana Lamb. (jack pine) on T. granulosa, mineral soil, and burnt duff under two separate watering frequencies (observed and drought). Survival and establishment rates of jack pine were highest on burnt duff, and poor on both T. granulosa and mineral soil. Under the drought treatment, no seedlings survived on any substrates. In the field, T. granulosa cover had a positive relationship with mineral soil cover, and negative relationships with duff cover, ericaceous shrub cover, organic layer depth, other lichen cover, and Sphagnum moss cover. No discernable relationship was found between T. granulosa and tree density, rock cover, dead wood cover or other moss cover. The development of extensive T. granulosa cover in fire-initiated stands can impede ongoing recruitment of conifer species due to its poor seedbed quality, thereby maintaining open forests.

  • Splawinski, Institut de recherche sur les forêts, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445, boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: tsplawinski@gmail.com (email)
  • Gauthier, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 rue du PEPS, P.O. Box 10380, Stn Sainte Foy, QC, G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: sylvie.gauthier@rncan-nrcan.gc.ca
  • Fenton, Institut de recherche sur les forêts (IRF), Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: nicole.fenton@uqat.ca
  • Houle, Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Direction de la recherché forestière, Québec, QC, G1P 3W8, Canada; Ouranos Climate Change Consortium, Montréal, QC, H3A 1B9, Canada E-mail: daniel.houle@mffp.gouv.qc.ca
  • Bergeron, Centre d’étude sur la forêt and Chaire industrielle en aménagement forestier durable, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888 Succursale A, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P8, Canada E-mail: bergeron.yves@uqam.ca
article id 1665, category Research article
Lauri Haataja, Ville Kankaanhuhta, Timo Saksa. (2018). Reliability of self-control method in the management of non-industrial private forests. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 1665. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1665
Keywords: forest management; soil preparation; quality control; young stand management; forest regeneration; boreal silviculture; forest planting
Highlights: Self-control method was found reliable at the main stages of the forest regeneration process; Only slight overestimation was found in self-control results of soil preparation and planting and small underestimation in self-control of young stand management; Diverse utilizing of self-control data is possible in support of service providers operations.
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This study seeks to determine the extent to which self-control data can be relied upon in the management of private forests. Self-control (SC) requires the forest workers to evaluate their own work quality to ensure the clients’ needs are met in terms of soil preparation, planting and young stand management. Self-control data were compared to an independent evaluation of the same worksites. Each dataset had a hierarchical structure (e.g., sample plot, regeneration area and contractor), and key quality indicators (i.e., number of prepared mounds, planted seedlings or crop trees) were measured for each plot.  Self-control and independent-assessments (IA) were analyzed by fitting a multi-level multivariate model containing explanatory variables. No significant differences were observed in terms of soil preparation (number of mounds) or young stand management (number of crop trees) between self-control and independent-assessments. However, the self-control planting data included a slight but significant overestimation of the number of planted seedlings. Discrepancies are discussed in terms of sampling error and other explanatory factors. According to overall results, self-control methods are reliable at every stage of the forest regeneration process. As such, the diverse utilizing of self-control data is possible in support of service providers operations.
  • Haataja, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: lauritapiohaataja@gmail.com (email)
  • Kankaanhuhta, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankaanhuhta@luke.fi
  • Saksa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@luke.fi
article id 7751, category Research article
Göran Nordlander, Euan G. Mason, Karin Hjelm, Henrik Nordenhem, Claes Hellqvist. (2017). Influence of climate and forest management on damage risk by the pine weevil Hylobius abietis in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 7751. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7751
Keywords: temperature sum; reforestation; soil scarification; clear-cut age; conifer seedling; damage prediction; warmer climate
Highlights: Analysis of survey data from 292 reforestation areas in northern Sweden show that the probability of pine weevil damage can be predicted with a standard error of 0.12; Three variables are important in the optimal model: proportion of seedlings in mineral soil, age of clear-cut, and temperature sum; Temperature sum in the model can be adjusted to reflect future climate scenarios.
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The pine weevil Hylobius abietis L. is an economically important pest insect that kills high proportions of conifer seedlings in reforestation areas. It is present in conifer forests all over Europe but weevil abundance and risk for damage varies considerably between areas. This study aimed to obtain a useful model for predicting damage risks by analyzing survey data from 292 regular forest plantations in northern Sweden. A model of pine weevil attack was constructed using various site characteristics, including both climatic factors and factors related to forest management activities. The optimal model was rather imprecise but showed that the risk of pine weevil attack can be predicted approximatively with three principal variables: 1) the proportion of seedlings expected to be planted in mineral soil rather than soil covered with duff and debris, 2) age of clear-cut at the time of planting, and 3) calculated temperature sum at the location. The model was constructed using long-run average temperature sums for epoch 2010, and so effects of climate change can be inferred from the model by adjustment to future epochs. Increased damage risks with a warmer climate are strongly indicated by the model. Effects of a warmer climate on the geographical distribution and abundance of the pine weevil are also discussed. The new tool to better estimate the risk of damage should provide a basis for foresters in their choice of countermeasures against pine weevil damage in northern Europe.

  • Nordlander, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: Goran.Nordlander@slu.se
  • Mason, University of Canterbury, School of Forestry, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9024-9106 E-mail: euan.mason@canterbury.ac.nz (email)
  • Hjelm, Skogforsk, The Forest Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo 2250, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: karin.hjelm@skogforsk.se
  • Nordenhem, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: h.nordenhem@telia.com
  • Hellqvist, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: Claes.Hellqvist@slu.se
article id 7746, category Research article
Jānis Donis, Māra Kitenberga, Guntars Šņepsts, Roberts Matisons, Juris Zariņš, Āris Jansons. (2017). The forest fire regime in Latvia during 1922–2014. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 7746. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7746
Keywords: forest disturbance; fire regime; hemiboreal zone; spatial analysis
Highlights: Climate effects and human influence on forest fire activity in Latvia was assessed using time-series analysis; Drought conditions during summer season had the strongest effect on fire activity of tested climatic variables; Negative trends and spatial distribution pattern of fire activity suggests of prevailing human influence on forest fire regime over the 20th century.
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Fire as disturbance of forests has an important ecological and economical role in boreal and hemiboreal forests. The occurrence of forest fires is both climatically and anthropogenically determined and shifts in fire regimes are expected due to climate change. Although fire histories have been well documented in boreal regions, there is still insufficient information about fire occurrence in the Baltic States. In this study, spatio-temporal patterns and climatic drivers of forest fires were assessed by means of spatial and time-series analysis. The efficiency of Canadian Fire Weather (FWI) indices as indicators for fire activity was tested. The study was based on data from the literature, archives, and the Latvian State Forest service database. During the period 1922–2014, the occurrence and area affected by forest fires has decreased although the total area of forest land has nearly doubled, suggesting improvement of the fire suppression system as well as changes in socioeconomic situation. The geographical distribution of forest fires revealed two pronounced clusters near the largest cities of Riga and Daugavpils, suggesting dominance of human causes of ignitions. The occurrence of fires was mainly influenced by drought. FWI appeared to be efficient in predicting the fire occurrence: 23–34% of fires occurred on days with a high or extremely high fire danger class, which overall had a relative occurrence of only 4.3–4.6%. During the 20th century, the peak of fire activity shifted from May to April, probably due to global warming and socioeconomic reasons. The results of this study are relevant for forest hazard mitigation and development of fire activity prediction system in Latvia.

  • Donis, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: janis.donis@silava.lv
  • Kitenberga, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: mara.kitenberga@gmail.com (email)
  • Šņepsts, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: guntars.snepsts@silava.lv
  • Matisons, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: robism@inbox.lv
  • Zariņš, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: juris.zarins@silava.lv
  • Jansons, LSFRI “Silava”, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv
article id 7723, category Research article
Mihails Čugunovs, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Ida Sara-Aho, Laura Pekkola, Jari Kouki. (2017). Recovery of boreal forest soil and tree stand characteristics a century after intensive slash-and-burn cultivation. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 7723. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7723
Keywords: restoration; fire disturbance; historical land-use; rewildening
Highlights: Soil organic matter stocks have still not fully recovered after a century of stand succession and passive recovery after slash-and-burn period; Historical slash-and-burn stands feature higher live birch and standing dead wood volume than controls; If passive rewildening is used, Fennoscandian boreal forests need more than a century to regain naturalness.
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Passive rewildening of forest ecosystems is commonly used for rehabilitating degraded habitats closer to their natural origin in addition to costly active restoration measures. However, it is not clear if passive processes are effective and how long the recovery of main ecosystem properties takes. We investigate the recovery of forest soil and tree stand characteristics a century after cessation of slash-and-burn cultivation, a major historical intensive disturbance regime that was applied widely in boreal zone of Finland until late 1800s. We systematically sampled soil and tree stand parameters within former slash-and-burn and nearby control areas. Humus layer thickness and soil organic matter (SOM) stocks were still lower in the historical slash-and-burn than in control areas. Slash-and-burn areas also had a larger volume of live birch trees and a higher standing dead wood volume than control areas. Accordingly, organic matter (humus layer thickness and SOM stocks) correlated negatively with birch standing live tree volume. Combined OM stock in humus and uppermost 10 cm mineral soil layer was positively correlated with lying dead wood volume. Overall, we observed clear recovery of several natural properties but we also found that a century after cessation of frequent anthropogenic burnings, clear legacies of disturbance in the above- and below-ground parts of boreal ecosystem were evident. Our results indicate that if only passive rewildening is applied as a restoration measure, the full recovery of boreal forest is slow and the effects of historical land-use may persist for over hundred years in soil and tree properties.

  • Čugunovs, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mihails.cugunovs@uef.fi (email)
  • Tuittila, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8861-3167 E-mail: eeva-stiina.tuittila@uef.fi
  • Sara-Aho, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ida.sara-aho@mhy.fi
  • Pekkola, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: laura.pekkola@gmail.com
  • Kouki, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2624-8592 E-mail: jari.kouki@uef.fi
article id 7721, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Andras Balazs, Eija Honkavaara, Ilkka Pölönen, Heikki Saari, Teemu Hakala, Niko Viljanen. (2017). Hyperspectral UAV-imagery and photogrammetric canopy height model in estimating forest stand variables. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 7721. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7721
Keywords: forest inventory; digital photogrammetry; aerial imagery; hyperspectral imaging; radiometric calibration; UAVs; stereo-photogrammetric canopy modelling
Highlights: Hyperspectral imagery and photogrammetric 3D point cloud based on RGB imagery were acquired under weather conditions changing from cloudy to sunny; Calibration of hyperspectral imagery was required for compensating the effect of varying weather conditions; The combination of hyperspectral imagery and photogrammetric point cloud data resulted in accurate forest estimates, especially for volumes per tree species.
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Remote sensing using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) -borne sensors is currently a highly interesting approach for the estimation of forest characteristics. 3D remote sensing data from airborne laser scanning or digital stereo photogrammetry enable highly accurate estimation of forest variables related to the volume of growing stock and dimension of the trees, whereas recognition of tree species dominance and proportion of different tree species has been a major complication in remote sensing-based estimation of stand variables. In this study the use of UAV-borne hyperspectral imagery was examined in combination with a high-resolution photogrammetric canopy height model in estimating forest variables of 298 sample plots. Data were captured from eleven separate test sites under weather conditions varying from sunny to cloudy and partially cloudy. Both calibrated hyperspectral reflectance images and uncalibrated imagery were tested in combination with a canopy height model based on RGB camera imagery using the k-nearest neighbour estimation method. The results indicate that this data combination allows accurate estimation of stand volume, mean height and diameter: the best relative RMSE values for those variables were 22.7%, 7.4% and 14.7%, respectively. In estimating volume and dimension-related variables, the use of a calibrated image mosaic did not bring significant improvement in the results. In estimating the volumes of individual tree species, the use of calibrated hyperspectral imagery generally brought marked improvement in the estimation accuracy; the best relative RMSE values for the volumes for pine, spruce, larch and broadleaved trees were 34.5%, 57.2%, 45.7% and 42.0%, respectively.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5429-3433 E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Honkavaara, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey of Finland, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland E-mail: eija.honkavaara@nls.fi
  • Pölönen, University of Jyväskylä, Faculty of Information Technology, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: ilkka.polonen@jyu.fi
  • Saari, VTT Microelectronics, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland E-mail: heikki.saari@vtt.fi
  • Hakala, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey of Finland, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland E-mail: teemu.hakala@nls.fi
  • Viljanen, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey of Finland, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430 Masala, Finland E-mail: niko.viljanen@nls.fi
article id 7693, category Research article
Chunyu Zhu, Jiaojun Zhu, Xiao Zheng, Deliang Lu, Xiufen Li. (2017). Comparison of gap formation and distribution pattern induced by wind/snowstorm and flood in a temperate secondary forest ecosystem, Northeast China. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 7693. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7693
Keywords: secondary forests; canopy opening; windstorm; flood; large scale
Highlights: The canopy gaps induced by wind/snowstorm were aggregated in steep slope and high altitude areas, while the gaps formed by flood were gathered in steep slope and low altitude areas; The wind/snowstorm mainly driven the formation of medium gaps, while the flood mainly promoted the percentage of small gaps and vacant lands.
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Canopy gap is the driving force of forest succession. Due to the uncontrollability, however, the influences of natural disturbances on gap formation and gap distribution pattern have been rarely understood in temperate secondary forest ecosystems. We monitored the gap formation and gap distribution pattern using high-resolution remote sensing images before and after two disturbances (wind/snowstorm in 2003 and flood in 2013). The results showed that after wind/snowstorm, the gap nearest neighbor index (GNNI) decreased, the vacant land area did not obviously change while the gap fraction and gaps density (especially medium size) increased. After the flood, GNNI decreased, the number of small gaps increased but larger gaps were in many cases extended to vacant land areas leading to a smaller total number of medium and large gaps but considerable increase in vacant land area. We also found that the gap densities increased with slope and altitude for wind/snowstorm-formed gaps, but they increased with increasing slope and decreasing altitude for flood-formed gaps. These results indicated that gaps were aggregated in steep slope and high altitude areas after wind/snowstorm, but in steep slope and low altitude areas after the flood. Medium gaps were mainly created by the wind/snowstorm due to the individual-level death of dominant tree with the continuous fall of surrounding trees. While, vacant lands were obviously created during the flood because of integral sweeping. Besides, smaller trees were easily damaged by runoff of flood, which induced small gaps. In summary, forest managers may pay more attention to use gaps to accelerate forest succession after wind/snowstorms and to restore vegetation in vacant lands after floods.

  • Zhu, E-mail: Chunyuzhu123@126.com
  • Zhu, E-mail: jiaojunzhu@iae.ac.cn (email)
  • Zheng, E-mail: xiaozheng@iae.ac.cn
  • Lu, E-mail: delianglu14@hotmail.com
  • Li, E-mail: delianglu14@hotmail.com
article id 2018, category Research article
Sima Mohtashami, Lars Eliasson, Gunnar Jansson, Johan Sonesson. (2017). Influence of soil type, cartographic depth-to-water, road reinforcement and traffic intensity on rut formation in logging operations: a survey study in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 5 article id 2018. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.2018
Keywords: soil disturbance; forestry; forwarder; decision support tool
Highlights: Soil type and traffic intensity had significant effects on rut formation; Further studies are required to identify all factors affecting rut formation, especially on soils with medium bearing capacity; The cartographic depth-to-water index (DTW) alone did not predict rut formation, but used in combination with other information, e.g. soil type, could be an interesting tool for delineating soil areas that are potentially vulnerable to rut formation in logging operations.
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Rut formation caused by logging operations has been recognised as a challenge for Swedish forestry. Frequent traffic with heavy machines on extraction roads, together with a warmer climate, is one of the factors that increases the risk of rut formation in forests. One possible way to control this impact of logging operations is to design and apply decision support tools that enable operators to take sensitive areas into account when planning extraction roads. In this study, 16 different logging sites in south-eastern Sweden were surveyed after clear-cut. Information was collected about extraction roads (i.e. traffic intensity, whether the roads had been reinforced with slash) and ruts. Digital maps such as cartographic depth-to-water (DTW) index and soil type were also examined for any connection to rut positions. Soil type and traffic intensity were found to be significant factors in rut formation, while DTW and slash reinforcement were not. However, the DTW map combined with other information, such as soil type, could contribute to decision support tools that improve planning of extraction roads.

  • Mohtashami, The forestry research institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: sima.mohtashami@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Eliasson, The forestry research institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2038-9864 E-mail: lars.eliasson@skogforsk.se
  • Jansson, The forestry research institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3018-9161 E-mail: gunnar.jansson@skogforsk.se
  • Sonesson, The forestry research institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2018-7496 E-mail: johan.sonesson@skogforsk.se
article id 7743, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Timo Pitkänen, Andras Balazs, Annika Kangas. (2017). Improving Finnish Multi-Source National Forest Inventory by 3D aerial imaging. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 7743. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7743
Keywords: forest inventory; remote sensing; spatial autocorrelation; spatial distribution; aerial imagery; stereo-photogrammetry
Highlights: 3D aerial imaging provides a feasible method for estimating forest variables in the form of thematic maps in large area inventories; Photogrammetric 3D data based on aerial imagery that was originally acquired for orthomosaic production was tested in estimating stand variables; Photogrammetric 3D data highly improved the accuracy of forest estimates compared to traditional 2D remote sensing imagery.
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Optical 2D remote sensing techniques such as aerial photographing and satellite imaging have been used in forest inventory for a long time. During the last 15 years, airborne laser scanning (ALS) has been adopted in many countries for the estimation of forest attributes at stand and sub-stand levels. Compared to optical remote sensing data sources, ALS data are particularly well-suited for the estimation of forest attributes related to the physical dimensions of trees due to its 3D information. Similar to ALS, it is possible to derive a 3D forest canopy model based on aerial imagery using digital aerial photogrammetry. In this study, we compared the accuracy and spatial characteristics of 2D satellite and aerial imagery as well as 3D ALS and photogrammetric remote sensing data in the estimation of forest inventory variables using k-NN imputation and 2469 National Forest Inventory (NFI) sample plots in a study area covering approximately 5800 km2. Both 2D data were very close to each other in terms of accuracy, as were both the 3D materials. On the other hand, the difference between the 2D and 3D materials was very clear. The 3D data produce a map where the hotspots of volume, for instance, are much clearer than with 2D remote sensing imagery. The spatial correlation in the map produced with 2D data shows a lower short-range correlation, but the correlations approach the same level after 200 meters. The difference may be of importance, for instance, when analyzing the efficiency of different sampling designs and when estimating harvesting potential.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Pitkänen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.p.pitkanen@luke.fi
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: Annika.Kangas@luke.fi
article id 7728, category Research article
Liam Donnelly, Sven-Olof Lundqvist, Conor O’Reilly. (2017). Inter- and intra-annual wood property variation in juvenile wood between six Sitka spruce clones. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 7728. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7728
Keywords: productivity; wood properties; Picea sitchensis; clonal forestry; selective breeding; stem height
Highlights: Wood property differences resulted primarily from variation in the proportions of early- and latewood in each annual ring; Width of early- and latewood bands in each ring was found to be a more important determinant of juvenile wood quality than the characteristics of the cells within each band; Wood properties differed greatly between clones, suggesting that there is potential to improve juvenile wood properties through selective breeding.
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Increased growth rates have reduced rotation lengths, increasing the proportion of juvenile wood relative to mature wood, which may negatively affect mechanical performance of sawn timber. However, there is limited information available on the potential impact of breeding for vigour on juvenile wood in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carrière). In this study, the relationship between vigour (based on total height) and wood properties was investigated in six-year-old Sitka spruce clones grown in two replicated field trials in Ireland. Six clones were evaluated, two clones from each of three vigour (high, intermediate and low) classes. Discs were cut from the base of one ramet per replication for each clone to assess wood quality attributes. Radial tracheid width was significantly and positively correlated with ring width and height, and was negatively correlated with density. The wood of the most vigorous clone had significantly larger ring width with thinner cell walls and wider tracheids than all clones in the two other vigour classes, resulting in lower mean wood density. Latewood properties for all wood attributes measured differed significantly between the two sites. Wood property differences resulted primarily from variation in the proportions of early- and latewood in each annual ring. Additionally, the width of early- and latewood bands in each ring was found to be a more important determinant of juvenile wood quality than the characteristics of the cells within each band. Wood properties differed greatly between clones, suggesting that there is potential to improve juvenile wood properties through selective breeding.

  • Donnelly, UCD Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: liam.donnelly@ucdconnect.ie (email)
  • Lundqvist, Innventia Ab, Drottning Kristinas väg 61, SE-114 86 Stockholm, Sweden E-mail: svenolof.lundqvist@innventia.com
  • O’Reilly, UCD Forestry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland E-mail: conor.oreilly@ucd.ie
article id 6977, category Research article
Anett Schibalski, Aleksi Lehtonen, Thomas Hickler, Boris Schröder. (2017). Identifying important topics for model refinement in a widely used process-based model informed by correlative model analyses in a boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 6977. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.6977
Keywords: Finland; treeline; competition; LPJ-GUESS; statistical modelling; forest ecology
Highlights: Continental-scale model parameterization of widely used LPJ-GUESS experiences problems when applied on the regional level; Competition, disturbances and soil conditions are crucial for explaining treeline position in Finland, besides climatic limitation; Picea abies is overly dominant in LPJ-GUESS model, as key competitive mechanisms are not implemented in sufficient detail.
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Models attempting to predict treeline shifts in changing climates must include the relevant ecological processes in sufficient detail. A previous correlative model study has pointed to nutrients, competition, and temperature as the most important factors shaping the treelines of Pinus sylvestris L., Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. and Betula pubescens Ehrh. in Finnish Lapland. Here, we applied a widely used process-based dynamic vegetation model (LPJ-GUESS) to (i) test its capability to simulate observed spatial and temporal patterns of the main tree species in Finnish Lapland, and (ii) to explore the model representation of important processes in order to guide further model development. A European parameterization of LPJ-GUESS overestimated especially P. abies biomass and the species’ northern range limit. We identified implemented processes to adjust (competition, disturbance) and crucial processes in boreal forests to include (nutrient limitation, forest management) which account for the model’s failure to (edaphically) restrict P. abies in Finnish Lapland and the resulting species imbalance. Key competitive mechanisms are shade and drought tolerance, nutrient limitation, fire resistance, and susceptibility to disturbances (storm, herbivory) which we discussed with respect to boreal ecology and promising model developments to provide a starting point for future model development.

  • Schibalski, Institute of Geoecology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19c, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany E-mail: a.schibalski@tu-braunschweig.de (email)
  • Lehtonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: aleksi.lehtonen@luke.fi
  • Hickler, Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Department of Physical Geography, Goethe University, Altenhöferallee 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany E-mail: thomas.hickler@senckenberg.de
  • Schröder, Institute of Geoecology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19c, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany; Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research BBIB, Altensteinstr. 6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany E-mail: boris.schroeder@tu-bs.de
article id 5659, category Research article
Juha Laitila, Anssi Ahtikoski, Jaakko Repola, Johanna Routa. (2017). Pre-feasibility study of supply systems based on artificial drying of delimbed stem forest chips. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 5659. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.5659
Keywords: moisture content; heating value; procurement cost; young forests; dry matter loss
Highlights: With artificial drying and quick delivery, avoiding dry material losses of harvested timber, it could be possible to reduce the current costs of the prevailing procurement system based on natural drying of stored timber at roadside landings; The maximum cost for the prospective drying process of fresh chips corresponds to, e.g., organization costs or stumpage price of delimbed stems.
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This study was aimed at determining the maximum cost level of artificial drying required for cost-efficient operation. This was done using a system analysis approach, in which the harvesting potential and procurement cost of alternative fuel chip production systems were compared at the stand and regional level. The accumulation and procurement cost of chipped delimbed stems from young forests were estimated within a 100 km transport distance from a hypothetical end use facility located in northern Finland. Logging and transportation costs, stumpage prices, tied up capital, dry matter losses and moisture content of harvested timber were considered in the study. Moisture content of artificially dried fuel chips made of fresh timber (55%) was set to 20%, 30% and 40% in the comparisons. Moisture content of fuel chips based on natural drying during storing was 40%. Transporting costs were calculated according to new higher permissible dimensions and weight limits for truck-trailers. The procurement cost calculations indicated that with artificial drying and by avoiding dry material losses of timber, it could be possible to reduce current costs of the prevailing procurement system based on natural drying of timber at roadside landings. The maximum cost level of artificial drying ranged between 1.2–3.2 € MWh–1 depending on the supply chain, moisture content and procurement volume of fuel chips. This cost margin corresponds to, e.g., organization, forwarding and transportation costs or stumpage price of delimbed stems.

  • Laitila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.laitila@luke.fi (email)
  • Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Paavo Havaksen tie 3, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
  • Repola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@luke.fi
  • Routa, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johanna.routa@luke.fi
article id 1691, category Research article
Enéas Ricardo Konzen, Raquel Peron, Márcio Akira Ito, Gilvano Ebling Brondani, Siu Mui Tsai. (2017). Molecular identification of bamboo genera and species based on RAPD-RFLP markers. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 1691. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1691
Keywords: molecular markers; molecular screening; restriction enzymes; genetic divergence; Dendrocalamus; Bambusa
Highlights: We investigated the potential of RAPD-RFLP (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) in detecting genetic relationships among bamboo genera and species; RFLP profiles resolved in acrylamide gels revealed high number of markers, which accurately differentiated species and genera, based on cophenetic correlation coefficients; We recommend RAPD-RFLP for analyses of genetic diversity and divergence among bamboo genera, species and varieties.
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Bamboo species have a very significant ecological and economic impact. Determining morphological and genetic differences among bamboo genera and species are crucial to explore desirable traits for breeding purposes. Several advances have been made in the taxonomy of bamboos by using molecular fingerprinting tools and next generation sequencing technologies. Nevertheless, classical molecular markers such as RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA), AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) and ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats) also provide an accurate discrimination among genera and species. Moreover, the RAPD-RFLP (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) method, in which amplification products from RAPD are digested with restriction enzymes, is a reliable, fast and cost-effective method for fingerprinting. RAPD-RFLP has been scarcely used in the literature and no report regarding bamboo taxonomy is available with this method. Here we explored the molecular (RAPD, RAPD-RFLP) variation among genera (Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Guadua and Phyllostachys) and species of bamboo cultivated in Brazil. Both molecular markers allowed clear distinction among the genera studied. Moreover, high cophenetic correlation values in UPGMA clusters indicated their potential for discriminating bamboo species. The digestion of RAPD products (RFLP) resulted in high number of polymorphic bands and produced very characteristic profiles for each genus with three enzyme combinations (HindIII/HaeIII, HinfI/RsaI, and single digestion with MspI). We recommend RAPD-RFLP as a reproducible and informative method for screening differences among genera, species and varieties of bamboos. Providing a cost-effective and accurate method for species identification and characterization is straightforward for bamboo conservation, management and breeding.

  • Konzen, Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA), University of Sao Paulo (USP), Centenário Av., 303, Piracicaba, SP, P.O. Box 96, Brazil; Forest Sciences, Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Lavras, MG, P.O. Box 3037, Brazil E-mail: erkonzen@gmail.com (email)
  • Peron, Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA), University of Sao Paulo (USP), Centenário Av., 303, Piracicaba, SP, P.O. Box 96, Brazil E-mail: rperon@purdue.edu
  • Ito, Embrapa Western Agriculture, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), BR 163 Rd., km 253, Dourados, MS, P.O. Box 449, Brazil E-mail: marcio.ito@embrapa.br
  • Brondani, Forest Sciences, Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Lavras, MG, P.O. Box 3037, Brazil E-mail: gebrondani@gmail.com
  • Tsai, Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA), University of Sao Paulo (USP), Centenário Av., 303, Piracicaba, SP, P.O. Box 96, Brazil E-mail: tsai@cena.usp.br
article id 1683, category Research article
Karol Przeździecki, Jarosław Zawadzki, Chris Cieszewski, Pete Bettinger. (2017). Estimation of soil moisture across broad landscapes of Georgia and South Carolina using the triangle method applied to MODIS satellite imagery. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 4 article id 1683. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1683
Keywords: soil moisture; remotely sensed imagery; satellite observations of forests; triangle method; TVDI; MODIS
Highlights: Temperature vegetation dryness indices were calculated from MODIS satellite imagery to estimate subsurface soil moisture at different depths using the triangle method; Observations were carried out over the vast areas of Georgia and South Carolina, USA, covered with diverse land uses that, included dense forests and agricultural areas; The triangle method may be useful in forestry management applications where the productivity potential of a region and the hydrologic role of forests in that region are of concern.
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We describe here a study based on analysis of vegetation indices and land surface temperatures, which provides relevant information for estimating soil moisture at regional scales. Through an analysis of MODIS satellite imagery and in situ moisture data, the triangle method was used to develop a conceptual land surface temperature−vegetation index model, and spatial temperature-vegetation dryness index (TVDI) values to describe soil moisture relationships for a broad landscape. This study was situated mainly within two states of the southern United States (Georgia and South Carolina). The total study area was about 30 million hectares. The analyses were conducted using information gathered from the 2009 growing season (from the end of March to September). The results of the study showed that soil moisture content was inversely proportional to TVDI, and that TVDI based on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) had a slightly higher correlation with soil moisture than TVDI based on the enhanced vegetation index (EVI).

  • Przeździecki, Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Building Services, Hydro and Environmental Engineering, 00-653, Nowowiejska 20, Warszawa, Poland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2275-5223 E-mail: karol_przezdziecki@is.pw.edu.pl (email)
  • Zawadzki, Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Building Services, Hydro and Environmental Engineering, 00-653, Nowowiejska 20, Warszawa, Poland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2842-0018 E-mail: j.j.zawadzki@gmail.com
  • Cieszewski, University of Georgia, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 180 E Green St, Athens, GA 30602, USA ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2842-4406 E-mail: thebiomat@gmail.com
  • Bettinger, University of Georgia, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 180 E Green St, Athens, GA 30602, USA ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5454-3970 E-mail: pbettinger@warnell.uga.edu
article id 2017, category Research article
Pentti Niemistö, Soili Kojola, Anssi Ahtikoski, Raija Laiho. (2017). From useless thickets to valuable resource? – Financial performance of downy birch management on drained peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 3 article id 2017. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.2017
Keywords: forest management; Betula pubescens; thinning; energy wood; pulpwood; profitability; final cutting
Highlights: The most profitable management regimes for pulpwood and energy wood production in dense downy birch stands on drained peatlands include no thinnings, but final cutting at the stand age of 40–45 years as whole-tree harvesting, or as integrated harvesting of pulpwood and delimbed energy wood stems about 10 years later depending on applicable harvesting method; A competitive management regime is early precommercial thinning at 4 m dominant height to a density of 2500 stems per hectare and production of pulpwood with a rotation of 55–65 years. Equal profitability is achieved with or without traditional first thinning, which can thus be included for other reasons, for example to improve regeneration of spruce.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) stands on drained peatlands are often considered useless because they typically do not yield good-quality sawn timber. However, covering an area of ca. 0.5 million hectares and with total yields of up to 250 m3 ha–1, downy birch stands on peatlands in Finland have a potential for pulpwood and/or energy wood production. We examined the financial performance of alternative management regimes (with or without thinnings, different thinning intensities, several rotation lengths) combined with alternative harvesting methods (pulpwood, energy wood, or integrated, energy wood being delimbed stems or whole trees). We used data from 19 experimental stands, monitored for 20–30 years. For harvesting removals we considered both actual thinning removals and final-cutting removals with alternative timings that were based on the monitoring data. We assessed the profitability as a combination of the net present value of the birch generation and the bare land value of future generations of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). The most profitable management was growing without thinnings until whole-tree final cutting at the stand age of 40–45 years with an advanced multi-tree harvesting method. In contrast, the standard method in whole-tree final cutting resulted in the lowest profitability, and an integrated method with the energy wood as delimbed stems was the best of the standard methods. Thinnings were unprofitable especially when aiming to produce energy wood, whereas aiming for pulpwood, light precommercial thinning was competitive. Commercial thinning at the traditional “pulpwood stage” had little effect on profitability. The best stand age for final cutting was 40–65 years – earlier for very dense stands and whole-tree energy wood harvesting with advanced method, later for precommercially thinned stands and pulpwood harvesting.

  • Niemistö, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Kampusranta 9 C, 60320 Seinäjoki, Finland E-mail: pentti.niemisto@luke.fi (email)
  • Kojola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: soili.kojola@luke.fi
  • Ahtikoski, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Paavo Havaksentie 3, 90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: anssi.ahtikoski@luke.fi
  • Laiho, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: raija.laiho@luke.fi
article id 1741, category Research article
Seppo Nevalainen. (2017). Comparison of damage risks in even- and uneven-aged forestry in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 3 article id 1741. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1741
Keywords: forest damage; uneven-aged forestry; even-aged forestry
Highlights: Damage risks in two forest management regimes were estimated by means of a literature review and a questionnaire to Finnish forestry experts; Damage risks were usually estimated to be higher in even-aged than in uneven-aged management regimes; In some cases, however, damage risks may be higher in uneven-aged stands (root-rot infected Norway spruce stands and mechanical damage due to repeated thinnings).
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The literature on the most prominent forest damage related to even-aged and uneven-aged forest management regimes was reviewed. A questionnaire to expert researchers was conducted to estimate risks in even-aged and uneven-aged forest management chains in Finland. There are only a few empirical comparisons of damage risks in even- and uneven-aged stands in the literature. The results from the expert survey showed that the damage risks were higher in even-aged management in Norway spruce and Scots pine. However, the variation in the risks between individual chains and between individual causes was high. The highest risks in Scots pine were caused by moose (in even-aged chains) and harvesting damage (in uneven-aged chains). In Norway spruce, root rot caused the highest risks in both even-aged and uneven-aged chains. The higher risks in even-aged forestry are largely due to the many associated practices which favour various types of damage. However, there are some important exceptions: the damage risks may be higher in some uneven-aged stands, especially in Norway spruce stands infected with root rot where the utilization of undergrowth or natural regeneration can be risky. Moreover, the repeated thinnings in uneven-aged stands may lead to increased mechanical damage.

  • Nevalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Natural Resources and Bioproduction, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.nevalainen@luke.fi (email)
article id 2021, category Research article
Jonas Bohlin, Inka Bohlin, Jonas Jonzén, Mats Nilsson. (2017). Mapping forest attributes using data from stereophotogrammetry of aerial images and field data from the national forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 2 article id 2021. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.2021
Keywords: airborne laser scanning; National Forest Inventory; photogrammetry; aerial images; forest attribute estimation; image matching; large area
Highlights: Image based forest attribute map generated using NFI plots show similar accuracy as currently used LiDAR based forest attribute map; Also similar accuracies were found for different forest types; Aerial images from leaf-off season is not recommended.
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Exploring the possibility to produce nation-wide forest attribute maps using stereophotogrammetry of aerial images, the national terrain model and data from the National Forest Inventory (NFI). The study areas are four image acquisition blocks in mid- and south Sweden. Regression models were developed and applied to 12.5 m × 12.5 m raster cells for each block and validation was done with an independent dataset of forest stands. Model performance was compared for eight different forest types separately and the accuracies between forest types clearly differs for both image- and LiDAR methods, but between methods the difference in accuracy is small at plot level. At stand level, the root mean square error in percent of the mean (RMSE%) were ranging: from 7.7% to 10.5% for mean height; from 12.0% to 17.8% for mean diameter; from 21.8% to 22.8% for stem volume; and from 17.7% to 21.1% for basal area. This study clearly shows that aerial images from the national image program together with field sample plots from the NFI can be used for large area forest attribute mapping.

  • Bohlin, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 35 Umeå, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3318-5967 E-mail: jonas.bohlin@slu.se (email)
  • Bohlin, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 35 Umeå, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1224-6684 E-mail: inka.bohlin@slu.se
  • Jonzén, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 35 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jonas.jonzen@slu.se
  • Nilsson, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 35 Umeå, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7394-6305 E-mail: mats.nilsson@slu.se
article id 1693, category Research article
Olalla Díaz-Yáñez, Blas Mola-Yudego, José Ramón González-Olabarria. (2017). What variables make a forest stand vulnerable to browsing damage occurrence? Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 2 article id 1693. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1693
Keywords: moose; forest damage; cervid; machine learning; risk modelling; ungulates
Highlights: Stands more vulnerable to browsing damage are young with lower densities and dominated by birch, pine or mixed species; Stand size could play a role on forest susceptibility to browsing occurrence.
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Ungulate browsing results in important damages on the forests, affecting their structure, composition and development. In the present paper, we examine the occurrence of browsing damage in Norwegian forests, using data provided by the National Forest Inventory along several consecutive measurements (entailing the period 1995–2014). A portfolio of variables describing the stand, site and silvicultural treatments are analyzed using classification trees to retrieve combinations related to browsing damage. Our results indicate that the most vulnerable forest stands are young with densities below 1400 trees ha–1 and dominated by birch, pine or mixed species. In addition, stand diversity and previous treatments (e.g. thinnings) increase the damage occurrence and other variables, like stand size, could play a role on forest susceptibility to browsing occurrence although the latter is based on weaker evidence. The methods and results of our study can be applied to implement management measures aiming at reducing the browsing damages of forests.

  • Díaz-Yáñez, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3829-5759 E-mail: olalla.diaz@gmail.com (email)
  • Mola-Yudego, Norwegian Institute of Bioenergy Research, P.O. Box, 115, 1431 Ås, Norway; School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0286-0170 E-mail: blas.mola@uef.fi
  • González-Olabarria, Forest Sciences Centre of Catalonia (CTFC-CEMFOR), Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys, km 2, 25280 Solsona, Spain ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5040-712X E-mail: jr.gonzalez@ctfc.es
article id 1657, category Research article
Razvan Vasile Campu, Arcadie Ciubotaru. (2017). Time consumption and productivity in manual tree felling with a chainsaw – a case study of resinous stands from mountainous areas. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 2 article id 1657. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1657
Keywords: time study; Husqvarna; work time structure; harvesting systems; resinous temperate forest
Highlights: An important preoccupation in sustainable logging management is represented by the analysis of work time structure and productivity level in manual tree felling with a chainsaw; Sound knowledge of the factors which influence work time allows better planning of harvesting operations so that deadlines could be met and damage to forest ecosystems be minimized.
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The purpose of this research is to establish time consumption and productivity when using Husqvarna 365 chainsaw for resinous tree felling in mountainous regions. The research was conducted in the Romanian Southern Carpathians, in two mixed spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and fir (Abies alba Mill.) tree stands (S1 and S2). Only one team of workers, made up of a feller and an assistant, was used in the felling operation. This was divided into nine specific stages for which work times were measured. Work time structure used here includes WP – workplace time (PW – productive work time; SW – supportive work time, NT – non-work time) and NW – non-workplace time. The results indicated a productivity of 10.138 m3 h–1 (4.55 tree h–1) in S1 and of 11.374 m3 h–1 (4.33 tree h–1) in S2. Work time structure was WP 88.61% (PW 19.59%; SW 33.88%; NT 35.14%) and NW 11.39% in S1 and WP 83.77% (PW 17.66%; SW 30.73%; NT 35.38%) and NW 16.23% in S2. The results obtained showed that the power function best describes the relationship between productivity expressed by tree h–1 and breast height diameter (dbh) (R2 = 0.89 in S1 and R2 = 0.94 in S2). When productivity is expressed by m3 h–1 the results obtained in the case of power, exponential and linear functions are comparable (R2 = 0.65 to 0.67 in S1 and R2 = 0.81 to 0.92 in S2). Productivity is also influenced by stump diameter and the distance between trees. Their influence on productivity was emphasized by linear regression equations.

  • Campu, Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Department of Forest Engineering, Forest Management Planning and Terrestrial Measurements, Şirul Beethoven no. 1, 500123, Braşov, Romania E-mail: vasile.campu@unitbv.ro (email)
  • Ciubotaru, Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Department of Forest Engineering, Forest Management Planning and Terrestrial Measurements, Şirul Beethoven no. 1, 500123, Braşov, Romania E-mail: ciuboarc@unitbv.ro
article id 1618, category Research article
Miguel Genin, Mohamed Alifriqui, Abdessamad Fakhech, Mohamed Hafidi, Lahcen Ouahmane, Didier Genin. (2017). Back to forests in pre-Saharan Morocco? When prickly pear cultivation and traditional agropastoralism reduction promote argan tree regeneration. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1B article id 1618. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1618
Keywords: arid zones; Argania spinosa; agroforestry parklands; desertification; facilitation factors; land use changes; Opuntia ficus-indica
Highlights: There was a significant positive relationship between the age of implanted prickly pear orchards and natural argan tree regeneration; This relationship is mainly associated with interconnected changes in traditional land uses and the activation of facilitation factors such as an enhancement of the soil’s organic matter and nurse plant phenomena; This example constitutes a remarkable alternative model for thinking about agricultural development while combating desertification.
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In the southwestern pre-Saharan arid zone of Morocco, the endemic argan forest (Argania spinosa) had been almost completely destroyed in the 1960s due to intensive coal mining and mixed cereal-livestock farming. These activities turned out to be unviable and a massive rural exodus occurred in the 1970s. Local populations started to develop maintenance-free prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) cultivation at large scale in order to keep their land ownership rights, while reducing their traditional agropastoral activity. We conducted a survey in order to characterize the relationships between the age of prickly pear orchards and argan tree regeneration. We also explored facilitating factors, such as soil organic matter and mycorrhiza. Results showed a high positive correlation (r2 = 0.75, p < 0.001) between the age of prickly pear orchards and argan tree resprouts, but with differences depending on a continentality gradient. The soil organic matter content also showed highly significant differences (p < 0.001) depending on the age of the prickly pear plantation, while spora density did not show such differences. The recent high economic value attributed to prickly pear fruits, and to both argan and prickly pear seed oil, has given farmers the opportunity to develop a lucrative agricultural activity, while promoting the recovery of native vegetation. This situation constitutes a remarkable example of speculative agricultural development in a very harsh environment, in phase with ecological priorities for combating desertification. It could represent an alternative to the externally-generated projects sustained by high levels of public funding, with ecological, economic and social impacts which are sometimes questionable.

  • Genin, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) & Aix-Marseille Université, Laboratoire Population, Environnement, Développement, UMR151 AMU-IRD, Marseille, France E-mail: miguel.genin@gmail.com
  • Alifriqui, Cadi Ayyad University (UCAM), Laboratoire d’Ecologie et Environnement (CNRST, URAC 32), Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Marrakech, Morocco E-mail: alifriqui@gmail.com
  • Fakhech, Cadi Ayyad University (UCAM), Laboratoire d’Ecologie et Environnement (CNRST, URAC 32), Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Marrakech, Morocco E-mail: abdessamad.fakhech@edu.uca.ac.ma
  • Hafidi, Cadi Ayyad University (UCAM), Laboratoire d’Ecologie et Environnement (CNRST, URAC 32), Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Marrakech, Morocco E-mail: hafidi.ucam@gmail.com
  • Ouahmane, Cadi Ayyad University (UCAM), Laboratoire d’Ecologie et Environnement (CNRST, URAC 32), Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Marrakech, Morocco E-mail: l.ouahmane@gmail.com
  • Genin, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) & Aix-Marseille Université, Laboratoire Population, Environnement, Développement, UMR151 AMU-IRD, Marseille, France E-mail: didier.genin@univ-amu.fr (email)
article id 1778, category Research article
Adriano Mazziotta, Dmitry Podkopaev, María Triviño, Kaisa Miettinen, Tähti Pohjanmies, Mikko Mönkkönen. (2017). Quantifying and resolving conservation conflicts in forest landscapes via multiobjective optimization. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 1778. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1778
Keywords: biodiversity; ecosystem management; forestry; decision support tools; environmental conflicts; land-use planning; systematic conservation planning
Highlights: We introduce a compatibility index quantifying how targeting a management objective in the forest landscape affects another objective; To resolve conflicts we find compromise solutions minimizing the maximum deterioration among objectives; We apply our approach for a case study of forest management for biodiversity conservation and development; Multiple use management and careful planning can reduce biodiversity conflicts in forest ecosystems.
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Environmental planning for of the maintenance of different conservation objectives should take into account multiple contrasting criteria based on alternative uses of the landscape. We develop new concepts and approaches to describe and measure conflicts among conservation objectives and for resolving them via multiobjective optimization. To measure conflicts we introduce a compatibility index that quantifies how much targeting a certain conservation objective affects the capacity of the landscape for providing another objective. To resolve such conflicts we find compromise solutions defined in terms of minimax regret, i.e. minimizing the maximum percentage of deterioration among conservation objectives. Finally, we apply our approach for a case study of management for biodiversity conservation and development in a forest landscape. We study conflicts between six different forest species, and we identify management solutions for simultaneously maintaining multiple species’ habitat while obtaining timber harvest revenues. We employ the method for resolving conflicts at a large landscape level across a long 50-years forest planning horizon. Our multiobjective approach can be an instrument for guiding hard choices in the conservation-development nexus with a perspective of developing decision support tools for land use planning. In our case study multiple use management and careful landscape level planning using our approach can reduce conflicts among biodiversity objectives and offer room for synergies in forest ecosystems.

  • Mazziotta, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Center for Macroecology Evolution and Climate, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Kräftriket 2b, 11429 Stockholm, Sweden ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2088-3798 E-mail: a_mazziotta@hotmail.com (email)
  • Podkopaev, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Newelska 6, 01-447 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: dmitry.podkopaev@ibspan.waw.pl
  • Triviño, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: maria.trivino@jyu.fi
  • Miettinen, University of Jyväskylä, Faculty of Information Technology, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: kaisa.miettinen@jyu.fi
  • Pohjanmies, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: tahti.t.pohjanmies@jyu.fi
  • Mönkkönen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: mikko.monkkonen@jyu.fi
article id 1718, category Research article
Mihails Čugunovs, Eeva-Stiina Tuittila, Lauri Mehtätalo, Laura Pekkola, Ida Sara-Aho, Jari Kouki. (2017). Variability and patterns in forest soil and vegetation characteristics after prescribed burning in clear-cuts and restoration burnings. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 1718. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1718
Keywords: disturbance; restoration; sampling; spatial variability; prescribed fire; SOM stocks
Highlights: Soil parameter variability is similar across sites of different disturbance type; Variability of understory vegetation biomass and cover is higher and more different between sites than soil variability; Sites studied here reflect well the assumed disturbance-type gradient based on PCA; Sampling six forest sites per treatment should provide good statistical power to capture the differences in soil organic matter stocks.
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Forest ecological restoration by burning is widely applied to promote natural, early-successional sites and increase landscape biodiversity. Burning is also used as a forest management practice to facilitate forest regeneration after clearcutting. Besides the desired goals, restoration burnings also affect soil biogeochemistry, particularly soil organic matter (SOM) and related soil carbon stocks but the long-term effects are poorly understood. However, in order to study these effects, a reliable estimate of spatial variability is first needed for effective sampling. Here we investigate spatial variability of SOM and vegetation features 13 years after burnings and in combination with variable harvest levels. We sampled four experimental sites representing distinct management and restoration treatments with an undisturbed control. While variability of vegetation cover and biomass was generally higher in disturbed sites, soil parameter variability was not different between the four sites. The joint ecological patterns of soil and vegetation parameters across the whole sample continuum support well the prior assumptions on the characteristic disturbance conditions within each of the study sites. We designed and employed statistical simulations as a means to plan prospective sampling. Sampling six forest sites for each treatment type with 30 independent soil cores per site would provide enough statistical power to adequately capture the impacts of burning on SOM based on the data we obtained here and statistical simulations. In conclusion, we argue that an informed design-based approach to documenting the ecosystem effects of forest burnings is worth applying both through obtaining new data and meta-analysing the existing.

  • Čugunovs, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mihails.cugunovs@uef.fi (email)
  • Tuittila, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8861-3167 E-mail: eeva-stiina.tuittila@uef.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Computing, Science Park, Länsikatu 15, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8128-0598 E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@uef.fi
  • Pekkola, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: laura.pekkola@gmail.com
  • Sara-Aho, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ida.sara-aho@mhy.fi
  • Kouki, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2624-8592 E-mail: jari.kouki@uef.fi
article id 1709, category Research article
Guoping Chen, Cong Shi, Shanshan Cheng, Tiejian Zhao, Guoquan Liu, Fuchen Shi. (2017). The structure and soil characteristics of a Pinus tabuliformis planted forest after 60 years of natural development in North China. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 1709. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1709
Keywords: species diversity; Chinese pine; plantation forest; mixed species stands; soil chemical properties; soil microbial community
Highlights: Increasing proportions of broadleaf tree species was shown to affect nutrient content of the forest floor and soil, and the soil microbial community in the process of natural development of Pinus tabuliformis planted forest. In this regard, this study can act as a reference for management of the near-natural transformation of P. tabuliformis planted forests and for the choice of the tree species used.
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This study evaluated the transformation of a Pinus tabuliformis Carrière forest into a near-natural forest after 60 years of natural development. The structure and soil characteristics of P. tabuliformis planted forest, the near-natural forest (coniferous-broadleaved P. tabuliformis mixed forest), and secondary forest (Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. forest) were compared. Tree, shrub and herb species diversity of the mixed and Q. mongolica forests was higher than that of the planted P. tabuliformis forest. Examination of soil characteristics revealed that compared to the pure pine forest, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations of the mixed and Q. mongolica forests increased in the forest floor and soil, but total carbon (C) concentration decreased in the forest floor, countered by increases in the soil. Furthermore, soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) and pH in the P. tabuliformis forest increased when deciduous broadleaved species were present. Total microbial biomass and bacterial biomass in the soils were greatest in the Q. mongolica forest, followed by the mixed, and then the P. tabuliformis forests. However, fungal biomass did not significantly differ among the three forests. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that different forest types can affect soil microbial biomass and community structure. Meanwhile, the natural development is recommended as a potential management alternative to near-natural transformation of a P. tabuliformis planted forest.

  • Chen, Department of Plant Biology & Ecology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Weijin Road 94, Tianjin 300071, P.R. China E-mail: guopingchern@mail.nankai.edu.cn
  • Shi, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8689, Japan E-mail: cshi1@for.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
  • Cheng, School of Environment and Energy, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen 518055, China E-mail: 1401213932@sz.pku.edu.cn
  • Zhao, Baxian Mountain National Nature Reserve, Tianjin 301900, China Received 29 September 2016 Revised E-mail: zhaotiejiann456@sina.com
  • Liu, Baxian Mountain National Nature Reserve, Tianjin 301900, China Received 29 September 2016 Revised E-mail: liuguoquan01@163.com
  • Shi, Department of Plant Biology & Ecology, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Weijin Road 94, Tianjin 300071, P.R. China E-mail: fcshi@nankai.edu.cn (email)
article id 1684, category Research article
Anna Kowalska, Jan Marek Matuszkiewicz, Jerzy Solon, Anna Kozłowska. (2017). Indicators of ancient forests in nutrient-deficient pine habitats. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1 article id 1684. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1684
Keywords: forest continuity; central Poland; life-history traits; mixed oak-pine forests; phi coefficient; pine forests
Highlights: Distinct groups of species with a preference for ancient pine and mixed oak-pine forests can be determined; The ancient forest indicator composition in pine habitats differs remarkably from ancient forest indicators in deciduous forests; Dispersal-related traits significantly distinguish ancient forest indicators from other species found in nutrient-poor forest habitats.
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Pine forests are common in many European regions. Nonetheless, there are only a few studies on regeneration of plant species populations in nutrient-deficient pine habitats. Ancient temperate forests are perceived to be particularly important objects of environmental conservation, due to their ability to sustain a considerable number of rare and vulnerable species. In this paper, we present indicator species of ancient pine and mixed oak-pine forests, together with their trait profiles. Phytosociological relevés were collected from mature stands in the Masuria and Kurpie regions of central Poland. Forest persistence was determined on the basis of historical maps, with the data set divided into three categories. The indicator value of species was evaluated using Tichý and Chytrý’s phi coefficient. Functional response traits of indicator species were identified. Distinct groups of species with a preference for ancient forests can be determined. The dispersal-related traits significantly distinguish ancient forest indicators from other species found in nutrient-poor forest habitats. Since the low potential for long-distance dispersal hinders the establishment of new plant populations in isolated stands, we stress the need to avoid ancient forest clearance and fragmentation of woodland; afforestation should be located in the vicinity of ancient stands. Moreover, as recent forests have turned out to support several rare plant species, to maintain phytodiversity on a landscape level a mixture of ancient and recent forests, both managed and strictly protected, is needed.

  • Kowalska, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of Science, Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: aniak@twarda.pan.pl (email)
  • Matuszkiewicz, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of Science, Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: jan.mat@twarda.pan.pl
  • Solon, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of Science, Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: j.solon@twarda.pan.pl
  • Kozłowska, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of Science, Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: a.kozl@twarda.pan.pl
article id 1672, category Research article
Maiju Peura, María Triviño, Adriano Mazziotta, Dmitry Podkopaev, Artti Juutinen, Mikko Mönkkönen. (2016). Managing boreal forests for the simultaneous production of collectable goods and timber revenues. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 5 article id 1672. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1672
Keywords: forest management; multifunctional forestry; mushroom; trade-offs; wildberry
Highlights: We found a strong conflict between bilberry production and timber revenues, resulting in large losses of timber revenues when increasing bilberry production; The conflicts between other collectables (cowberry, cep) and timber production were relatively small; With careful forest planning, there is potential to simultaneously produce high levels of collectable goods and timber revenues in the landscape.
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Timber production is an economically important provisioning ecosystem service in forests, but is often in conflict with the provision of other ecosystem services. In multifunctional forestry, the production of timber and non-timber ecosystem services should coexist in the same landscape. To this end, we explored the capacity of a boreal landscape to simultaneously produce collectable goods bilberry (Vaccimium myrtillus L.), cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) and cep (Boletus edulis Bull.) alongside timber revenues. We also identified optimal forest management plans to achieve this. Furthermore, we analyzed trade-offs between collectable good yields and timber production, as well as between their economic values. We ran forest growth simulations under seven alternative management regimes at a landscape level across 50-year planning horizons. Then, we used multi-objective optimization to explore trade-offs and identify optimal forest management plans. The results showed that the strongest trade-off was between bilberry and timber production, resulting in a large loss in timber revenues for a gain in bilberry production. However, the conflicts between other collectables and timber production were relatively small: it was possible to increase the provision of collectable goods 4–15% with small reductions (35%) from timber revenues. With careful forest planning, there is the potential to simultaneously produce high levels of collectable goods and timber revenues in the landscape.

  • Peura, University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: maiju.h.peura@jyu.fi (email)
  • Triviño, University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: maria.trivino@jyu.fi
  • Mazziotta, University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark E-mail: adriano.mazziotta@snm.ku.dk
  • Podkopaev, University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Newelska 6, 01-447 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: dmitry.podkopaev@gmail.com
  • Juutinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and Society, P.O. Box 413, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland; University of Oulu, Department of Economics, P.O. Box 4600, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: artti.juutinen@luke.fi
  • Mönkkönen, University of Jyvaskyla, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: mikko.monkkonen@jyu.fi
article id 1615, category Research article
Minna Blomqvist, Päivi Lyytikäinen-Saarenmaa, Tuula Kantola, Maiju Kosunen, Mervi Talvitie, Markus Holopainen. (2016). Impacts of natural enemies and stand characteristics on cocoon mortality of the pine sawfly Diprion pini in a Fennoscandian boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 5 article id 1615. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1615
Keywords: needle loss; Diprionidae; population dynamics; forest floor vegetation; parasitism; predation
Highlights: Annual cocoon mortality caused by natural enemies varied between 66% and 80% during the six-year study period, most of it caused by the family Ichneumonidae; Basal area, and coverage of lichen (Lichenes) and lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) best explained cocoon parasitism and predation; Combination of suitable stand characteristics, abiotic environmental factors, and incomplete control by natural enemies enabled pest species to extend its gradation phase.
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We investigated the impact of natural enemies on the cocoon mortality of the common pine sawfly (Diprion pini L.) during a six-year period in eastern Finland. The enemies were classified into parasitoids (insect families Chalcidoidea, Ichneumonidae, and Tachinidae), and predators (birds, small mammals, and insect families Elateridae and Carabidae). The appearance of D. pini was estimated as the intensity of annual defoliation. The impact of stand characteristics on the performance of parasitoids and predators was also investigated. Influence of the natural enemy complex on cocoon mortality of D. pini was nearly stable, but defoliation intensity slowly declined towards the end of the study period. Annual cocoon mortality by natural enemies varied between 66% and 80%. Our results verified that the most significant mortality factors were ichneumonid parasitoids and small mammals. Random Forest classification indicated that stand characteristics, such as basal area, and coverage of lichen (Lichenes) and lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) affected the performance of parasites and predators. We suggest that a combination of optimal stand characteristics, abiotic environmental factors and mild to moderate control by natural enemies acted as drivers, which drove the pine sawfly population to extended gradation. For future forest health management, detailed information on abiotic and biotic regulating factors, along with long-term monitoring campaigns for conifer sawflies are needed to adapt Fennoscandian forests to altered climatic and silvicultural conditions.

  • Blomqvist, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2328-8839 E-mail: minna.blomqvist@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Lyytikäinen-Saarenmaa, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: paivi.lyytikainen-saarenmaa@helsinki.fi
  • Kantola, Knowledge Engineering Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA E-mail: tuula.kantola@helsinki.fi
  • Kosunen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: maiju.kosunen@helsinki.fi
  • Talvitie, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mervi.talvitie@dnainternet.net
  • Holopainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markus.holopainen@helsinki.fi
article id 1628, category Research article
Jürgen Aosaar, Ülo Mander, Mats Varik, Hardo Becker, Gunnar Morozov, Martin Maddison, Veiko Uri. (2016). Biomass production and nitrogen balance of naturally afforested silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) stand in Estonia. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 4 article id 1628. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1628
Keywords: aboveground biomass; birch; afforestation; soil carbon; land use change; agricultural land; nitrogen budget
Highlights: Leafless aboveground biomass of the 17-year-old natural silver birch stand growing in abandoned agricultural land reached 94 Mg ha–1; The largest fluxes in N budget were net nitrogen mineralization and gaseous N2-N emission; Nitrogen leaching was low; Soil N content increased with the stand age, soil C content remained stable; N2O and N2 fluxes in boreal deciduous forest were analysed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) is one of the main pioneer tree species occupying large areas of abandoned agricultural lands under natural succession in Estonia. We estimated aboveground biomass (AGB) dynamics during 17 growing seasons, and analysed soil nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) dynamics for 10 year period in a silver birch stand growing on former arable land. Main N fluxes were estimated and nitrogen budget for 10-year-old stand was compiled. The leafless AGB and stem mass of the stand at the age of 17-years were 94 and 76 Mg ha–1 respectively. The current annual increment (CAI) of stemwood fluctuated, peaking at 10 Mg ha–1 yr–1 at the age of 15 years; the mean annual increment (MAI) fluctuated at around 4–5 Mg ha–1. The annual leaf mass of the stand stabilised at around 3 Mg ha–1 yr–1. The stand density decreased from 11600 to 2700 trees ha–1 in the 8- and 17-year-old stand, respectively. The largest fluxes in N budget were net nitrogen mineralization and gaseous N2-N emission. The estimated fluxes of N2O and N2 were 0.12 and 83 kg ha–1 yr–1, respectively; N leaching was negligible. Nitrogen retranslocation from senescing leaves was approximately 45 kg ha–1, N was mainly retranslocated into stembark. The N content in the upper 0–10 cm soil layer increased significantly (145 kg ha–1) from 2004 to 2014; soil C content remained stable. Both the woody biomass dynamics and the N cycling of the stand witness the potential for bioenergetics of such ecosystems.

  • Aosaar, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jyrgen.aosaar@emu.ee (email)
  • Mander, University of Tartu, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: ulo.mander@ut.ee
  • Varik, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: mats.varik@emu.ee
  • Becker, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: hardo.becker@emu.ee
  • Morozov, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: gunnar.morozov@emu.ee
  • Maddison, University of Tartu, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, Ülikooli 18, 50090 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: martin.maddison@ut.ee
  • Uri, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: veiko.uri@emu.ee
article id 1567, category Research article
Eetu Kotivuori, Lauri Korhonen, Petteri Packalen. (2016). Nationwide airborne laser scanning based models for volume, biomass and dominant height in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 4 article id 1567. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1567
Keywords: forest inventory; LIDAR; regression analysis; remote sensing; calibration; area-based approach; mixed-effect models
Highlights: Pooled data from nine inventory projects in Finland were used to create nationwide laser-based regression models for dominant height, volume and biomass; Volume and biomass models provided regionally different means than real means, but for dominant height the mean difference was small; The accuracy of general volume predictions was nevertheless comparable to relascope-based field inventory by compartments.
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The aim of this study was to examine how well stem volume, above-ground biomass and dominant height can be predicted using nationwide airborne laser scanning (ALS) based regression models. The study material consisted of nine practical ALS inventory projects taken from different parts of Finland. We used field sample plots and airborne laser scanning data to create nationwide and regional models for each response variable. The final models had one or two ALS predictors, which were chosen based on the root mean square error (RMSE), and cross-validated. Finally, we tested how much predictions would improve if the nationwide models were calibrated with a small number of regional sample plots. Although forest structures differ among different parts of Finland, the nationwide volume and biomass models performed quite well (leave-inventory-area-out RMSE 22.3% to 33.8%, mean difference [MD] –13.8% to 18.7%) compared with regional models (leave-plot-out RMSE 20.2% to 26.8%). However, the nationwide dominant height model (RMSE 5.4% to 7.7%, MD –2.0% to 2.8%, with the exception of the Tornio region – RMSE 11.4%, MD –9.1%) performed nearly as well as the regional models (RMSE 5.2% to 6.7%). The results show that the nationwide volume and biomass models provided different means than real means at regional level, because forest structure and ALS device have a considerable effect on the predictions. Large MDs appeared especially in northern Finland. Local calibration decreased the MD and RMSE of volume and biomass models. However, the nationwide dominant height model did not benefit much from calibration.

  • Kotivuori, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eetu.kotivuori@uef.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi
  • Packalen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: petteri.packalen@uef.fi
article id 1568, category Research article
Jouni Siipilehto, Harri Lindeman, Mikko Vastaranta, Xiaowei Yu, Jori Uusitalo. (2016). Reliability of the predicted stand structure for clear-cut stands using optional methods: airborne laser scanning-based methods, smartphone-based forest inventory application Trestima and pre-harvest measurement tool EMO. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1568. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1568
Keywords: forest inventory; diameter distribution; Weibull; area-based approach; parameter recovery; k-NN estimation
Highlights: An airborne laser scanning grid-based approach for determining stand structure enabled bi- or multimodal predicted distributions that fitted well to the ground-truth harvester data; EMO and Trestima applications needed stand-specific inventory for sample measurements or sample photos, respectively, and at their best, provided superior accuracy for predicting certain stand characteristics.
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Accurate timber assortment information is required before cuttings to optimize wood allocation and logging activities. Timber assortments can be derived from diameter-height distribution that is most often predicted from the stand characteristics provided by forest inventory. The aim of this study was to assess and compare the accuracy of three different pre-harvest inventory methods in predicting the structure of mainly Scots pine-dominated, clear-cut stands. The investigated methods were an area-based approach (ABA) based on airborne laser scanning data, the smartphone-based forest inventory Trestima app and the more conventional pre-harvest inventory method called EMO. The estimates of diameter-height distributions based on each method were compared to accurate tree taper data measured and registered by the harvester’s measurement systems during the final cut. According to our results, grid-level ABA and Trestima were generally the most accurate methods for predicting diameter-height distribution. ABA provides predictions for systematic 16 m × 16 m grids from which stand-wise characteristics are aggregated. In order to enable multimodal stand-wise distributions, distributions must be predicted for each grid cell and then aggregated for the stand level, instead of predicting a distribution from the aggregated stand-level characteristics. Trestima required a sufficient sample for reliable results. EMO provided accurate results for the dominating Scots pine but, it could not capture minor admixtures. ABA seemed rather trustworthy in predicting stand characteristics and diameter distribution of standing trees prior to harvesting. Therefore, if up-to-date ABA information is available, only limited benefits can be obtained from stand-specific inventory using Trestima or EMO in mature pine or spruce-dominated forests.

  • Siipilehto, Natural Research Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jouni.siipilehto@luke.fi (email)
  • Lindeman,  Natural Research Institute Finland, Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, 39700 Parkano E-mail: harri.lindeman@luke.fi
  • Vastaranta, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 62 (Viikinkaari 11), FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: mikko.vastaranta@helsinki.fi
  • Yu, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute (FGI), Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, National Land Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 15 (Geodeetinrinne 2), FI-02431, Masala, Finland E-mail: xiaowei.yu@maanmittauslaitos.fi
  • Uusitalo,  Natural Research Institute Finland, Green Technology, Kaironiementie 15, 39700 Parkano E-mail: jori.uusitalo@luke.fi
article id 1562, category Research article
Mats Erik Berlin, Torgny Persson, Gunnar Jansson, Matti Haapanen, Seppo Ruotsalainen, Lars Bärring, Bengt Andersson Gull. (2016). Scots pine transfer effect models for growth and survival in Sweden and Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1562. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1562
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; adaptation; tree breeding; reaction patterns; forest regeneration material
Highlights: Scots pine transfer effect models for growth and survival, valid in both Sweden and Finland have been developed; The models use high-resolution gridded climate data and can predict performance in future climatic conditions; The models perform well both for unimproved and genetically improved material and can be used to develop deployment recommendations of contemporary forest regeneration material in Sweden and Finland.
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In this study, we developed models of transfer effects for growth and survival of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Sweden and Finland using a general linear mixed-model approach. For model development, we used 378 provenance and progeny trials with a total of 276 unimproved genetic entries (provenances and stand seed check-lots) distributed over a wide variety of climatic conditions in both countries. In addition, we used 119 progeny trials with 3921 selected genetic entries (open- and control pollinated plus-tree families) for testing model performance. As explanatory variables, both climatic indices derived from high-resolution gridded climate datasets and geographical variables were used. For transfer, latitude (photoperiod) and, for describing the site, temperature sum were found to be main drivers for both survival and growth. In addition, interaction terms (between transfer in latitude and site altitude for survival, and transfer in latitude and temperature sum for growth) entail changed reaction patterns of the models depending on climatic conditions of the growing site. The new models behave in a way that corresponds well to previous studies and recommendations for both countries. The model performance was tested using selected plus-trees from open and control pollinated progeny tests. Results imply that the models are valid for both countries and perform well also for genetically improved material. These models are the first step in developing common deployment recommendations for genetically improved forest regeneration material in both Sweden and Finland.

  • Berlin, Uppsala Science Park, SE-75183 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mats.berlin@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Persson, Skogforsk, Box 3, SE-91821 Sävar, Sweden E-mail: torgny.persson@skogforsk.se
  • Jansson, Uppsala Science Park, SE-75183 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: gunnar.jansson@skogforsk.se
  • Haapanen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: matti.haapanen@luke.fi
  • Ruotsalainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Green Technology, Finlandiantie 18, FI-58450 Punkaharju, Finland E-mail: seppo.ruotsalainen@luke.fi
  • Bärring, Rossby Centre, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Folkborgsvägen 17, SE-60176 Norrköping, Sweden E-mail: lars.barring@smhi.se
  • Andersson Gull, Skogforsk, Box 3, SE-91821 Sävar, Sweden E-mail: bengt.andersson@skogforsk.se
article id 1492, category Research article
Li-Bin Liu, Yang-Yang Wu, Gang Hu, Zhong-Hua Zhang, An-Yun Cheng, Shi-Jie Wang, Jian Ni. (2016). Biomass of karst evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest in central Guizhou province, southwestern China: a comprehensive inventory of a 2 ha plot. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1492
Keywords: biomass; secondary forest; necromass; karst terrain; carbon inventory
Highlights: Comprehensive inventory of the karst secondary forest based on a 2 ha large plot enhanced the reliability of biomass estimates; The biomass was 158.1 Mg ha−1, and the five dominant tree species accounted for 92.4% of aboveground tree biomass; The estimated necromass of woody debris and litter in the karst secondary forest was 17.6 Mg ha−1.
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The biomass of a secondary evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest was comprehensively inventoried in a permanent 2 ha plot in southwestern China. Biomass models, sub-sampling, soil pit method, and published data were utilized to determine the biomass of all components. Results showed that the total biomass of the forest was 158.1 Mg ha−1; the total biomass included the major aboveground (137.7 Mg ha−1) and belowground (20.3 Mg ha−1) biomass components of vascular plants as well as the minor biomass components of bryophytes (0.078 Mg ha−1) and lichens (0.043 Mg ha−1). The necromass was 17.6 Mg ha−1 and included woody debris (9.0 Mg ha−1) and litter (8.6 Mg ha−1). The spatial pattern of the aboveground biomass was determined by the spatial distribution of dominant trees with large diameter, tall height, and dense wood. The belowground biomass differed in terms of root diameter and decreased with increasing soil depth. The belowground biomass in each soil pit in local habitats was not related to the spatial distribution of woody plants and soil pit depth. The karst forest presented lower biomass compared than the nonkarst forests in the subtropical zone. Biomass carbon in the karst terrains would increase substantially if degraded karst vegetation could be successfully restored to the forest. Comprehensive site-based biomass inventory of karst vegetation will contribute not only to provide data for benchmarking global and regional vegetation and carbon models but also for regional carbon inventory and vegetation restoration.

  • Liu, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincheng West Road 99, 550081 Guiyang, China; Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 562100 Puding, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China E-mail: liulibin@mail.gyig.ac.cn
  • Wu, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincheng West Road 99, 550081 Guiyang, China; Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 562100 Puding, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China E-mail: wuyang2468@hotmail.com
  • Hu, School of Chemistry and Life Science, Guangxi Teachers Education University, 530001 Nanning, China; Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Environment Change and Resources Utilization of Ministry of Education, Guangxi Teachers Education University, 530001 Nanning, China E-mail: ahhugang@gmail.com
  • Zhang, School of Chemistry and Life Science, Guangxi Teachers Education University, 530001 Nanning, China; Key Laboratory of Beibu Gulf Environment Change and Resources Utilization of Ministry of Education, Guangxi Teachers Education University, 530001 Nanning, China E-mail: gxtczzh@gmail.com
  • Cheng, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincheng West Road 99, 550081 Guiyang, China; Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 562100 Puding, China E-mail: chenganyun@vip.skleg.cn
  • Wang, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincheng West Road 99, 550081 Guiyang, China; Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 562100 Puding, China E-mail: wangshijie@vip.skleg.cn
  • Ni, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lincheng West Road 99, 550081 Guiyang, China; Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 562100 Puding, China E-mail: nijian@vip.skleg.cn (email)
article id 1441, category Research article
Dorota Zawadzka, Stanisław Drozdowski, Grzegorz Zawadzki, Jerzy Zawadzki. (2016). The availability of cavity trees along an age gradient in fresh pine forests. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1441. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1441
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest management; Poland; Augustów Forest; cavity-nesting birds; woodpeckers
Highlights: The density of cavity trees in pine-dominated, managed forests varied in relation to stand age and was highest in stands older than 130 years of age; Cavities excavated by woodpeckers dominated among all cavities; The number of trees with cavities appears insufficient to ensure the effective protection of bird diversity in managed stands of Augustów Forest.
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Given their importance as a resource for many forest organisms, tree cavities were inventoried in the managed pine forests of north-east Poland, in relation to the: 70–100, 101–130 and >130 year age-classes within the clear-cutting system. The densities at which cavities were present was found to depend on forest age, given that stands 70–100 years old were characterised by an average density of 0.62 trees ha–1, while forests older than 130 years reported 3.28 trees ha–1. Stands aged 70–100 years differed from those aged 130+ in having just 0.27 trees ha–1 of cavity trees, as compared with 2.91 trees ha–1. The total volume of cavity trees in stands up to 100 years old was 0.37 m3 ha–1 on average, as compared with 5.42 m3 ha–1 in stands over 130 years old. The cavities created by woodpeckers constituted 76% of all of those found, and included 53% excavated by great spotted woodpeckers (Dendrocopos major L.) and 23% by black woodpeckers (Dryocopus martius L.) The proportion of cavities excavated by D. major was highest in the youngest age class of stands. There, cavities made by D. martius constituted only 8% of the total, as compared with 31% in the oldest stands. The abundance of cavity trees thus differed along an age gradient, though in any event the availability of cavity trees appears to be too limited to provide for the needs of hole-nesting birds. Forest managers must thus take more account than hitherto of the need to protect cavity trees.

  • Zawadzka, Institute of Forest Science, University of Łódź, Branch in Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Konstytucji 3 Maja 65/67, 97-200 Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Poland E-mail: dorota_zaw@wp.pl
  • Drozdowski, Department of Silviculture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: stanislaw_drozdowski@sggw.pl (email)
  • Zawadzki, Eagle Conservation Committee, Okółek 14, 16-506 Giby, Poland E-mail: grzesiekgfz@op.pl
  • Zawadzki, Eagle Conservation Committee, Okółek 14, 16-506 Giby, Poland E-mail: jerzy_zaw@wp.pl
article id 1462, category Research article
Pekka Punttila, Olli Autio, Janne S. Kotiaho, D. Johan Kotze, Olli J. Loukola, Norbertas Noreika, Anna Vuori, Kari Vepsäläinen. (2016). The effects of drainage and restoration of pine mires on habitat structure, vegetation and ants. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1462. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1462
Keywords: ecological restoration; ditching; Aichi Biodiversity Target 15; Formicidae; pine bogs and fens; transforming and transformed drained mires; water-table level
Highlights: Mire drainage shifted floristic composition and ant assemblages towards forest communities; Raising the water-table level by ditch filling and the thinning of trees affected mire communities positively already 1–3 years after the start of restoration; The extent of tree cover, the coverage of Sphagnum mosses and the water-table level were major determinants of ant assemblage structure.
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Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to biodiversity worldwide. For example, nearly 80% of peatlands in southern Finland have been drained. There is thus a need to safeguard the remaining pristine mires and to restore degraded ones. Ants play a pivotal role in many ecosystems and like many keystone plant species, shape ecosystem conditions for other biota. The effects of mire restoration and subsequent vegetation succession on ants, however, are poorly understood. We inventoried tree stands, vegetation, water-table level, and ants (with pitfall traps) in nine mires in southern Finland to explore differences in habitats, vegetation and ant assemblages among pristine, drained (30–40 years ago) and recently restored (1–3 years ago) pine mires. We expected that restoring the water-table level by ditch filling and reconstructing sparse tree stands by cuttings will recover mire vegetation and ants. We found predictable responses in habitat structure, floristic composition and ant assemblage structure both to drainage and restoration. However, for mire-specialist ants the results were variable and longer-term monitoring is needed to confirm the success of restoration since these social insects establish perennial colonies with long colony cycles. We conclude that restoring the water-table level and tree stand structure seem to recover the characteristic vegetation and ant assemblages in the short term. This recovery was likely enhanced because drained mires still had both acrotelm and catotelm, and connectedness was still reasonable for mire organisms to recolonize the restored mires either from local refugia or from populations of nearby mires.

  • Punttila, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pekka.punttila@ymparisto.fi (email)
  • Autio, Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment in South Ostrobothnia, P.O. Box 252, FI-65101 Vaasa, Finland E-mail: olli.autio@ely-keskus.fi
  • Kotiaho, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biology & Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: janne.kotiaho@jyu.fi
  • Kotze, University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: johan.kotze@helsinki.fi
  • Loukola, University of Oulu, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland E-mail: olli.loukola@gmail.com
  • Noreika, University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014, University of Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki, Department of Biosciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: norbertas.noreika@gmail.com
  • Vuori, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biology & Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: anna@kureniemi.fi
  • Vepsäläinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Biosciences, P.O. Box 65, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kari.vepsalainen@helsinki.fi
article id 1448, category Research article
Andrew McEwan, Natascia Magagnotti, Raffaele Spinelli. (2016). The effects of number of stems per stool on cutting productivity in coppiced Eucalyptus plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1448. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1448
Keywords: modeling; logging; short rotation forestry; efficiency; operator effect
Highlights: Double- and single stem coppice stools were harvested mechanically; Stem size had the strongest impact on productivity; An experienced operator performed equally well with both stool treatments; Cost was ~10% higher with double stems for the less experienced operator; Operator experience may play a major role when cutting coppice stands.
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A time study was conducted to determine whether stem crowding had any impact on harvester productivity in Eucalyptus grandis stands. This represents an important element when trying to balance the advantages and disadvantages of coppice management in fast growing plantations designated for mechanized harvesting (i.e. machine felling, delimbing, debarking and cross-cutting). The study material consisted of 446 coppice stems, half of which grew as single stems per stool and half as double stems per stool as a result of different coppice reduction strategies. The dataset was balanced and randomized, with both subsets replicating exactly the same stem size distribution and the single and double stems alternating randomly. Harvester productivity ranged between 6 and 50 m3 under bark per productive machine hour, following the variation of tree diameter from 10 to 40 cm at breast height (1.37 m according to South African standards). Regression analysis indicated that both tree size and stem crowding (e.g. one or two stems per stool) had a significant effect on harvester productivity, which increased with stem size and decreased with stem crowding. However, operator experience may overcome the effect of stem crowding, which was not significant when the harvester was manned by a highly experienced operator. In any case, the effect of stem size was much greater than that of stem crowding, which resulted in a cost difference of less than 10%. However, this figure excludes the possible effects of stem crowding on volume recovery and stem development, which should be addressed in the future.

  • McEwan, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University – George Campus, Saasveld, 6529, George, South Africa E-mail: Andrew.McEwan@nmmu.ac.za
  • Magagnotti, CNR IVALSA, Via Madonna del Piano 10, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy E-mail: magagnotti@ivalsa.cnr.it
  • Spinelli, CNR IVALSA, Via Madonna del Piano 10, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy E-mail: spinelli@ivalsa.cnr.it (email)
article id 1414, category Research article
Rami Saad, Jörgen Wallerman, Johan Holmgren, Tomas Lämås. (2016). Local pivotal method sampling design combined with micro stands utilizing airborne laser scanning data in a long term forest management planning setting. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1414. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1414
Keywords: LIDAR; forest management planning; local pivotal method (LPM); segmentation; most similar neighbor (MSN) imputation; suboptimal loss; Heureka; decision support system
Highlights: Most similar neighbor imputation was used to estimate forest variables using airborne laser scanning data as auxiliary data; For selecting field reference plots the local pivotal method (LPM) was compared to systematic sampling design; The LPM sampling design combined with a micro stand approach showed potential for improvement and has the potential to be a competitive method when considering cost efficiency.
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A new sampling design, the local pivotal method (LPM), was combined with the micro stand approach and compared with the traditional systematic sampling design for estimation of forest stand variables. The LPM uses the distance between units in an auxiliary space – in this case airborne laser scanning (ALS) data – to obtain a well-spread sample. Two sets of reference plots were acquired by the two sampling designs and used for imputing data to evaluation plots. The first set of reference plots, acquired by LPM, made up four imputation alternatives (varying number of reference plots) and the second set of reference plots, acquired by systematic sampling design, made up two alternatives (varying plot radius). The forest variables in these alternatives were estimated using the nonparametric method of most similar neighbor imputation, with the ALS data used as auxiliary data. The relative root mean square error (RelRMSE), stem diameter distribution error index and suboptimal loss were calculated for each alternative, but the results showed that neither sampling design, i.e. LPM vs. systematic, offered clear advantages over the other. It is likely that the obtained results were a consequence of the small evaluation dataset used in the study (n = 30). Nevertheless, the LPM sampling design combined with the micro stand approach showed potential for improvement and might be a competitive method when considering the cost efficiency.

  • Saad, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: rami.saad@slu.se (email)
  • Wallerman, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jorgen.wallerman@slu.se
  • Holmgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: johan.holmgren@slu.se
  • Lämås, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tomas.lamas@slu.se
article id 1323, category Research article
Tiina Laine, Kalle Kärhä, Antti Hynönen. (2016). A survey of the Finnish mechanized tree-planting industry in 2013 and its success factors. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 2 article id 1323. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1323
Keywords: regeneration; boreal; forestry; silviculture; mechanization; planting machines; critical success factors (CSFs)
Highlights: In 2013, 31 planting machines were operated by 22 businesses and planted 4.7 million seedlings on 2663 hectares in Finland; Critical success factors included expertise of planting machine operators, high quality planting, adequate amount of work, stoniness, and removal of slash; Growth of the industry will depend on improved cost-efficiency, appropriate worksites, marketing, development of planting machines.
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The aim of the study was to update the information pertaining to mechanized tree-planting activity in Finland in 2013 and its success factors. All businesses providing a mechanized tree-planting service were interviewed and asked to describe their equipment and activities, identify critical success factors (CSFs), and suggest areas for improvement. In 2013, 31 planting machines (18 Bracke P11.a, 11 M-Planter and 2 Risutec) operated by 22 businesses planted approximately 4.7 million seedlings on 2663 hectares. CSFs included expertise of planting machine operators, high quality planting, adequate amount of work, stoniness, and removal of slash. Based on the survey, some recommendations for improving mechanized planting work can be made. Firstly, improving the cost-efficiency of mechanized planting is necessary to enhance businesses’ profitability. Secondly, worksite selection is crucial as stoniness, stumps and slash debris diminish productivity. Lastly, the popularity of mechanized planting in the future will benefit from more marketing. Many businesses were unwilling to increase the area of service, invest in new equipment, or increase the volume of planting work but they believed that mechanized planting will become more popular in the near future.

  • Laine, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: tiina.laine@luke.fi (email)
  • Kärhä, Stora Enso Wood Supply Finland, P.O. Box 309, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kalle.karha@storaenso.com
  • Hynönen, University of Eastern Finland, Faculty of Science and Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hynonena@gmail.com
article id 1413, category Research article
Ilya Potapov, Marko Järvenpää, Markku Åkerblom, Pasi Raumonen, Mikko Kaasalainen. (2015). Data-based stochastic modeling of tree growth and structure formation. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 1413. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1413
Keywords: terrestrial lidar; form diversity; morphological plasticity; stochastic functional-structural plant model; quantitative structure models; data fitting
Highlights: We propose a stochastic version of the tree growth model LIGNUM for producing tree structures consistent with detailed terrestrial laser scanning data, and we provide the proof-of-concept by using model-based simulations and real laser scanning data; Trees produced with the data-based model resemble the trees of the dataset, and are statistically similar but not copies of each other; the number of such synthetic trees is not limited.
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We introduce a general procedure to match a stochastic functional-structural tree model (here LIGNUM augmented with stochastic rules) with real tree structures depicted by quantitative structure models (QSMs) based on terrestrial laser scanning. The matching is done by iteratively finding the maximum correspondence between the measured tree structure and the stochastic choices of the algorithm. First, we analyze the match to synthetic data (generated by the model itself), where the target values of the parameters to be estimated are known in advance, and show that the algorithm converges properly. We then carry out the procedure on real data obtaining a realistic model. We thus conclude that the proposed stochastic structure model (SSM) approach is a viable solution for formulating realistic plant models based on data and accounting for the stochastic influences.

  • Potapov, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: ilya.potapov@tut.fi (email)
  • Järvenpää, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: marko.jarvenpaa@tut.fi
  • Åkerblom, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: markku.akerblom@tut.fi
  • Raumonen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: pasi.raumonen@tut.fi
  • Kaasalainen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland E-mail: mikko.kaasalainen@tut.fi
article id 1384, category Research article
Staffan Berg, Erik Valinger, Torgny Lind, Tommi Suominen, Diana Tuomasjukka. (2015). Comparison of co-existing forestry and reindeer husbandry value chains in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 1384. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1384
Keywords: carbon sequestration; agroforestry; global warming potential; gross value added; employment; ToSIA
Highlights: Forestry adapted to reindeer husbandry results in: potential economic improvement of reindeer husbandry, potential reduced cuttings in forestry and reduced wood flow to industry, reduced gross value added for forest industry and increased carbon storage in standing forest.
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Forestry in Malå, northern Sweden, coexists with other land uses. Reindeer husbandry is in the area for centuries and requires large areas of grazing land. Competing land uses may threaten the Malå Sami village. The aim of the study was to evaluate increased consideration in forest management towards 1) reindeer husbandry, 2) nature and 3) a combination of the two. These scenarios were compared with forest management as it was in 2009. Results indicate that all three scenarios lead to a decrease in annual harvesting volumes of 0.2 to 0.4 million m3. Forest industry dominated the economic viability in the area. Forest management adapted to the needs of reindeer husbandry resulted in less potential for yearly harvest, employment and profits from forest industry. On the other hand, it led to an increase in growing stock and consequently the potential for carbon sequestration over time. Indeed the increased sequestration would compensate for all fossil emissions of carbon from the Forest Wood Chain (FWC). The nature scenario had minor effects on economic result and on the emissions of fossil carbon. The combined scenario gave a reduced economic performance for the FWC. A scenario based on forest management accommodating the needs of reindeer husbandry gave the best economic result for the reindeer chain, due to high survival rate of the reindeer. However the economic importance of reindeer husbandry in the region was small compared to the FWC. Results from scenario analysis could serve as a platform for mutual understanding between stakeholders.

  • Berg, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-90 183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: staffan.berg@efi.int (email)
  • Valinger, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-90 183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: erik.valinger@slu.se
  • Lind, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-90 183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: torgny.lind@slu.se
  • Suominen, European Forest Institute, Sustainability and Climate Change Research Programme, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tommi.suominen@efi.int
  • Tuomasjukka, European Forest Institute, Sustainability and Climate Change Research Programme, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: diana.tuomasjukka@efi.int
article id 1405, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Daniela Ali-Sisto, Timo Tokola. (2015). Tropical forest canopy cover estimation using satellite imagery and airborne lidar reference data. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 1405. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1405
Keywords: logistic regression; beta regression; forest area; international forest definition; ALOS AVNIR-2; vegetation index
Highlights: The fusion of airborne lidar data and satellite images enables accurate canopy cover mapping; The zero-and-one inflated beta regression is demonstrated in large area estimation; Forest/non-forest classification should be done directly, for example by using logistic regression.
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The fusion of optical satellite imagery, strips of lidar data and field plots is a promising approach for the inventory of tropical forests. Airborne lidars also enable an accurate direct estimation of the forest canopy cover (CC), and thus a sample of lidar strips can be used as reference data for creating CC maps which are based on satellite images. In this study, our objective was to validate CC maps obtained from an ALOS AVNIR-2 satellite image wall-to-wall, against a lidar-based CC map of a tropical forest area located in Laos. The reference CC values which were needed for model training were obtained from a sample of four lidar strips. Zero-and-one inflated beta regression (ZOINBR) models were applied to link the spectral vegetation indices derived from the ALOS image with the lidar-based CC estimates. In addition, we compared ZOINBR and logistic regression models in the forest area estimation by using >20% CC as a forest definition. Using a total of 409 217 30 × 30 m population units as validation, our model showed a strong correlation between lidar-based CC and spectral satellite features (root mean square error = 12.8%, R2 = 0.82). In the forest area estimation, a direct classification using logistic regression provided better accuracy than the estimation of CC values as an intermediate step (kappa = 0.61 vs. 0.53). It is important to obtain sufficient training data from both ends of the CC range. The forest area estimation should be done before the CC estimation, rather than vice versa.

  • Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland; (current) University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9352-0114 E-mail: lauri.z.korhonen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Ali-Sisto, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dheikkil@student.uef.fi
  • Tokola, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland. E-mail: timo.tokola@uef.fi
article id 1403, category Research article
Kristina Mjöfors, Monika Strömgren, Hans-Örjan Nohrstedt, Annemieke Ingrid Gärdenäs. (2015). Impact of site-preparation on soil-surface CO2 fluxes and litter decomposition in a clear-cut in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 1403. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1403
Keywords: boreal forest; soil disturbance; soil respiration; carbon stock; needle decomposition; coarse root decomposition
Highlights: Disturbances of the soil did not lead to higher CO2 emissions from the soil; Heavy mixing of the soil lead to lower CO2 emissions from the soil; Buried needles and coarse roots decomposed faster than those on the surface; Abundance of δ15N decreased in needles and roots after site preparation.
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Boreal forest soil contains significant amounts of organic carbon. Soil disturbance, caused for example by site preparation or stump extraction, may increase decomposition and thus lead to higher CO2 emissions, contributing to global warming. The aim of this study was to quantify responses of soil-surface CO2 fluxes (Rs) and litter (needle and root) decomposition rates following various kinds of soil disturbance commonly caused by mechanical site preparation and stump harvest. For this purpose four treatments were applied in a clear-cut site in central Sweden: i) removal of the humus layer and top 2 cm of mineral soil, ii) placement of a humus layer and 2 cm of mineral soil upside down on top of undisturbed soil, forming a double humus layer buried under mineral soil, iii) heavy mixing of the humus layer and mineral soil, and iv) no disturbance (control). Rs measurements were acquired with a portable respiration system during two growing seasons. To assess the treatments’ effects on litter decomposition rates, needles or coarse roots (Ø = 6 mm) were incubated in litterbags at positions they would be located after the treatments (buried, or on top of the soil). The results indicate that site preparation-simulating treatments have no effect or may significantly reduce, rather than increase, CO2 emissions during the following two years. They also show that buried litter decomposes more rapidly than litter on the surface, but in other respects the treatments have little effect on litter decomposition rates.

  • Mjöfors, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7014, 150 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: kristina.mjofors@slu.se (email)
  • Strömgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7014, 150 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: Monika.stromgren@slu.se
  • Nohrstedt, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7014, 150 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: Hans-orjan.nohrstedt@slu.se
  • Gärdenäs, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7014, 150 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: Annemieke.gardenas@slu.se
article id 1348, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Andras Balazs, Heikki Saari, Ilkka Pölönen, Janne Sarkeala, Risto Viitala. (2015). Unmanned aerial system imagery and photogrammetric canopy height data in area-based estimation of forest variables. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 1348. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1348
Keywords: forest inventory; aerial imagery; unmanned aerial system; UAV; photogrammetric surface model; canopy height model
Highlights: Orthoimage mosaic and 3D canopy height model were derived from UAV-borne colour-infrared digital camera imagery and ALS-based terrain model; Features extracted from orthomosaic and canopy height data were used for estimating forest variables; The accuracy of forest estimates was similar to that of the combination of ALS and digital aerial imagery.
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In this paper we examine the feasibility of data from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-borne aerial imagery in stand-level forest inventory. As airborne sensor platforms, UAVs offer advantages cost and flexibility over traditional manned aircraft in forest remote sensing applications in small areas, but they lack range and endurance in larger areas. On the other hand, advances in the processing of digital stereo photography make it possible to produce three-dimensional (3D) forest canopy data on the basis of images acquired using simple lightweight digital camera sensors. In this study, an aerial image orthomosaic and 3D photogrammetric canopy height data were derived from the images acquired by a UAV-borne camera sensor. Laser-based digital terrain model was applied for estimating ground elevation. Features extracted from orthoimages and 3D canopy height data were used to estimate forest variables of sample plots. K-nearest neighbor method was used in the estimation, and a genetic algorithm was applied for selecting an appropriate set of features for the estimation task. Among the selected features, 3D canopy features were given the greatest weight in the estimation supplemented by textural image features. Spectral aerial photograph features were given very low weight in the selected feature set. The accuracy of the forest estimates based on a combination of photogrammetric 3D data and orthoimagery from UAV-borne aerial imaging was at a similar level to those based on airborne laser scanning data and aerial imagery acquired using purpose-built aerial camera from the same study area.

  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and society, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi (email)
  • Balazs, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and society, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@luke.fi
  • Saari, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland E-mail: Heikki.Saari@vtt.fi
  • Pölönen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Mathematical Information Technology, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: ilkka.polonen@jyu.fi
  • Sarkeala, Mosaicmill Oy, Kultarikontie 1, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: janne.sarkeala@mosaicmill.com
  • Viitala, Häme University of Applied Sciences (HAMK), P.O. Box 230, FI-13101 Hämeenlinna, Finland E-mail: Risto.Viitala@hamk.fi
article id 1347, category Research article
Paulo Borges, Even Bergseng, Tron Eid, Terje Gobakken. (2015). Impact of maximum opening area constraints on profitability and biomass availability in forestry – a large, real world case. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 5 article id 1347. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1347
Keywords: bioenergy; forest management planning; mixed integer programming; area restriction model; green-up
Highlights: We solved a large and real world near city forestry problem; The inclusion of maximum open area constraints caused 7.0% loss in NPV; Solution value at maximum deviated 0.01% from the true optimum value; The annual energy supply of 20–30 GWh estimated from harvest residues could provide a small, but stable supply of energy to the municipality.
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The nature areas surrounding the capital of Norway (Oslomarka), comprising 1 700 km2 of forest land, are the recreational home turf for a population of 1.2 mill. people. These areas are highly valuable, not only for recreational purposes and biodiversity, but also for commercial activities. To assess the impacts of the challenges that Oslo municipality forest face in their management, we developed four optimization problems with different levels of management constraints. The constraints consider control of harvest level, guarantee of minimum old-growth forest area and maximum open area after final harvest. For the latter, to date, no appropriate analyses quantifying the impact of such a constraint on economy and biomass production have been carried out in Norway. The problem solved is large due to both the number of stands and number of treatment schedules. However, the model applied demonstrated its relevance for solving large problems involving maximum opening areas. The inclusion of maximum open area constraints caused 7.0% loss in NPV compared to the business as usual case with controlled harvest volume and minimum old-growth area. The estimated supply of 20-30 GWh annual energy from harvest residues could provide a small, but stable supply of energy to the municipality.

  • Borges, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Aas, Norway E-mail: paulo.borges@nmbu.no (email)
  • Bergseng, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Aas, Norway E-mail: even.bergseng@nmbu.no
  • Eid, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Aas, Norway E-mail: tron.eid@nmbu.no
  • Gobakken, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Aas, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@nmbu.no
article id 1408, category Research article
Anna Katharina Franke, Pasi Aatsinki, Ville Hallikainen, Esa Huhta, Mikko Hyppönen, Vesa Juntunen, Kari Mikkola, Seppo Neuvonen, Pasi Rautio. (2015). Quantifying changes of the coniferous forest line in Finnish Lapland during 1983–2009. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 4 article id 1408. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1408
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; tree line; forest regeneration; environmental change; stand volume
Highlights: Volume of the growing stock of spruce and pine has increased in forests and in timber lines during the past 26 years; Spruce stem numbers increased on average, while pine stem numbers remained stable and location-specific variation was observed; Presuming that the ongoing trend of increasing temperature will remain, the enhanced forest regeneration and growth may result in extension of forests in the future.
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The boreal timber- and tree-line forests grow in harsh environmental conditions in their outermost distribution limit. Here even small environmental changes may cause dramatic changes in the distribution of tree species. We examined changes of the forest lines of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Finnish Lapland five times during 1983–2009. We monitored the number of stems and the volume of the growing stock in thirteen different locations in forest-line areas. The linear temporal trends and the variations of these response variables were used as indicators of a possible change during the study period. Spruce showed a significant increase both in the volume of the growing stock (up to 40% increase) and in the total stem number (up to 100% increase). A significant increase in the volume of the growing stock was observed in the pine data as well (up to 70% increase), whereas the stem number stagnated or even decreased. The results suggest that spruce needs favourable conditions to have an abundant regeneration, but after the establishment the seedlings seem to be more resistant against biotic and abiotic disturbances than pine seedlings. The increasing stand volume might result in a climate-related northward and upward extension of forests in the future. However, our results show that responses in the boreal forest line are species and location specific and a more favourable climate does not necessarily lead to an advance of the coniferous forest line.

  • Franke, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: anna.franke@fau.de (email)
  • Aatsinki, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: pasi.aatsinki@luke.fi
  • Hallikainen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@luke.fi
  • Huhta, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: esa.huhta@luke.fi
  • Hyppönen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mikko.hypponen@luke.fi
  • Juntunen, The Sámi Education Institute, Menesjärventie 4, P.O. Box 50, FI-99871 Inari, Finland E-mail: vesa.juntunen@sogsakk.fi
  • Mikkola, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economics and society, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: kari.mikkola@luke.fi
  • Neuvonen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.neuvonen@luke.fi
  • Rautio, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bio-based business and industry, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: pasi.rautio@luke.fi
article id 1302, category Research article
Nils Fahlvik, Per Magnus Ekö, Nils Petersson. (2015). Effects of precommercial thinning strategies on stand structure and growth in a mixed even-aged stand of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1302. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1302
Keywords: yield; cleaning; heterogeneous forest; dimension distribution; growth simulator
Highlights: Precommercial thinning (PCT) was a useful tool to influence the stand structure in accordance to silvicultural goals; PCT had a great impact on tree species composition; The seemingly great potential to influence the structure of a heterogeneous, mixed stand was restrained by natural settings and unconditional considerations at PCT (e.g. tree vitality, stem quality, regular spacing).
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Four different management strategies were applied to a young mixed stand of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Pices abies (L.) Karst.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in southern Sweden. All strategies included an initial precommercial thinning to ca. 2400 stems ha–1. The different aims were: (i) a conifer-dominated stand with focus on high productivity; (ii) a conifer-dominated stand with high quality timber; (iii) keeping a stem-wise species mixture; (iv) a mosaic-wise species mixture. Stem selection according to the different strategies were simulated with a starting point from plots with a 5 m radius. All strategies were applied to all of the plots. A growth simulator was used to simulate the stand development up to final felling. This study illustrates the possibilities for influencing the structure of a mixed stand through precommercial thinning. The study also illustrates the long-term effects on stand structure and volume yield by consequently applying a management strategy from precommercial thinning until final felling. Precommercial thinning was found to be a useful tool to influence the stand structure in accordance to the aims set. However, the opportunities for influencing the stand by precommercial thinning were restricted by natural settings and unconditional considerations (e.g. tree vitality, stem quality, regular spacing), beyond what could be judged from stand average data. The stem volume production during a rotation was 6% lower for (iii) and (iv) compared to (i) and (ii), mainly due to a greater proportion of birch in the former strategies.
  • Fahlvik, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: nils.fahlvik@slu.se (email)
  • Ekö, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: per.magnus.eko@slu.se
  • Petersson, StoraEnso Skog AB, Åsgatan 22, SE-791 80 Falun, Sweden E-mail: nils.petersson@storaenso.com
article id 1267, category Research article
Caroline Mary Adrianne Franklin, Karen A Harper, Liam Kyte Murphy. (2015). Structural dynamics at boreal forest edges created by a spruce budworm outbreak. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1267. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1267
Keywords: edge influence; balsam fir; insect disturbance; structure; forest influence
Highlights: Insect outbreak edges were 10 m wide with different canopy cover, stem density and tree structural diversity than adjacent ecosystems; Although edge influence on forest structure was weak, forest influence was stronger and extended further, creating an edge zone skewed towards the disturbed area; After thirty years, high-contrast and structurally-diverse transition zones persist on the landscape.
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Natural disturbances such as insect outbreaks create boundaries that influence vegetation patterns and ecological processes.  To better understand the effects of natural edge creation on relatively intact forests and adjacent disturbed areas, we investigated forest structure on both sides of 30 year-old forest edges created by a spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clemens) outbreak in the boreal forest of Cape Breton Highlands National Park, Canada.  Our objectives were: 1) to determine edge influence (compared to interior forest) and forest influence (compared to disturbed areas) on vegetation structure, and 2) to gain insight into the structural development of the edges.  Canopy cover, tree density, radial growth and deadwood were sampled in 5 m x 20 m plots along 120 m transects across six edges.  Randomization tests were used to estimate the magnitude and distance of edge and forest influence.  Narrow transition zones approximately 10 m wide characterized the spruce budworm-induced edges.  Edge influence did not extend into the forest; however, forest influence on structure was detected up to 40 m from the edge into the disturbed area.  We found evidence of the insect outbreak in the form of reduced radial growth during the disturbance across the entire disturbed area-forest gradient, which indicates that spruce budworm activity may not have ceased directly at the edge.  Tree mortality caused by the insect outbreak resulted in snags, many of which have transformed into logs since the outbreak collapsed.  Spruce budworm outbreak-induced forest edges are narrow but dynamic boundaries separating two distinct vegetation communities in the boreal landscape.
  • Franklin, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 751 General Services Building, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H1, Canada E-mail: cfrankli@ualberta.ca (email)
  • Harper, School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Suite 5010, 6100 University Ave., Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3J5, Canada E-mail: Karen.Harper@dal.ca
  • Murphy, Department of Environmental Science, Saint Mary’s University, 923 Robie St., Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3C3, Canada E-mail: liamkmurphy@gmail.com
article id 1226, category Research article
Santiago Pereira, Antonio Prieto, Rafael Calama, Luis Diaz-Balteiro. (2015). Optimal management in Pinus pinea L. stands combining silvicultural schedules for timber and cone production. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 3 article id 1226. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1226
Keywords: forest management; goal programming; non-timber forest product
Highlights: Three management scenarios are proposed to integrate timber and pine nuts; Different silvicultural regimes for each output are addressed jointly; Goal programming is used in order to solve forest management models; In the mixed scenario, the area allocated to pine nuts should be notably greater.
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This work aimed to tackle a timber harvest scheduling problem by simultaneously integrating into the analysis two forestry products derived from the same species: the timber and the pine nut. For this purpose, three management scenarios were proposed: two in which each of the productions is maximised separately, and a third mixed where, in each management unit, the product to which the silvicultural effort should be devoted is decided. After defining a set of objectives, and optimising the rotation length, a multi-criteria model based on goal programming was considered since no feasible solutions have been obtained when employing linear programming. The results in our case study show how the feasible solutions reached can be more attractive for the manager. Specifically, the area to be devoted to timber and cone/pine-nut production was computed in a scenario where the optimal silviculture (oriented towards timber or pine nuts) in each stand was selected, and it was concluded that the area allocated to pine nuts should be notably greater. This situation is the opposite of the current management.

  • Pereira, Technical University of Madrid, ETS Ingenieros de Montes, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain E-mail: spereirasaez@gmail.com
  • Prieto, Technical University of Madrid, ETS Ingenieros de Montes, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain E-mail: antonio.prieto@upm.es
  • Calama, Dpto. Selvicultura y Gestión Forestal, INIA-CIFOR, Ctra. A Coruña km 7.5, 28040 Madrid, Spain E-mail: rcalama@inia.es
  • Diaz-Balteiro, Technical University of Madrid, ETS Ingenieros de Montes, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain E-mail: luis.diaz.balteiro@upm.es (email)
article id 1279, category Research article
Andreas Kreutz, Tuomas Aakala, Russell Grenfell, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2015). Spatial tree community structure in three stands across a forest succession gradient in northern boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 2 article id 1279. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1279
Keywords: Picea abies; age structure; spatial structure; natural forest; Betula spp.; point pattern analysis; northern boreal; community composition
Highlights: We studied the tree community spatial structure in three 1.2-ha plots representing naturally developed northern boreal forests of varying ages; Spatial structure showed little differences between the mid-successional, late-successional and old-growth stands; The occurrence of Picea abies relative to Betula spp. indicated a mosaic-like spatial assembly; Mosaics are likely maintained by species-specific replacement, not reciprocal replacement as thought earlier.
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Development of species composition during succession is well studied in natural boreal forests, but empirical assessments of how within-stand spatial structure develops in late-successional stages are few. Here, we quantified spatial patterns in three unmanaged stands consisting of Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Betula pubescens Ehrh. and Betula pendula Roth (hereafter Betula spp.) in northern boreal Fennoscandia. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of small-scale spatial point patterns in three fully mapped 1.2-ha sample plots, representing different forest developmental stages: mid-successional, late-successional and old-growth forest. We used several variants of Ripley’s K-function to analyze the spatial point patterns along the successional gradient. Univariate analyses showed that mature trees of both species were either randomly distributed or clumped. P. abies saplings were clumped, and Betula spp. saplings occurred in a random or clumped manner. In the bivariate analyses, saplings were more likely to be found in the surroundings of mature trees of the same species, but occurred independent of the individuals of other tree species. Mature trees showed interspecific repulsion. Only modest differences occurred in the univariate patterns between the three successional stages, but in the bivariate analyses the most evident patterns, i.e. intraspecific attraction and interspecific repulsion, were stronger in the older successional stages. Overall, the studied stands appear structured as species-specific mosaics. These mosaics, along with mixed species composition, seem to be maintained by species self-replacement, which contrasts with findings from earlier studies.
  • Kreutz, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andreas.kreutz@wald-rpl.de
  • Aakala, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0160-6410 E-mail: tuomas.aakala@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Grenfell, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: russell.grenfell@gmail.com
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi
article id 1232, category Research article
Pete Bettinger, Mehmet Demirci, Kevin Boston. (2015). Search reversion within s-metaheuristics: impacts illustrated with a forest planning problem. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 2 article id 1232. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1232
Keywords: forest planning; heuristics; threshold accepting; tabu search; spatial harvest scheduling; adjacency constraints; mixed integer goal programming
Highlights: The interruption of the sequence of events used to explore a solution space and develop a forest plan, and the re-initiation of the search process from a high-quality, known starting point (reversion) seems necessary for some s-metaheuristics; When using a s-metaheuristic, higher quality forest plans may be developed when the reversion interval is around six iterations of the model.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The use of a reversion technique during the search process of s-metaheuristics has received little attention with respect to forest management and planning problems. Reversion involves the interruption of the sequence of events that are used to explore the solution space and the re-initiation of the search process from a high-quality, known starting point. We explored four reversion rates when applied to three different types of s-metaheuristics that have previously shown promise for the forest planning problem explored, threshold accepting, tabu search, and the raindrop method. For two of the s-metaheuristics, we also explored three types of decision choices, a change to the harvest timing of a single management unit (1-opt move), the swapping of two management unit’s harvest timing (2-opt moves), and the swapping of three management unit’s harvest timing (3-opt moves). One hundred independent forest plans were developed for each of the metaheuristic / reversion rate combinations, all beginning with randomly-generated feasible starting solutions. We found that (a) reversion does improve the quality of the solutions generated, and (b) the rate of reversion is an important factor that can affect solution quality.
  • Bettinger, School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 180 E. Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA 30602 E-mail: pbettinger@warnell.uga.edu (email)
  • Demirci, General Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Forest and Water Affairs, Republic of Turkey E-mail: mehmetdemirci@yahoo.com
  • Boston, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, USA E-mail: Kevin.Boston@oregonstate.edu
article id 1218, category Research article
Mikko Niemi, Mikko Vastaranta, Jussi Peuhkurinen, Markus Holopainen. (2015). Forest inventory attribute prediction using airborne laser scanning in low-productive forestry-drained boreal peatlands. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 2 article id 1218. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1218
Keywords: remote sensing; forest technology; forest management planning; mapping; k-NN estimation; random forests
Highlights: Following current forest inventory practises, stem volume was predicted in low-productive drained peatlands (LPDPs) with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 13.7 m3 ha–1; When 30 reference plots measured from LPDPs were added to the prediction, RMSE was decreased to 10.0 m3 ha–1; Additional reference plots from LPDPs did not affect the forest inventory attribute predictions in productive forests.
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Nearly 30% of Finland’s land area is covered by peatlands. In Northern parts of the country there is a significant amount of low-productive drained peatlands (LPDPs) where the average annual stem volume growth is less than 1 m3 ha–1. The re-use of LPDPs has been considered thoroughly since Finnish forest legislation was updated and the forest regeneration prerequisite was removed from LPDPs in January 2014. Currently, forestry is one of the re-use alternatives, thus detailed forest resource information is required for allocating activities. However, current forest inventory practices have not been evaluated for sparse growing stocks (e.g., LPDPs). The purpose of our study was to evaluate the suitability of airborne laser scanning (ALS) for mapping forest inventory attributes in LPDPs. We used ALS data with a density of 0.8 pulses per m2, 558 field-measured reference plots (500 from productive forests and 58 from LPDPs) and k nearest neighbour (k-NN) estimation. Our main aim was to study the sensitivity of predictions to the number of LPDP reference plots used in the k-NN estimation. When the reference data consisted of 500 plots from productive forest stands, the root mean square errors (RMSEs) for the prediction accuracy of Lorey’s height, basal area and stem volume were 1.4 m, 2.7 m2 ha–1 and 13.7 m3 ha–1 in LPDPs, respectively. When 30 additional reference plots were allocated to LPDPs, the respective RMSEs were 1.1 m, 1.7 m2 ha–1 and 10.0 m3 ha–1. Additional reference plot allocation did not affect the predictions in productive forest stands.
  • Niemi, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland & Centre of Excellence in Laser Scanning Research, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430, Finland E-mail: mikko.t.niemi@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Vastaranta, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland & Centre of Excellence in Laser Scanning Research, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430, Finland E-mail: mikko.vastaranta@helsinki.fi
  • Peuhkurinen, Arbonaut Oy Ltd., Latokartanontie 7 A, FI-00700, Finland E-mail: jussi.peuhkurinen@arbonaut.com
  • Holopainen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland & Centre of Excellence in Laser Scanning Research, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02430, Finland E-mail: markus.holopainen@helsinki.fi
article id 1214, category Research article
Katri Hamunen, Outi Virkkula, Teppo Hujala, Juha Hiedanpää, Mikko Kurttila. (2015). Enhancing informal interaction and knowledge co-construction among forest owners. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 1 article id 1214. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1214
Keywords: communities of practice; forest owner clubs; guidance; knowledge sharing; learning communities; peer learning; social network
Highlights: Forest owners’ own communities could complement the present expert-driven forestry extension; Enhancing informal interaction between forest owners calls for sufficiently homogeneous reference groups and also new communication contexts; New purposes of forest ownership and innovative forest management practices are suggested topics for novel owner communities; Forest professionals may initiate these communities, but the continuity depends on the owners themselves.
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It is a common concern that non-resident private forest owners are less able to make informed decisions regarding their forests. Moreover, the present guidance given by forest professionals is not reaching all owners. In this study, we suggest enhancing knowledge exchange among forest owners by increasing their mutual and informal interaction that could inspire them to co-construct new knowledge. The first objective is to identify present emerging activities that constitute knowledge exchange contexts (communities) for Finnish forest owners. The second objective is to discuss the challenges of current Finnish forest extension and their implications when introducing Communities of Practice as a complementary response to existing, yet insufficient, professional-led extension. Data consist of Finnish forest owners’ and forest professionals’ (n = 43) focus group interviews. The qualitative analysis was theoretically oriented followed by data-driven coding and grouping. According to the results, the role of expert-led encounters is strong in Finland and owners’ opportunities for good mutual communication are rare. Informal communities exist mainly in the countryside among neighbouring owners and within families. To enhance knowledge sharing among owners, one needs to identify innovative topics and activities that would inspire owners to commit to their forest property and perform active silviculture. These communities would operate as creative learning environments allowing participation of different levels. When cultivating forest owners’ communities it is important to consider actors’ roles. Forest owners themselves are responsible for the functions and continuity of these communities, although forest professionals could also initiate new and sufficiently homogenous reference groups for the owners.
  • Hamunen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), New Business Opportunities, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: katri.hamunen@luke.fi
  • Virkkula, Oulu University of Applied Sciences, Kotkantie 1, FI-90250 Oulu, Finland E-mail: outi.virkkula@oamk.fi
  • Hujala, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), New Business Opportunities, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7905-7602 E-mail: teppo.hujala@luke.fi (email)
  • Hiedanpää, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Economy and Society, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 3, FI-20520 Turku, Finland E-mail: juha.hiedanpaa@luke.fi
  • Kurttila, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), New Business Opportunities, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kurttila@luke.fi
article id 1219, category Research article
Thomas P. Sullivan, Druscilla S. Sullivan. (2014). Diversifying clearcuts with green-tree retention and woody debris structures: conservation of mammals across forest ecological zones. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 5 article id 1219. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1219
Keywords: clearcutting; green-tree retention; small mammals; coniferous forests; ecological zones; Myodes gapperi; population dynamics; red-backed voles; woody debris structures
Highlights: Species diversity of small mammals increased with structural complexity left on clearcut sites; Productivity of red-backed vole populations was higher in sites with green-tree retention (GTR) and windrows of woody debris; GTR and windrows may provide additive effect for providing habitat to conserve mammals on clearcuts.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We tested the hypotheses (H) that on newly clearcut-harvested sites, (H1) abundance and species diversity of the forest-floor small mammal community, and (H2) abundance, reproduction, and recruitment of red-backed voles (Myodes gapperi Vigors), would increase with higher levels of structural retention via green-tree retention (GTR) and woody debris (dispersed and constructed into windrows). Study areas were located in three forest ecological zones in southern British Columbia, Canada. For H1, mean total abundance did generally increase with the gradient of retained habitat structure. Mean species richness and diversity were similar among treatment sites but did show an increasing gradient with structural compexity. For H2, mean abundance, reproduction, and recruitment of M. gapperi were higher in GTR and windrow sites than those without retained structures. There was a positive relationship between mean abundance of M. gapperi and total volume of woody debris across treatments. This study is the first investigation of the responses of forest-floor small mammals to an increasing gradient of retained habitat structure via GTR and woody debris on clearcuts. Our assessment of a combination of these two interventions suggested a potentially strong additive effect that could be cautiously extrapolated across three forest ecological zones. With the advent of low levels of GTR on clearcuts, woody debris structures should help provide some habitat to conserve forest mammals on harvest openings.
  • Sullivan, Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, University of BC, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: tom.sullivan@ubc.ca (email)
  • Sullivan, Applied Mammal Research Institute, 11010 Mitchell Avenue, Summerland, BC, Canada V0H 1Z8 E-mail: dru.sullivan@appliedmammal.com
article id 1190, category Research article
Jaakko Repola, Kristina Ahnlund Ulvcrona. (2014). Modelling biomass of young and dense Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated mixed forests in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 5 article id 1190. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1190
Keywords: boreal forests; pine; tree biomass; biomass models; unmanaged stands
Highlights: The biomass allocation to tree components is different in unmanaged and managed young stands; Higher foliage biomass and lower stem and branch biomass were detected in the unmanaged stands; Models for trees from young and dense stands provide better estimates of biomass in such stands than those based on data from managed stands.
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Biomass models for the biomass of above-ground tree components of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in young dense Scots pine dominated forest stands in northern Sweden were constructed. Destructive above-ground biomass sampling was conducted in naturally generated young, dense, Scots pine dominated mixed stands. Three sampling campaigns were undertaken, the first in 1997 and 1998. The second was six years later (2003), and the last 13 years after the first (2010). In total, 280 trees (126 Scots pine, 68 Norway spruce and 86 birches) were sampled from six different stands in northern Sweden. The sampled trees’ diameter at breast height (dbh) was in the range 1–22 cm (Scots pine), 1–21 cm (Norway spruce) and 1–11 cm (birch). Biomass predictions were tested using our models and the widely used biomass models originally constructed for managed stands. The results showed that the biomass allocation to tree components is different in unmanaged and managed young stands; higher foliage biomass and lower stem and branch biomass were detected in the unmanaged stands. The overall conclusion is that the biomass models for managed stands did not produce satisfactory biomass estimates in unthinned, dense, young stands.
  • Repola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@metla.fi (email)
  • Ahnlund Ulvcrona, SLU, Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: kristina.ulvcrona@slu.se
article id 1135, category Research article
Matts Lindbladh, Per-Ola Hedwall, Ida Wallin, Annika M. Felton, Henrik Böhlenius, Adam Felton. (2014). Short-rotation bioenergy stands as an alternative to spruce plantations: implications for bird biodiversity. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 5 article id 1135. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1135
Keywords: Norway spruce; Picea abies; hybrid aspen; Sweden; Populus × wettsteinii; production forests
Highlights: There is a gap in knowledge regarding the biodiversity implications of replacing production forests with bioenergy stands; We compared the avian biodiversity of early rotation hybrid aspen stands and spruce plantations, the latter being the dominant production forest type in southern Sweden; Our results indicate that young hybrid aspen stands can support relatively diverse and distinctive bird communities.
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Global efforts to decrease dependence on fossil fuels have increased interest in bioenergy production. One source of bioenergy is fast growing deciduous tree species, such as hybrid aspen (Populus × wettsteinii Hämet-Ahti). The majority of research on hybrid aspen which assesses biodiversity implications, has however primarily focused on agricultural lands as the reference condition. This has resulted in a substantial gap in our knowledge regarding the biodiversity implications of replacing production forest types with hybrid aspen, a form of reforestation taking place in northern Europe. In this study we address this knowledge gap by comparing the avian biodiversity of young hybrid aspen and spruce (Picea abies L.) plantations of similar age, the latter being the most prevalent forestry alternative in in southern Sweden. We found that hybrid aspen stands had higher bird species richness and abundance as well as a distinct community composition compared to the spruce stands. We suggest that the most likely driver was the greater structural and tree species complexity in the aspen stands, provided for by the fenced exclusion of ungulates from the regenerating hybrid aspen stands. Our results indicate that at least during early stages of regeneration, and in comparison to the dominating production forest type in the region, hybrid aspen stands can support relatively high levels of bird diversity, and a bird species composition more closely associated with broadleaf habitat types requiring restoration in this region.
  • Lindbladh, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: matts.lindbladh@slu.se (email)
  • Hedwall, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: per-ola.hedwall@slu.se
  • Wallin, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ida.wallin@slu.se
  • Felton, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: annika.felton@slu.se
  • Böhlenius, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: henrik.bohlenius@slu.se
  • Felton, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU – Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: adam.felton@slu.se
article id 1207, category Research article
Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Irina A. Chernyakova. (2014). Past human population history affects current forest landscape structure of Vodlozero National Park, Northwest Russia. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 4 article id 1207. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1207
Keywords: boreal forests; forest fires; recovery; forest structure; landscape change
Highlights: In large scale (0–20 km), the proportion of spruce in forest stands was positively affected by distance from old villages. This relationship was non-linear with a threshold distance of 15 km; In small scale (0–5 km), old villages affected tree species composition and age structure of forests. Effect on age structure was the strongest on stands growing on mineral soils.
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The information about location and size of past human settlements can give new insights into the analysis of landscape structures. Vodlozero National Park (NP) is one the largest strictly protected areas in Northwestern Europe. We mapped the location of historic villages, which were abandoned in 1958, and studied the effect of past human activity in the forest landscape in two different scales using forest survey data. We assessed the possible change in age, volume and tree species composition from the edge of open fields up to the distance of 5 km from villages. We made a larger landscape analysis using a grid of forest stands covering the whole northern part of the NP. The past human activity was clearly visible in the present forest landscape. Distance from villages affected age, volume and tree species composition of the forest stands. This effect was the strongest within the first two kilometers from the villages. At the level of whole northern NP, the proportion of spruce markedly increased after approximately 15 km from the nearest old village. The changes in the forests surrounding the villages were most likely the result of the intensive use of wood for different commodities needed in households and farming, in addition to short rotation slash and burn agriculture. If the occurrence of forest fires was more frequent closer to villages than in more remote areas, it can well explain the observed pattern in the abundance of spruce in the larger landscape that is less tolerant to fire than pine.
  • Tikkanen, Department of Biology, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland (Current: School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland) & Interdisciplinary Research and Educational Center of Cross-border Communication CARELICA, Institute of History, Political and Social Sciences, Petrozavodsk State University, 33 Lenin Prospectus, 185910 Petrozavodsk, Republic of Karelia, Russia E-mail: Olli-Pekka.Tikkanen@uef.fi (email)
  • Chernyakova, Interdisciplinary Research and Educational Center of Cross-border Communication CARELICA, Institute of History, Political and Social Sciences, Petrozavodsk State University, 33 Lenin Prospectus, 185910 Petrozavodsk, Republic of Karelia, Russia E-mail: irina.chernyakova@onego.ru
article id 1188, category Research article
Kristina Wallertz, Henrik Nordenhem, Göran Nordlander. (2014). Damage by the pine weevil Hylobius abietis to seedlings of two native and five introduced tree species in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 4 article id 1188. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1188
Keywords: forest regeneration; conifer seedlings; defence; feeding damage; forest plantation; resistance
Highlights: Both native and introduced confer species in Sweden can be highly susceptible to damage by the pine weevil; Douglas fir and Sitka spruce were generally the most damaged among six studied conifer species; The results highlight some of the risks in establishing exotic tree species for forest production.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
There is increasing interest in using introduced species in Swedish forestry in response to climate change, but it is important to assess their resistance to native pests. Thus, we compared the extent of pine weevil feeding on two dominant native conifers, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), the non-host deciduous broadleaf hybrid aspen (Populus × wettsteinii Hämet-Ahti) and four introduced conifers: Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), hybrid larch (Larix × marschlinsii Coaz), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carriére) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Douglas ex Loudon). The extent of feeding damage on seedlings and its effect on their vitality were examined in a field study in south-central Sweden and a laboratory experiment, which gave largely consistent results. Generally, the species most heavily attacked by the pine weevil, in both experiments, were Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. In the field experiment pine weevils killed or severely damaged significantly higher proportions of Douglas fir and Sitka spruce seedlings (60%) than any other species except Norway spruce (49%). Among conifer seedlings the proportions of killed or severely damaged seedlings were lowest for Scots pine and hybrid larch (27%) and Lodgepole pine (36%). The results indicate that most conifer species planted on young clear-cuttings in Sweden need some kind of pine weevil protection, and the possibility that introducing new tree species might increase damage caused by pests must be considered. For instance, widespread use of hybrid aspen could reduce damage by pine weevils, but increase damage by other, untested pests or pathogens.
  • Wallertz, Unit for Field-based Forest Research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Asa Research Station, SE-36030 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: kristina.wallertz@slu.se (email)
  • Nordenhem, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7044, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: henrik.nordenhem@slu.se
  • Nordlander, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7044, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: goran.nordlander@slu.se
article id 1153, category Research article
Anu Akujärvi, Ville Hallikainen, Mikko Hyppönen, Eero Mattila, Kari Mikkola, Pasi Rautio. (2014). Effects of reindeer grazing and forestry on ground lichens in Finnish Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1153. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1153
Keywords: forest management; timber harvesting; reindeer herding; pastures; lichen cover; lichen biomass
Highlights: Both reindeer grazing and forestry affect the cover and biomass of reindeer lichens; Reindeer grazing has bigger impact than forestry; The lichen cover was about five-fold and the biomass about fifteen-fold in the ungrazed (fenced) sites than in the grazed ones; The decrease of not only the biomass, but also the cover of lichens, is alarming.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Reindeer husbandry and forestry are practiced in the same areas in northern Fennoscandia. Reindeer pastures have largely deteriorated. We aimed to quantify the separate and combined effects of reindeer grazing and forestry on the amount of ground lichens. To do this, we mapped and inventoried all larger enclosures (49) in Finnish Lapland where forest management practices were similar in both sides of the fence. The average time since fencing was 43 years. We recorded the cover and estimated dry biomass of ground lichens, as well as parameters describing forest stand characteristics. The effect of reindeer grazing on both the cover and estimated dry biomass of lichens was clear: in the ungrazed (fenced) sites, the lichen cover (35.8%) was on average 5.3-fold and the dry biomass (1929 kg ha–1) 14.8-fold compared with the corresponding estimates in the grazed sites (6.8% and 130 kg ha–1). The effect of forestry on lichens was smaller. In the grazed stands the cover and biomass of lichens were higher in the mature stands compared to the younger stand development classes, whereas in the ungrazed stands there were no significant differences between the development classes. Both reindeer grazing and forestry affect the cover and biomass of ground lichens. The influence of reindeer grazing is, however, much heavier than that of forestry. The decrease of not only the biomass, but also the lichen cover, is alarming. The decrease of lichen cover may hinder the recovery of reindeer pastures, which in the long run endangers the sustainability of reindeer husbandry.
  • Akujärvi, Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anu.akujarvi@ymparisto.fi
  • Hallikainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Northern Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@metla.fi
  • Hyppönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Northern Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mikko.hypponen@metla.fi (email)
  • Mattila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Northern Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: eero.mattila@metla.fi
  • Mikkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Northern Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: kari.mikkola@metla.fi
  • Rautio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Northern Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: pasi.rautio@metla.fi
article id 1120, category Research article
Ilari Lehtonen, Petri Hoppula, Pentti Pirinen, Hilppa Gregow. (2014). Modelling crown snow loads in Finland: a comparison of two methods. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1120. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1120
Keywords: climate; forests; snow damage; rime; dry snow; wet snow; frozen snow
Highlights: A new method to model crown snow loads is presented and compared with a previously published simpler method; The heaviest crown snow loads in Finland are found to typically occur in the eastern parts of the country; The relative importance of different snow load types varies between different regions of Finland.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The spatial occurrence of heavy crown snow loads in Finland between 1961 and 2010 is studied by using for the first time a model that classifies the snow load into four different types: rime, dry snow, wet snow and frozen snow. In producing this climatology, we used meteorological observations made at 29 locations across Finland. The model performance is evaluated against classified daily images of canopy snow cover and with the help of two short case studies. The results are further compared to those achieved with a simpler method used in previous studies. The heaviest crown snow loads are found to occur typically in eastern Finland. The new method reveals that this holds not only for the total snow loads but also for the different snow load types, although there are certain differences in their geographical occurrence. The greatest benefit achieved with the new method is the inclusion of rime accretion. The forests most prone to heavy riming are those located on tree-covered hills in northern Finland, but as the terrain elevation affects riming efficiency greatly, these small-scale variations in the snow load amounts could not be described in this study in great detail. Moreover, the results are more inaccurate in northern Finland where variations in the terrain elevation are greater than elsewhere. Otherwise, the largest uncertainties in this study are related to wind speed measurements and possibly partly because of that, we were not able to detect any significant trends in the crown snow-load amounts over the study period.
  • Lehtonen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ilari.lehtonen@fmi.fi (email)
  • Hoppula, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: petri.hoppula@fmi.fi
  • Pirinen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pentti.pirinen@fmi.fi
  • Gregow, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hilppa.gregow@fmi.fi
article id 1087, category Research article
Ilkka Korpela, Lauri Mehtätalo, Lauri Markelin, Anne Seppänen, Annika Kangas. (2014). Tree species identification in aerial image data using directional reflectance signatures. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1087. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1087
Keywords: forestry; reflectance calibration; BRDF; mixed-effects modeling; Monte-Carlo simulation
Highlights: Multispectral reflectance data showed a strong and spectrally correlated tree effect; There was no gain in species classification from using species-specific differences of directional reflectance in real data and only a marginal improvement in simulated data; The directional signatures extracted in multiple images are obscured by the intrinsic within-species variation, correlated observations and inherent reflectance calibration errors.
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Tree species identification using optical remote sensing is challenging. Modern digital photogrammetric cameras enable radiometrically quantitative remote sensing and the estimation of reflectance images, in which the observations depend largely on the reflectance properties of targets. Previous research has shown that there are species-specific differences in how the brightness observed changes when the viewing direction in an aerial image is altered. We investigated if accounting for such directional signatures enhances species classification, using atmospherically corrected, real and simulated multispectral Leica ADS40 line-camera data. Canopy in direct and diffuse illumination were differentiated and species-specific variance-covariance structures were analyzed in real reflectance data, using mixed-effects modeling. Species classification simulations aimed at elucidating the level of accuracy that can be achieved by using images of different quality, number and view-illumination geometry. In real data, a substantial variance component was explained by tree effect, which demonstrates that observations from a tree correlate between observation geometries as well as spectrally. Near-infrared band showed the strongest tree effect, while the directionality was weak in that band. The gain from directional signatures was insignificant in real data, while simulations showed a potential gain of 1–3 percentage points in species classification accuracy. The quality of reflectance calibration was found to be important as well as the image acquisition geometry. We conclude that increasing the number of image observations cancels out random observation noise and reflectance calibration errors, but fails to eliminate the tree effect and systematic calibration inaccuracy. Directional reflectance constitutes a marginal improvement in tree species classification.
  • Korpela, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland E-mail: ilkka.korpela@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mehtätalo, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.mehtatalo@uef.fi
  • Markelin, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geodetic Institute, P.O. Box 15, FI-02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: lauri.markelin@fgi.fi
  • Seppänen, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: anne.seppanen@arbonaut.com
  • Kangas, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi
article id 1054, category Research article
Karin Kolis, Juhana Hiironen, Esa Ärölä, Arvo Vitikainen. (2014). Effects of sale-specific factors on stumpage prices in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1054. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1054
Keywords: pulpwood; timber trade; standing timber sales; hedonic price; sawlogs; non-industrial forest owners
Highlights: Data on 4824 individual sales were used to estimate which factors affect stumpage prices; The time of sale, seasonal harvest restrictions, the location and the assortment affected prices; Larger total volumes and shorter forest haulage distances raised unit prices; A higher percentage of the assortment and percentage of sawlogs within the sale corresponded to higher prices.
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Buyers of standing timber take not only the market situation but also the harvest costs into consideration when making purchase offers. In Finland, 85% of all timber is sold as standing timber, but there is little information for forest owners and third parties regarding how differences in harvest costs are reflected in the stumpage prices. This article analyses the relationship between sale-specific factors and stumpage prices in Finland. Data on 4824 standing timber sales between 2008 and 2012 were gathered from five local Forest Management Associations. Regression analyses were run on the stumpage prices (euros m–3) paid for sawlogs and pulpwood. Seasonal harvest restrictions, the volume of the sale and the timber assortment influenced stumpage prices, as did the presence of forest damages. Prices also differed over time and between locations. Furthermore, the forest haulage distance was statistically significant for pulpwood. The results suggest that the size of the individual sales and the composition of assortments affect the income owners earn from their forest. The results can be used to estimate stumpage prices and the monetary impacts on forest owners of procedures such as forest road network planning and land consolidation, as well as for valuation of forests.
  • Kolis, Aalto University, Department of Real Estate, Planning and Geoinformatics, P.O. Box 12200, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: karin.kolis@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hiironen, Aalto University, Department of Real Estate, Planning and Geoinformatics, P.O. Box 12200, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: juhana.hiironen@aalto.fi
  • Ärölä, National Land Survey of Finland, Production Support Services, P.O. Box 84, FI-00521 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: esa.arola@nls.fi
  • Vitikainen, Aalto University, Department of Real Estate, Planning and Geoinformatics, P.O. Box 12200, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: arvo.vitikainen@aalto.fi
article id 983, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Juho Pitkänen, Andras Balazs, Kari T. Korhonen, Pekka Hyvönen, Eero Muinonen. (2014). NFI plots as complementary reference data in forest inventory based on airborne laser scanning and aerial photography in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 983. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.983
Keywords: airborne laser scanning; National Forest Inventory; aerial imagery; plot sampling
Highlights: Using NFI plots in forest management inventories could provide a way for rationalising forest inventory data acquisition; NFI plots were used as additional reference data in laser scanning and aerial image based forest inventory; NFI plots improved the estimates of some forest variables; There are differences between the two inventory types that cause difficulties in combining the data.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Finland, there are currently two, parallel sample-plot-based forest inventory systems, which differ in their methodologies, sampling designs, and objectives. One is the National Forest Inventory (NFI), aimed at unbiased inventory results at national and regional level. The other is the Forest Centre’s management-oriented forest inventory based on interpretation of airborne laser scanning and aerial images, with the aim of locally accurate stand-level forest estimates. The National Forest Inventory utilises relascope sample plots with systematic cluster sampling. This inventory method is optimised for accuracy of regional volume estimates. In contrast, the management-oriented forest inventory utilises circular sample plots with an allocation system covering certain pre-defined forest classes in the inventory area. This method is optimised to produce reference data for interpretation of the remote-sensing materials in use. In this study, we tested the feasibility of the National Forest Inventory sample plots in provision of additional reference data for the management-oriented inventory. Various combinations of NFI plots and management inventory plots were tested in the interpretation of the laser and aerial-image data. Adding NFI plots in the reference data generally improved the accuracy of the volume estimates by tree species but not the estimates of total volume or stand mean height and diameter. The difference between the plot types in the NFI and management inventories causes difficulties in combination of the two datasets.
  • Tuominen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@metla.fi (email)
  • Pitkänen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juho.pitkanen@metla.fi
  • Balazs, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: andras.balazs@metla.fi
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.t.korhonen@metla.fi
  • Hyvönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pekka.hyvonen@metla.fi
  • Muinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eero.muinonen@metla.fi
article id 982, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Timo Saksa, Juho Rantala, Nuutti Kiljunen. (2014). Labour consumption models applied to motor-manual pre-commercial thinning in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 982. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.982
Keywords: productivity; pre-commercial thinning; forest vegetation management; early cleaning; release treatment; mixed linear regression
Highlights: When a young stand grows and gets older, the work time needed to make pre-commercial thinning increases. The stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and hardwoods (Betula spp.) required an additional 8.2%, 5.2%, and 3.3% work-time per year, respectively.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Labour models were developed to estimate the time required to Pre-Commercially Thin (PCT) with a clearing saw 4- to 20-year-old stands of the main commercial tree species in Finland. Labour (i.e., work-time consumption) was estimated from the density and stem diameter of the removal of 448 stands via an existing work productivity function. The removal based estimator attained was used as the basis for a priori mixed linear regression models. The main finding was that when a young stand grows and gets older, the work time needed to make a PCT increases. The stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and hardwoods (Betula spp.) required an additional 8.2%, 5.2%, and 3.3% work-time per year, respectively. Site fertility also played a role in that the most fertile site (mesic OMT) had an estimated labour requirement 114% higher than that for dryish VT. We also note that, per unit area, small stands require less labour than large ones and soil preparation method had a minor effect on the labour estimate. The stands which had previously gone through PCT were separately analysed. In those stands, the only significant variable concerning the labour estimate was age. The a priori models described here can help foresters to develop economic management programmes and issue quotes for forestry services.
  • Uotila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@metla.fi (email)
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@metla.fi
  • Rantala, Metsä Group, Lielahdenkatu 10, FI-33400 Tampere, Finland E-mail: juho.rantala@metsagroup.com
  • Kiljunen, Metsähallitus, Asemakatu 7, FI-70107 Kuopio, Finland E-mail: nuutti.kiljunen@metsa.fi
article id 975, category Research article
Renats Trubins, Ola Sallnäs. (2014). Categorical mapping from estimates of continuous forest attributes – classification and accuracy. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 975. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.975
Keywords: Sweden; land cover maps; forest type maps; map accuracy assessment; class membership probability; Bayesian network; k-NN estimates
Highlights: The paper presents an approach to classification and accuracy assessment of ad-hoc categorical maps based on existing spatial datasets with estimates of continuous forest variables; Pixel level class membership probabilities are estimated using a Bayesian network model.
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Spatially explicit data on forest attributes is demanded for various research with landscape perspective. Existing datasets with estimates of continuous forest variables are often used as the basis for producing categorical forest type maps. Normally, this type of maps are used without knowing their accuracy. This paper presents a Bayesian network model for estimating pixel level class membership probabilities of thus derived categorical maps. Class membership probabilities can be used as a post-classification measure of map accuracy and in the process of map classification affecting the assignments of class labels. The method is applied in mapping deciduous dominated forests on the basis of the k-NN Sweden 2005 dataset in a study area in southern Sweden. The results indicate rather low accuracy for deciduous class regardless of the map classification method: 0.48 versus 0.50 in the maps classified without and with the use of the class membership probabilities given equal deciduous area. When probability-based classification is applied, the level of accuracy varies with the assumed map class proportions. Thus, when deciduous class area corresponding to the National Forest Inventory estimate was used, the accuracy of only 0.35 was obtained for the deciduous map class.
  • Trubins, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 49, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: renats.trubins@slu.se (email)
  • Sallnäs, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 49, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ola.sallnas@slu.se
article id 989, category Research article
Anna Saarsalmi, Pekka Tamminen, Mikko Kukkola. (2014). Effects of long-term fertilisation on soil properties in Scots pine and Norway spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 1 article id 989. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.989
Keywords: boreal forest; nitrogen; Pinus sylvestris L.; phosphorus; liming; forest soils; Picea abies (L.) Karst.
Highlights: N fertilisation increased the amount of carbon in the organic layer; N fertilisation decreased the C/N ratio in the surface soil; N addition increased the amount of most nutrients in the organic layer; N fertilisation tended to lower pH, although only slightly.
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The response of surface soil after 45- to 52-years to repeated nitrogen and phosphorus fertilisation was studied. This study included 30 factorial experiments established in young (5- to 30-year-old) stands using plots of 900 m2, on average, and by randomising treatments within each experiment. Total amount of N added varied from 534 to 1908 kg ha–1 and that of P from 69 to 193 kg ha–1, repeated at every second N fertilisation. Liming was performed twice; in total, 6000 kg ha–1 of dolomite was applied. Nitrogen fertilisation increased the mass of the organic layer and the amount of carbon and consequently the amounts of most of the elements in the organic layer. In both the organic layer and the 0–10 cm layer of mineral soil, nitrogen fertilisation decreased the C/N ratio and tended to lower pH, although only slightly. Phosphorus fertilisation increased the amounts of P and Ca. Liming increased the total amounts of most elements in the organic layer, except for C and N. We were able to derive models to describe how changes in the chemical properties of the surface soil depended on doses of elements and on site and stand properties.
  • Saarsalmi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: anna.saarsalmi@metla.fi (email)
  • Tamminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: pekka.tamminen@metla.fi
  • Kukkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mikko.kukkola@metla.fi
article id 980, category Research article
Atte Komonen, Panu Halme, Mari Jäntti, Tuuli Koskela, Janne S. Kotiaho, Tero Toivanen. (2014). Created substrates do not fully mimic natural substrates in restoration: the occurrence of polypores on spruce logs. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 1 article id 980. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.980
Keywords: Norway spruce; boreal forest; ecological restoration; dead wood; protected area management; substrate quality; wood-decaying fungi
Highlights: Polypore communities were more homogeneous among created than among natural logs; The old-growth forest indicator Phellinus ferrugineofuscus occurred frequently on natural logs, but occupied only a few created logs; Results show that created logs do not fully mimic natural logs.
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Many protected areas have been under intensive forest management prior to protection and thus lack natural ecosystem structures and dynamics. Dead wood is a key structure in forests harboring hundreds of threatened species. We investigated the ecological success of dead wood creation as a boreal forest restoration measure. We analysed whether the polypore communities of chain-saw felled and girdled (subsequently fallen) Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) logs differ from naturally formed spruce logs of similar decay stage and size. The study was conducted in Leivonmäki National Park in central Finland 8 years after the restoration measures. The average number of polypore species was highest on the chain-saw felled logs and most of the common polypore species were most frequent on this substrate. However, among the natural logs, number of species increased more steeply with increasing number of logs, suggesting greater variation in community composition on this substrate. The old-growth forest indicator Phellinus ferrugineofuscus occurred frequently on natural logs, occupied a few girdled logs but was absent from chain-saw felled logs. Our results show that from the polypore perspective created logs do not fully mimic natural logs, suggesting that creating substrates for species may pose a challenge for restoration.
  • Komonen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: atte.komonen@jyu.fi (email)
  • Halme, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: panu.halme@jyu.fi
  • Jäntti, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: mari.j.jantti@student.jyu.fi
  • Koskela, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: tuuli.e.koskela@student.jyu.fi
  • Kotiaho, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: janne.kotiaho@jyu.fi
  • Toivanen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Current: Birdlife Finland, Annankatu 29 A 16, FI-00100 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tero.toivanen@birdlife.fi
article id 949, category Research article
Ken Olaf Storaunet, Jørund Rolstad, Erlend Rolstad. (2014). Effects of logging on the threatened epiphytic lichen Usnea longissima: an experimental approach. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 1 article id 949. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.949
Keywords: boreal forest; Picea abies; selective logging; Usnea longissima; threatened lichen
Highlights: A re-inventory of the threatened lichen Usnea longissima in ten Norway spruce forest stands where experimental selective loggings had been conducted 5 to 8 years before revealed that the number of lichen thalli had increased with 34%; The number of thalli increased more where the forest was open whether or not the low tree density was caused by the loggings.
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Usnea longissima Ach. is a circumboreal epiphytic lichen draping tree canopies in moist coastal and mountainous forests. It is extinct from many European and North-American localities, presumably due to industrial forestry and air pollution, but still has a stronghold in parts of Scandinavia and U.S. and Canadian Pacific Northwest. In 2005/06 we used a comparative and retrospective approach to evaluate how present and historic tree and stand characteristics influenced the occurrence and abundance of the lichen (Storaunet et al. 2008). In 2012, we re-inventoried ten Norway spruce forest stands with 401 U. longissima-bearing trees and recorded changes in the number of U. longissima thalli. Seven of the stands had been experimentally, selectively logged 5–8 years before, where the lichen-bearing trees had been marked in the field and were avoided during the logging operation. Total number of lichen-bearing trees decreased slightly (2.9%), whereas the number of thalli had increased with 34%. Number of thalli increased more where the forest was open (low basal area, m2ha-1) whether or not the low tree density was caused by the logging events. At high tree densities the change in number of thalli was negligible. We suggest that selective logging, securing lichen-bearing trees, may be a viable management option to keep tree density from becoming too dense, thereby enhancing growth and establishment of U. longissima.
  • Storaunet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: stk@skogoglandskap.no (email)
  • Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: roj@skogoglandskap.no
  • Rolstad, Skogfaglig Rådgivning, Holmsida 126, NO-1488 Hakadal, Norway E-mail: roe@skogoglandskap.no
article id 1071, category Research article
Ursula Kretschmer, Nadeschda Kirchner, Christopher Morhart, Heinrich Spiecker. (2013). A new approach to assessing tree stem quality characteristics using terrestrial laser scans. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 5 article id 1071. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1071
Keywords: LIDAR; terrestrial laser scanner; tree stem quality assessment; cylinder approximation; bark defects
Highlights: Minimal deviations of the bark surface can be detected and visualized based on terrestrial laser scan data; Additionally the geometrical properties of bark scars and branched knots can be assessed; Two methods using two different approaches are presented: (1) a method using intensity data and (2) a method using bark surface models.
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This paper presents an approach to assess and measure bark characteristics as indicators of wood quality using terrestrial laser scan data. In addition to the detection and measurement by use of the intensity information of the scan data a new approach was established. Bark surface models are calculated for each tree. They offer the representation of the bark as a height model. The reference is the tree stem approximated by a chain of cylinders. Minimal deviations of the bark surface can be detected and visualized and the geometrical properties of bark scars and branched knots can be assessed. Results of the measurement of 18 scars are presented using the two approaches: (1) a method using intensity data or (2) using bark surface models. The selection of the adequate approach depends on the stem characteristics. In a next step, methods for automatic measurement of bark scars will be developed.
  • Kretschmer, Chair of Forest Growth, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany E-mail: ursula.kretschmer@iww.uni-freiburg.de (email)
  • Kirchner, VOLKE Consulting Engineers GmbH, Schätzweg 7-9, 80935 München, Germany E-mail: nadeschda.kirchner@volke.muc.de
  • Morhart, Chair of Forest Growth, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany E-mail: christopher.morhart@iww.uni-freiburg.de
  • Spiecker, Chair of Forest Growth, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany E-mail: instww@uni-freiburg.de
article id 943, category Research article
Terje Gobakken, Lauri Korhonen, Erik Næsset. (2013). Laser-assisted selection of field plots for an area-based forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 5 article id 943. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.943
Keywords: forest inventory; LIDAR; airborne laser scanning; stratified sampling; area-based approach
Highlights: Using laser data as auxiliary information in the selection of field plot locations helps to decrease costs in forest inventories based on airborne laser scanning; Two independent, differently selected sets of field plots were used for model fitting, and third for validation; Using partial instead of ordinary least squares had no major influence on the results; Forty well placed plots produced fairly reliable volume estimates.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Field measurements conducted on sample plots are a major cost component in airborne laser scanning (ALS) based forest inventories, as field data is needed to obtain reference variables for the statistical models. The ALS data also provides an excellent source of prior information that may be used in the design phase of the field survey to reduce the size of the field data set. In the current study, we acquired two independent modeling data sets: one with ALS-assisted and another with random plot selection. A third data set was used for validation. One canopy height and one canopy density variable were used as a basis for the ALS-assisted selection. Ordinary and partial least squares regressions for stem volume were fitted for four different strata using the two data sets separately. The results show that the ALS-assisted plot selection helped to decrease the root mean square error (RMSE) of the predicted volume. Although the differences in RMSE were relatively small, models based on random plot selection showed larger mean differences from the reference in the independent validation data. Furthermore, a sub-sampling experiment showed that 40 well placed plots should be enough for fairly reliable predictions.
  • Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@umb.no
  • Korhonen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi (email)
  • Næsset, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: erik.naesset@umb.no
article id 937, category Research article
Rene Zamora-Cristales, Kevin Boston, John Sessions, Glen Murphy. (2013). Stochastic simulation and optimization of mobile chipping economics in processing and transport of forest biomass from residues. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 5 article id 937. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.937
Keywords: forest planning; simulation; optimization; economics; decision analysis; forest biomass; renewable energy
Highlights: A stochastic simulation model is proposed to analyze forest biomass operations; The cost of chipper and truck waiting times was estimated in forest biomass recovery operations; The economic effect of truck-machine interactions under uncertainty was analyzed; Road characteristics and processing location have an economic impact in truck and chipper waiting times
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We analyzed the economics of mobile chipping and transport of biomass from forest residues for energy purposes under uncertainty. A discrete-event simulation model was developed and utilized to quantify the impacts of controllable and environmental variables on productivity in order to determine the most cost effective transportation options under steep terrain conditions. Truck-chipper interactions were analyzed to show their effect on truck and chipper standing time. A costing model was developed to account for operating and standing time cost (for the chipper and trucks). The model used information from time studies of each activity in the productive cycle and spatial-temporal information obtained from geographic information system (GIS) devices, and tracking analysis of machine and truck movements. The model was validated in field operations, and proved to be accurate in providing the expected productivity. A cost distribution was elaborated to support operational decisions of forest managers, landowners and risk-averse contractors. Different scenarios were developed to illustrate the economic effects due to changes in road characteristics such as in-highway transport distance, in-forest internal road distance and pile to trailer chipper traveling distances.
  • Zamora-Cristales, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: rene.zamora@oregonstate.edu (email)
  • Boston, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: kevin.boston@oregonstate.edu
  • Sessions, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources, and Management, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, 280 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA E-mail: john.sessions@oregonstate.edu
  • Murphy, Waiariki Institute of Technology, Rotorua, New Zealand E-mail: glen.murphy@waiariki.ac.nz
article id 1046, category Research article
Eva-Maria Nordström, Hampus Holmström, Karin Öhman. (2013). Evaluating continuous cover forestry based on the forest owner’s objectives by combining scenario analysis and multiple criteria decision analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 1046. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1046
Keywords: forest planning; decision making; sustainable forest management; uneven-aged forestry
Highlights: Scenario analysis and multiple criteria decision analysis were combined to evaluate alternative forest management strategies for Linköping municipality, Sweden; Continuous cover forestry (CCF) promoted ecological and social objectives better than even-aged forestry but was worse for economic objectives; Ecological and social objectives were important to the municipality and thus, in summary, CCF seemed to be a suitable strategy.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forests are increasingly managed both to provide a sustainable yield of timber and for supplying a range of ecosystem services in line with the concept of sustainable forest management. Several incommensurable interests must then be considered, and it is necessary to strike a balance between different objectives. In evaluation of trade-offs to be made, both objective factors and subjective values need to be taken into account. In recent years, continuous cover forestry (CCF) has been put forward as an alternative to even-aged forestry. The aim of this study was to use scenario analysis in combination with multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to evaluate whether CCF is a suitable strategy based on the decision makers’ objectives and preferences for sustainable forest management in a specific landscape. This approach was applied to a planning case on the forest estate of the Linköping municipality in southwestern Sweden. The scenario analyses provided insights into relevant quantitative factors, while the MCDA evaluation helped in clarifying the objectives of the forest management and in assessing the relative importance of various objectives. The scenario analyses showed that in this case CCF is a good management strategy in ecological and social terms but yields worse economic outcomes than conventional even-aged forestry. In the Linköping case, there was a relatively strong emphasis on ecological and social aspects and thus, in summary, CCF seemed to be the most suitable option.
  • Nordström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: eva-maria.nordstrom@slu.se (email)
  • Holmström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: hampus.holmstrom@slu.se
  • Öhman, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: karin.ohman@slu.se
article id 1030, category Research article
Jussi Manner, Tomas Nordfjell, Ola Lindroos. (2013). Effects of the number of assortments and log concentration on time consumption for forwarding. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 1030. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1030
Keywords: productivity; time study; forest haulage; forwarders; cut-to-length logging; log extraction; terrain transport
Highlights: We analysed the effects of total and forwarded log concentrations (m3 (100 m)–1) and the number of loaded assortments on forwarding; The combination of the number of loaded assortments and their abundance (i.e. forwarded log concentration) affected time consumption most; This knowledge enables improved efficiency by optimizing number and assortment proportions in the various loads required to forward a stand.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forwarding has been carried out for 50 years, but much is still unknown about this work. Its complexity comes from both stand features and essential decision-making. Forwarding time consumption is influenced by e.g. log concentrations and number of assortments. Traditionally, focus has been on the total log concentration (TLC), referring to all logs at the harvesting site. However, we focused on forwarded log concentration (FLC), the load-specific log concentration which depends on the assortment distribution at harvesting site and the load-specific number of assortments. To evaluate the effects of TLC, number of assortments in a load and FLC on the loading and unloading times, a standardized field experiment was carried out. Pile and load sizes were constant, while TLC and FLC were manipulated by varying the pile distribution on the test path. For all work elements, the time consumption per m3 was significantly affected by the number of assortments that were loaded, but only the “driving while loading” work element was also significantly influenced by TLC. However, when untangling the intercorrelation between tested factors, it was found that the time consumption for driving while loading significantly decreased as a function of FLC and was unaffected by the number of assortments in a load. That FLC influences the forwarding time consumption highlights the need to study the effects of combining various assortment proportions in a load. Such knowledge will enable analysis of the most efficient number and assortment proportions to combine in the various loads required to forward a given stand.
  • Manner, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterial and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jussi.manner@slu.se (email)
  • Nordfjell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterial and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tomas.nordfjell@slu.se
  • Lindroos, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterial and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ola.lindroos@slu.se
article id 1022, category Research article
Eero Muinonen, Perttu Anttila, Jaakko Heinonen, Jukka Mustonen. (2013). Estimating the bioenergy potential of forest chips from final fellings in Central Finland based on biomass maps and spatially explicit constraints. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 1022. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1022
Keywords: biomass; stumps; logging residues; remote sensing; forest energy
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The technical potential of forest chips from final fellings in Central Finland was estimated using a method based on biomass maps derived from a multi-source forest inventory technique. Image segmentation techniques were applied to a satellite image mosaic to detect stand boundaries. The technical potential of forest chips was computed based on primary forestry residues, i.e. logging residues and stumps from final fellings. Harvesting level definitions for final fellings were established using realized statistics for roundwood at the municipality level as well as larger area statistics. The sensitivity of the potential to ecological and technical constraints in the model was also examined. The technical recovery rate of stump harvesting according to biomass harvesting guidelines was evaluated separately. The critical prerequisites for using the advanced, spatially explicit approach to analysing forest energy potentials may lie in the existence of spatially explicit forest inventory data and the biometric models for tree biomass assortments. The method applied was capable of taking into account the constraints that rely upon map data, such the actual forwarding distance or steepness of the slope in the terrain. The calculation results can be used for strategic decision making in the field of forest bioenergy production.
  • Muinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eero.muinonen@metla.fi (email)
  • Anttila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: perttu.anttila@metla.fi
  • Heinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jaakko.heinonen@metla.fi
  • Mustonen, Stora Enso, Talvikkitie 40 C, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jukka.mustonen@storaenso.com
article id 1000, category Research article
Sören Wulff, Cornelia Roberge, Anna Hedström Ringvall, Sören Holm, Göran Ståhl. (2013). On the possibility to monitor and assess forest damage within large scale monitoring programmes – a simulation study. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 1000. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1000
Keywords: forest health; forest inventory; environmental monitoring and assessment; forest condition
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
There is a growing demand for information on forest health due to fears that climate change may cause new kinds of damage that have not previously been encountered. In many cases, forest damage monitoring is conducted exclusively within sparse large-scale grids of sample plots and it is doubtful whether these are capable of providing relevant information to support mitigation programmes or other actions required to reduce economic losses due to damage outbreaks. In this study, we used simulated sampling to assess the precision of estimators related to forest state and changes in the damage sustained by trees within an area corresponding to the Swedish region Götaland, assuming a sampling design corresponding to that used in the Swedish National Forest Inventory (NFI) under different damage scenarios. Large and uniformly distributed damage outbreaks were well captured by an NFI-type inventory, but scattered damage outbreaks produced estimates with poor precision. As a consequence, we propose that there might be a need to revise current forest damage monitoring programmes to make them more useful for monitoring the kinds of damage that are likely to arise as a consequence of climate change.
  • Wulff, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: soren.wulff@slu.se (email)
  • Roberge, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: cornelia.roberge@slu.se
  • Ringvall, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: anna.ringvall@slu.se
  • Holm, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: soren.holm@slu.se
  • Ståhl, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: goran.stahl@slu.se
article id 973, category Research article
Sergio Rossi, Hubert Morin, François Gionest, Danielle Laprise. (2013). Spatially explicit structure of natural stands dominated by black spruce. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 973. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.973
Keywords: boreal forest; Picea mariana; mortality; recruitment; stand dynamics
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Black spruce [Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP] regeneration emerges in clusters near the pre-existing boles within a few years after the passage of fire. This paper tested the hypothesis that black spruce forests still maintain the spatial structure deriving from postfire stand initiation. Trees and saplings were monitored during 2000-2007 and the horizontal and vertical structure of the stands were investigated on four permanent plots in the boreal forest of Quebec, Canada. Plots showed 1300-2150 trees ha-1, and were composed of trees with homogeneous sizes and a very small proportion of saplings. These characteristics identify single cohorts generated by complete, or almost-complete, stand replacement by fire. Ripley’s L(r) functions showed that the spatial pattern of trees and saplings ranged from random to aggregated, thus demonstrating that the clustering distribution of the individuals in black spruce forests can be maintained even after 80-120 years from stand initiation. These findings could results from incomplete self-thinning or from an environment with heterogeneous distribution of resources. The practices of ecosystem management recently developed in Eastern Canada should take into account both the horizontal and vertical structure to better modulate the competition among individuals during partial harvesting.
  • Rossi, Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 555 boulevard de l’Université, Chicoutimi (QC), G7H2B1, Canada E-mail: sergio.rossi@uqac.ca (email)
  • Morin, Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 555 boulevard de l’Université, Chicoutimi (QC), G7H2B1, Canada E-mail: hubert_morin@uqac.ca
  • Gionest, Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 555 boulevard de l’Université, Chicoutimi (QC), G7H2B1, Canada E-mail: francois_gionest@uqac.ca
  • Laprise, Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 555 boulevard de l’Université, Chicoutimi (QC), G7H2B1, Canada E-mail: danielle_laprise@uqac.ca
article id 972, category Research article
Outi H. Manninen, Rainer Peltola. (2013). Effects of picking methods on the berry production of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea) and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum) in Northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 972. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.972
Keywords: berry yields; commercial picking; wild forest berries
Highlights: Berry production of bilberry, lingonberry and crowberry was studied after picking the berries by plastic hand rake, long-handed metal rake, and powerful picking by long-handed metal rake; Berry production was not affected by the damage caused by any of the picking method; Current commercial picking methods do not endanger the berry production of the berry species at least in short-term.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effect of commercial wild berry picking on berry yields is under a strong public debate in Finland. Especially high concern has been arisen over damages caused by metal rakes used in commercial picking to subsequent berry production. We studied the berry production of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea L.) and crowberry (E. nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum (Hagerup) Böcher) after picking the berries by 1) plastic hand rake, 2) long-handed metal rake and 3) powerful picking by long-handed metal rake, in northern Finland during 2010–2012. In the powerful long-handed metal rake treatment the aboveground vegetation was raked twice to the moss layer after berry picking. Biomass, which was removed from the vegetation by rakes was collected and used as a measure of the damage. We assumed that picking by plastic hand rake would result in lowest, long-handed metal rake intermediate and powerful picking by long-handed metal rake highest biomass loss from vegetation. The amount of biomass loss should in turn be reversely reflected into berry production. However, only the powerful picking by long-handed metal rake removed higher amount of biomass than other picking methods in bilberry and lingonberry. In crowberry, the amount of biomass removed by rakes increased from treatment to treatment. Contrary to our assumption, berry production of bilberry, lingonberry and crowberry was not affected by the damage caused by any of the picking method. We conclude that long-handed metal rake used in commercial picking is comparable to hand rake in terms of berry production.
  • Manninen, Agrifood Research Finland MTT, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: outi.h.manninen@mtt.fi (email)
  • Peltola, Agrifood Research Finland MTT, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: rainer.peltola@mtt.fi
article id 970, category Research article
Zhen-Yu Du, Qing-Hua Wang, Shang-Jun Xing, Fang-Chun Liu, Bing-Yao Ma, Hai-Lin Ma, De-Xi Liu. (2013). Fine root distribution, characteristics and rhizosphere soil properties in a mixed stand of Robinia pseudoacacia and Fraxinus velutina in a saline soil. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 970. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.970
Keywords: mixed forest; fine root; black locust; velvet ash; rhizhosphere soil
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The spatial distribution and characteristics of fine roots (< 2 mm in diameter), and rhizosphere soil properties were studied in a mixed planted forest of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and velvet ash (Fraxinus velutina Torr.) 27 years after planting in a coastal saline soil of the Yellow River delta, China. The results of fine root analysis showed that the fine roots of both black locust and velvet ash were mainly distributed in the soil layer at 0–20 cm depth and 50–150 cm from trees. The fine root distribution of both species suggests a strategy of avoiding salinity rather than salt –tolerance. The horizontal spread distance of fine roots of velvet ash was evidently longer than that of black locust. The fine root biomass, specific root length, specific root area, specific root volume and root activity were significantly higher for velvet ash in comparison with black locust. The results of soil analysis showed that rhizosphere soil pH of black locust and velvet ash were significantly lower compared with non-rhizosphere soil. The available N content in rhizosphere soil of black locust was higher than that of velvet ash. However, the contents of soluble salt, organic matter, available P and available K in rhizosphere soil of velvet ash were higher than those of black locust. The above results indicated that the differences between black locust and velvet ash in fine root distribution, characteristics and rhizosphere soil properties were the major reasons for that velvet ash showed stronger acclimation responses than black locust to the coastal saline soil.
  • Du, Shandong Academy of Forestry, 42 Wenhua East Road, Jinan 250014, P. R. China E-mail: zydu@qq.com (email)
  • Wang, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: wqh0228@163.com
  • Xing, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: xingsj-126@126.com
  • Liu, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: fchliu@126.com
  • Ma, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: mby777@163.com
  • Ma, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: mahlin@163.com
  • Liu, Shandong Academy of Forestry, Jinan, P. R. China E-mail: llyldx@163.com
article id 958, category Research article
Back Tomas Ersson, Linus Jundén, Urban Bergsten, Martin Servin. (2013). Simulated productivity of one- and two-armed tree planting machines. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 958. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.958
Keywords: discrete-event simulation; mechanized planting; forestry; silviculture; automation; terrain model; root model
Highlights: Using discrete-event simulation and detailed terrain and machine models, the productivities of excavator-based one- and two-armed tree planting machines were simulated; The machines’ arms were equipped with one-and two-headed planting devices; Two planting heads per arm rather than two arms per base machine is better for increasing the productivity of intermittently advancing planting machines on Nordic clearcuts.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
To increase mechanized planting, planting machine productivity must increase in order to improve cost-efficiency. To determine if excavators with two crane arms could potentially help to increase planting machine productivity under Nordic clearcut conditions, we modelled one-armed and semi-automated two-armed excavators with one- and two-headed planting devices. Using a recently developed tool for discrete-event simulation, these machine models then mounded and planted seedlings on terrain models with moraine soil having various frequencies of obstacles (stumps, roots and stones). Compared to if the two heads were mounted pairwise on only one arm, the results showed that productivity did not increase if two planting heads were attached individually to two separate crane arms. But productivity did increase if the planting machine had four planting heads mounted pairwise on two separate arms. However, despite assuming automated mounding and crane motion between planting spots, the two-armed, four-headed model never achieved high enough productivity levels to make it more cost-efficient than one-armed machines. The simulations illustrate that our terrain models generate realistic root architecture and boulder content distributions in moraine soil, while our machine models functionally describe mechanized planting work. Based on our assumptions, we conclude that further development work on two-armed excavator-based planting machines for Nordic clearcut conditions is not warranted. Our simulations reveal that increasing the number of planting heads per crane arm rather than number of crane arms per base machine offers the greatest potential to raise the productivity of intermittently advancing planting machines.
  • Ersson,  Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se (email)
  • Jundén,  UMIT Research Lab, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: linus.junden@gmail.com
  • Bergsten,  Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: urban.bergsten@slu.se
  • Servin,  UMIT Research Lab, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: martin.servin@physics.umu.se
article id 952, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Inka Pippuri, Petteri Packalén, Ville Heikkinen, Matti Maltamo, Juho Heikkilä. (2013). Detection of the need for seedling stand tending using high-resolution remote sensing data. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 952. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.952
Keywords: forest management; airborne laser scanning; logistic regression; seedling stand; tending; support vector machine
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Seedling stands are problematic in airborne laser scanning (ALS) based stand level forest management inventories, as the stem density and species proportions are difficult to estimate accurately using only remotely sensed data. Thus the seedling stands must still be checked in the field, which results in an increase in costs. In this study we tested an approach where ALS data and aerial images are used to directly classify the seedling stands into two categories: those that involve tending within the next five years and those which involve no tending. Standard ALS-based height and density features, together with texture and spectral features calculated from aerial images, were used as inputs to two classifiers: logistic regression and the support vector machine (SVM). The classifiers were trained using 208 seedling plots whose tending need was estimated by a local forestry expert. The classification was validated on 68 separate seedling stands. In the training data, the logistic model’s kappa coefficient was 0.55 and overall accuracy (OA) 77%. The SVM did slightly better with a kappa = 0.71 and an OA = 86%. In the stand level validation data, the performance decreased for both the logistic model (kappa = 0.38, OA = 71%) and the SVM (kappa = 0.37, OA = 72%). Thus our approach cannot totally replace the field checks. However, in considering the stands where the logistic model predictions had high reliability, the number of misclassifications reduced drastically. The SVM however, was not as good at recognizing reliable cases.
  • Korhonen, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@uef.fi (email)
  • Pippuri, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: inka.pippuri@uef.fi
  • Packalén, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: petteri.packalen@uef.fi
  • Heikkinen, School of Computing, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ville.heikkinen@uef.fi
  • Maltamo, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@uef.fi
  • Heikkilä, Finnish Forest Centre, Public Services, Maistraatinportti 4 A, FI-00240 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juho.heikkila@metsakeskus.fi
article id 935, category Research article
Loice M. A. Omoro, Mike Starr, Petri K. E. Pellikka. (2013). Tree biomass and soil carbon stocks in indigenous forests in comparison to plantations of exotic species in the Taita Hills of Kenya. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 935. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.935
Keywords: biomass; carbon stocks; soil carbon; Eastern Arc Montane forest; exotic tree species; indigenous forest
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Carbon (C) densities of the tree biomass and soil (0–50 cm) in indigenous forest and plantations of eucalyptus, cypress and pine in the Taita Hills, Kenya were determined and compared. The cypress and pine plantations were about 30-years-old and eucalyptus plantations about 50-years-old. Biomass C densities were estimated from breast height diameter and wood density using allometric functions developed for tropical species and an assumed C content of 50%. Belowground biomass C densities were estimated using root:shoot biomass ratios. Soil organic C (SOC) densities were calculated from measured organic carbon contents (0–20 and 20–50 cm layers) and modelled bulk density values. Mean total biomass C and SOC densities for indigenous forest were greater than those of the plantations, and the difference was significant (p < 0.05) in the cases of cypress and pine biomass and pine SOC. The correlation between biomass C and SOC densities was nearly significant in the case of indigenous forest, but negative. Biomass C densities were not significantly correlated with mean annual precipitation, mean annual temperature or potential evapotranspiration, but pine biomass C densities were significantly correlated to actual evapotranspiration. SOC densities were more strongly correlated to mean annual precipitation than biomass C densities, but only significantly so in the case of pine. Neither biomass C nor SOC densities were correlated to plant available water capacity of the soil. Indigenous forest SOC densities were significantly correlated to soil clay contents, but negatively. Indigenous forests sequester more C in biomass and soil than do 30 to 50-year-old plantations of exotics, but it remains unclear if this is an intrinsic difference between indigenous forest and plantations of exotics or because of insufficient time for SOC levels in plantations to recover after clearance of original indigenous forest.
  • Omoro, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: loice.omoro@helsinki.fi
  • Starr, Department of Forest Sciences, P. O. Box 27 (Latokartanonkaari 7), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mike.starr@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Pellikka, Department of Geosciences and Geography, P. O. Box 64 (Gustaf Hällströminkatu 2), FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: petri.pellikka@helsinki.fi
article id 933, category Research article
Per-Ola Hedwall, Harald Grip, Sune Linder, Lars Lövdahl, Urban Nilsson, Johan Bergh. (2013). Effects of clear-cutting and slash removal on soil water chemistry and forest-floor vegetation in a nutrient optimised Norway spruce stand. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 933. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.933
Keywords: Picea abies; logging residues; forest fertilisation; forest undergrowth; N-retention; nutrient leakage; whole-tree harvest
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fertilisation with nutrient optimisation has in Sweden resulted in large increases in volume growth in young stands of Norway spruce. There are, however, environmental concerns about repeated fertilisation and one is the risk of nutrient leakage to ground water resources and aquatic ecosystems after clear-cutting of such forests. The present study followed soil-water chemistry in optimised fertilised stands after clear-cutting, as well as effects of harvest of slash on nutrient leakage. Parts of a 30-year-old stand of Norway spruce, which had been subject to a nutrient optimisation experiment for 17 years, were clear-cut. A split-plot design with whole-tree harvesting as the sub-plot treatment was applied. Lysimeters were installed and soil-water sampled at nine occasions during the following four years. No significant effects of fertilisation on nitrate leaching were found, while harvest of slash reduced the concentration of Ca, DOC, DON, K, Mg, ammonium and nitrate, as well as pH in the soil solution. While no effects of fertilisation could be seen on the soil water concentration of N, the results indicate an interaction between fertilisation and harvest of slash on the concentration of nitrate in the soil solution. The results indicate that forest-floor vegetation plays an important role in the retention of N after clear-cutting of fertilised forests.
  • Hedwall, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: per-ola.hedwall@slu.se (email)
  • Grip, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, SLU, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: harald@grip2.se
  • Linder, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: sune.linder@slu.se
  • Lövdahl, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, SLU, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ll@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: urban.nilsson@slu.se
  • Bergh, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: johan.bergh@slu.se
article id 925, category Research article
Steen Magnussen. (2013). An assessment of three variance estimators for the k-nearest neighbour technique. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 925. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.925
Keywords: forest inventory; simple random sampling; resampling estimators; bootstrap; jackknife; difference estimator; cluster sampling
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A jackknife (JK), a bootstrap (BOOT), and an empirical difference estimator (EDE) of totals and variance were assessed in simulated sampling from three artificial but realistic complex multivariate populations (N = 8000 elements) organized in clusters of four elements. Intra-cluster correlations of the target variables (Y) varied from 0.03 to 0.26. Time-saving implementations of JK and BOOT are detailed. In simple random sampling (SRS), bias in totals was ≤ 0.4% for the two largest sample sizes (n = 200, 300), but slightly larger for n = 50, and 100. In cluster sampling (CLU) bias was typically 0.1% higher and more variable. The lowest overall bias was in EDE. In both SRS and CLU, JK estimates of standard error were slightly (3%) too high, while the bootstrap estimates in both SRS and CLU were too low (8%). Estimates of error suggested a trend in EDE toward an overestimation with increasing sample size. Calculated 95% confidence intervals achieved a coverage that in most cases was fairly close (± 2%) to the nominal level. For estimation of a population total the EDE estimator appears to be slightly better than the JK estimator.
  • Magnussen, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 505 West Burnside Road, Victoria BC V8Z 1M5 Canada E-mail: steen.magnussen@nrcan.gc.ca (email)
article id 902, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Reija Haapanen. (2013). Estimation of forest biomass by means of genetic algorithm-based optimization of airborne laser scanning and digital aerial photograph features. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 902. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.902
Keywords: forest inventory; airborne laser scanning; biomass modelling
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Information on forest biomass is required for several purposes, including estimation of forest bioenergy resources and forest carbon stocks. Airborne laser scanning is today considered the most accurate remote sensing method for forest inventory. The three-dimensional nature of laser scanning data enables estimation of the volumes of the tree canopies. The dimensions of the tree canopies show high correlation with the amount of forest biomass. Optical aerial photographs are often used to complement laser data, for improved distinction between tree species. The paper reports on a study testing the estimation of forest biomass variables in two study areas in Southern Finland. The biomass variables were derived on the basis of tree-level field measurements, with biomass models used for pine, spruce, and birch. The sample-plot-level biomass components were derived on the basis of tree-level data and used as reference data for airborne-laser- and aerial‑photograph-based estimation. Results were slightly better for total biomass (RMSE 22.5% and 23.6% for the two study areas) than total volume (RMSE: 23.4% and 26.1%). Species-specific estimation errors were large in general but varied between the study areas, because of differences in their forest structures.
  • Tuominen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O.Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@metla.fi (email)
  • Haapanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O.Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: reija.haapanen@gmail.com
article id 899, category Research article
Franz Holzleitner, Christian Kanzian, Norbert Höller. (2013). Monitoring the chipping and transportation of wood fuels with a fleet management system. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 899. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.899
Keywords: forest fuel; supply chain; monitoring; logistic; fleet management; wood chips
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Controlling and organizing the complex forest-to-consumer supply chain of wood fuels is a challenging task, especially for the chipping and transport processes. Truck mounted chippers and transport trailer-trucks must be scheduled to minimize delay to be profitable. Job management within the supply chain, including machine activity based controlling, offers a new way to increase efficiency and productivity. However, detailed data are required to detect and analyze potential gaps and improve forest fuel supply. Generally, data regarding the wood fuel supply chain process are obtained from extensive time studies that are based on a specific process step. Although time studies can detect details during the production of forest fuels, they only describe certain time frames. Long-term data that are recorded during the entire year could encompass seasonal and short term effects. This study aims to monitor the forest fuel supply processes (semi-automated), specifically regarding time and fuel consumption. Large data sets were automatically and efficiently gathered with little effort by drivers and operators. Data were recorded with fleet management equipment for more than 14 months. Vehicle data, including GPS data, were logged at an interval of one minute. Data management was conducted in a pre-configured database that contained pre-defined reports and were run by the Institute of Forest Engineering, Vienna. Work step assignments were implemented with Structured Query Language (SQL)-routines by using the raw machine activities data and GPS. The chipping and transport activities of more than 240 loads were analyzed by focusing on fuel consumption, time needed and traffic. The average distance between chipping sites and plants was approximately 54 kilometers. Fuel consumption from transport reached 50 l/100 km. The chipping unit reached a productivity of 12.8 odt/PSH15 and had a fuel consumption of 58 liters per operating hour.
  • Holzleitner, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: franz.holzleitner@boku.ac.at (email)
  • Kanzian, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: christian.kanzian@boku.ac.at
  • Höller, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter Jordanstrasse 82/3, 1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: norbert.hoeller@boku.ac.at
article id 894, category Research article
Heimo Karppinen, Mika Korhonen. (2013). Do forest owners share the public’s values? An application of Schwartz’s value theory. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 894. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.894
Keywords: demographics; family forest owners; objectives of forest ownership; the public; Schwartz’s value theory
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The purpose of this study is to investigate the differences in value priorities between Finnish forest owners and the general public. A conclusion is drawn whether and to what extent value changes in society are reflected in forest owners’ values and objectives, and, finally, in their actual forestry behavior. In addition, the study highlights the differences in value priorities among forest owners in various demographic groups. The data set used in this study was based on a nationwide mail survey on Finnish non-industrial private forest owners conducted in 2009 and consisting of 2116 observations of forest owners. Schwartz’s value theory was a good fit for testing the value priorities of forest owners. The three most important values were benevolence, security and conformity, both among the forest owners and the public. Tradition was ranked the fourth most important value by the forest owners, but very low by the public. The forest owners ranked universalism slightly lower than the public in general. This difference was clearly greater when the female forest owners were compared to women in the whole population. The probability of a forest owner belonging to the Softies (high emphasis on universalism and benevolence) increased with age and was higher for the female owners and the owners with recreational or multiple objectives compared to the indifferent owners. The multiobjective owners and recreationists had relatively similar value profiles. The previous literature suggests that multiobjective owners are the most active forest owner group and that recreationists and indifferent owners are the most passive groups in their timber supply behavior. The relationship between values and forestry behavior thus remains ambiguous.
  • Karppinen, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: heimo.karppinen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, Kämnerintie 7e 41, FI-00750 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mika.korhonen@gmx.com
article id 893, category Research article
Juha Heiskanen, Timo Saksa, Jaana Luoranen. (2013). Soil preparation method affects outplanting success of Norway spruce container seedlings on till soils susceptible to frost heave. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 1 article id 893. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.893
Keywords: Picea abies; pine weevil; vole; mounding; reforestation; glyphosate; plantation establishment; soil water content
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Soil preparation is a common practice that precedes outplanting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in Finland as it enhances the survival and early growth of seedlings. Mounding in particular has become more common with Norway spruce planting in recent years. However, on fine-grained soils, the postplanting performance of seedlings has been poorer than on coarser soils even with mounding. This study examined the effects of different soil preparation treatments (spot and ditch mounding with varying mound height, inverting, unprepared control with or without a herbicide) on the postplanting performance of Norway spruce container seedlings on till soil susceptible to frost heave in two outplanting forest sites in central Finland. The results indicate higher soil temperature and lower soil water content especially in the highest mounds. Mounds, however, subsided gradually during the study years. Seedling mortality was higher and the proportion of vigorous seedlings was lower in the unprepared treatments, mainly due to increased pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) damage. Frost heave was present mainly on ditch mounded and inverted spots. Glyphosate herbicide treatment showed no benefit compared to the untreated control in two years. Consequently, seedling damage and conditions in the planting spots were reflected in seedling growth which was enhanced in the mounded spots. However, varying mound height or thickness of mineral capping showed no clear difference in seedling growth. The results therefore suggest that ditch or spot mounding should be used on frost heave susceptible forest soils to promote plantation establishment. Inverting or having no soil preparation with or without herbicide is not recommended.
  • Heiskanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: juha.heiskanen@metla.fi (email)
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@metla.fi
  • Luoranen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: jaana.luoranen@metla.fi
article id 924, category Research article
Minna Pulkkinen. (2012). On non-circularity of tree stem cross-sections: effect of diameter selection on cross-section area estimation, Bitterlich sampling and stem volume estimation in Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 5B article id 924. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.924
Keywords: basal area; Scots pine; stem volume; forest mensuration; cross-section; non-circularity; Bitterlich sampling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the common methods of forest mensuration, including stem volume models and Bitterlich sampling, stem cross-sections are assumed to be circular. In nature this assumption is never exactly fulfilled. Errors due to non-circularity have been presumed to be small and unimportant but studied little: theoretical and empirical studies exist on cross-section area estimation, but errors in stem volume estimation have not been investigated at all, and errors in Bitterlich sampling are theoretically known only for stand basal area estimation. In the theoretical part of this study, we developed methods for quantifying the systematic and sampling errors that 22 common ways of selecting diameter within non-circular cross-sections induce (i) in area estimates by the circle area formula, (ii) in stand total estimates by Bitterlich sampling, and (iii) in stem volume estimates by a volume equation, by a cubic-spline-interpolated stem curve, and by a generalised volume estimator. In the empirical part, based on the digital images of 709 discs taken at 6–10 heights in 81 Scots pine stems from different parts of Finland, we investigated the variation in cross-section shape, and demonstrated the magnitude of the errors presented in the theoretical part. We found that non-circularity causes systematic overestimation of area and volume, and inflicts potentially systematic error on stand total estimates by Bitterlich sampling. In our data these effects were small, but the finding is not generalisable due the skewed size distribution and poor geographical representativeness of the data. We recommend using diameter derived from girth for both tree and stand level estimation, as it involves no sampling error and produces clearly the most stable systematic errors.
  • Pulkkinen, E-mail: minna.pulkkinen@iki.fi (email)
article id 922, category Research article
Malin Nilsson, Dianne Staal Westerlund, Olof Wahlberg, Ljusk Ola Eriksson. (2012). Forest planning in a Swedish company – a knowledge management analysis of forest information. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 5 article id 922. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.922
Keywords: forest planning; long-term planning; medium-term planning; knowledge management; knowledge; information
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest data and forest information are central to forest management planning. The knowledge a large forest-owning company possesses about its forests could potentially be a strategic capability. In this study, the forest-planning process of a large forest company is analyzed in terms of knowledge management (KM). The study was conducted as a case study of Sveaskog – the largest forest-owning company in Sweden. The study focuses on the long-term harvest strategy through medium-term planning until the stands are transferred to the tract bank and ready for operational planning. Interviews with key persons within the organization were conducted to assess how forest knowledge is used in this process. The results are presented for the four knowledge management processes: creation, storage-retrieving, transferring and applying. They show that the planning system relies to a great extent on codified knowledge realized by a push strategy.
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: malin.nilsson@slu.se (email)
  • Staal Westerlund, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: dianne.wasterlund@slu.se
  • Wahlberg, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ow@nn.se
  • Eriksson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ljusk.ola.eriksson@slu.se
article id 919, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Juho Rantala, Timo Saksa. (2012). Estimating the need for early cleaning in Norway spruce plantations in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 5 article id 919. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.919
Keywords: cleaning; conifer release; cost-effectiveness; forest vegetation management; early cleaning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Effective management of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) plantations requires detailed information on stand development, which is costly to measure. However, estimating the need for early stand management from site attributes that persists stabile after ones measured, may provide an inexpensive alternative. This study compared hardwood competition in spruce plantations of varying ages and tested the usability of this information in estimating the need for early cleaning. The data included 197 spruce plantations (4–7 years old) inventoried in southern Finland in 2007. The level (Low, Substantial, High) of need for early cleaning was subjectively determined by contrasting location and size of competing hardwoods to a conifer crop tree. Then the stage of the need for early cleaning was modelled according to site and stand attributes. Nearly 60% of the conifer crop trees in the plantations were subjectively judged to require early cleaning (Substantial 37.2%, High 21.2%), but only 10 per cent of the evaluated area was cleaned. Need for cleaning was intense on peatlands or damp soils, whereas it was mild on unprepared soils or cleaned sites. Traditional site characteristics used in forest management planning can be useful for recognising the peripheral cases, where need for cleaning is probably high or low. However, on a typical mineral soil plantation (uncleaned, soil prepared) the model indicates the differences in the need for early cleaning weakly. The need for early cleaning was already high in 4-year-old plantations, why stand age did not have significant effect on development of the need. Thus, the timing of an operation can not be predicted with the model. Nonetheless, early cleaning very likely opens growth space of crop trees in a 4–7-year-old spruce plantation. Therefore, from an aspect of crop growth, an uncleaned Norway spruce plantation in this age group is quite consistently worth cleaning.
  • Uotila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@metla.fi (email)
  • Rantala, Metsä Group, Tampere, Finland E-mail: juho.rantala@metsagroup.com
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@metla.fi
article id 909, category Research article
Veikko Hiltunen, Mikko Kurttila, Jouni Pykäläinen. (2012). Strengthening top-level guidance in geographically hierarchical large scale forest planning: experiences from the Finnish state forests. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 4 article id 909. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.909
Keywords: efficiency; acceptability; hierarchical planning; strategic forest planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Different planning approaches conclude to different results. The top-down approach allocates resources efficiently from the top-level perspective, while the bottom-up approach provides optimal results for the lower levels. Integrated approach that combines the elements of these two basic approaches provides compromise solutions for decision makers. The aim of this study was to examine potential efficiency improvements in hierarchically structured large scale forest management through increased top-level guidance. The resulting effects on the acceptability of the plans on the lower level were also studied. Large scale planning typically considers forests owned by states, companies and municipalities. In the case study of the Finnish state forests, alternative country level solutions were generated by combining regional forest plans in different ways. The results showed that the currently applied bottom-up approach, which produces regionally optimal management strategies, did not result in the most efficient use of resources on the country level. However, the new country level solutions did not produce huge improvements in the country level objective values compared to the results of the current approach. Furthermore, if country level efficiency improvements were emphasized more, together with wide approval by regional stakeholders and local residents, new kind of interaction and participation between the planning levels and also between the regions would be needed.
  • Hiltunen, Metsähallitus, Viestitie 2, FI-87700 Kajaani, Finland E-mail: veikko.hiltunen@metsa.fi (email)
  • Kurttila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kurttila@metla.fi
  • Pykäläinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jouni.pykalainen@metla.fi
article id 908, category Research article
Sattar Ezzati, Akbar Najafi, M. A. Rab, Eric K. Zenner. (2012). Recovery of soil bulk density, porosity and rutting from ground skidding over a 20-year period after timber harvesting in Iran. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 4 article id 908. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.908
Keywords: soil disturbance; timber harvesting; soil conservation; skid trail slope; mountainous forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Ground-based skidding can have detrimental effects on soil properties trough soil profile disturbance and compaction that can persist for decades. We investigated the recovery of physical properties of disturbed brown soils on four abandoned downhill skid trails in a deciduous mountain forest in northern Iran. The most recent skidding operations had taken place 1–5 yrs, 6–10 yrs, 11–15 yrs, and 16–20 yrs ago, providing a 20-year chronosequence with four 5-year recovery periods. For each recovery period, mean values for soil bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), macroporosity (MP), soil moisture content (SM), and rut depth (RD) were assessed for three levels of traffic intensity (Primary (PS), Secondary (SS) and Tertiary (TS) skid trails) and two levels of slope gradients (Gentle (G) and Steep (S)) and compared to those in undisturbed (control) areas. Over the 20-year recovery period, PS trails on gentle slopes exhibited mean values that were 35–42% (BD), 3–7% (SM), and 13–19 cm (RD) greater and 18–24% (TP) and 19–28% (MP) lower compared to undisturbed areas; on steep PS trails, values were 40–46% (BD), 2–13% (SM), and 13–21 cm (RD) greater and 23–27% (TP) and 28–35% (MP) lower, respectively. While RD and SM recovered, 20 years was not long enough for the other physical soil properties, particularly on steep slopes. To minimize soil disturbance, skidding should be confined to areas with gentle slopes and alternative harvesting methods such as cable yarding should be used where slope gradients exceed 20%.
  • Ezzati, Department of Forestry and Forest Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O. Box 64414-356, Iran E-mail: se@nn.ir
  • Najafi, Department of Forestry and Forest Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, P. Box 64414-356, Iran E-mail: a.najafi@modares.ac.ir (email)
  • Rab, Soil Physics Future Farming Systems Research Division, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia E-mail: mr@nn.ir
  • Zenner, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA E-mail: eric.zenner@psu.edu
article id 906, category Research article
Eivind Meen, Anders Nielsen, Mikael Ohlson. (2012). Forest stand modelling as a tool to predict performance of the understory herb Cornus suecica. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 4 article id 906. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.906
Keywords: canopy layer; field layer; stand structure dynamics; forest simulator; composite models; Akaike’s information criterion
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest simulation models have been widely used to predict future stand structure. Generally these models do not include the understory vegetation and its response on stand structure change or other environmental factors. Previous simulation studies have shown that stand structure related variables, e.g. basal area, can explain diversity of the forest floor vegetation in boreal forests. We hypothesise that such variables also can be used to explain the performance of understory species and we conceptualise how plant ecology and forest modelling can be combined to predict the performance of understory plants in Norwegian boreal forests. We predict the performance of an understory plant species (Cornus suecica) over time using simulated values of forest variables as input to models expressing the relationship between forest environment variables and plant performance variables (viz. plant height, plant dry weight, number of flowers, number of branches and number of leaves). We also present relationships between plant performance and explanatory variables commonly used in basic ecological research, variables that currently not are readily compatible with forest simulators (e.g. soil chemical variables).We found basal area of canopy trees being the most important explanatory variable explaining C. suecica performance. The performance variable dry weight was predicted by one single model whereas the other performance variables were best predicted by model averaging. Forest simulations for 150 years showed values of plant performance of C. suecica to be reduced during forest succession.
  • Meen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: eivind.meen@umb.no (email)
  • Nielsen, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: an@nn.no
  • Ohlson, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: mo@nn.no
article id 49, category Research article
Kalle Karttunen, Kari Väätäinen, Antti Asikainen, Tapio Ranta. (2012). The operational efficiency of waterway transport of forest chips on Finland’s Lake Saimaa. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 3 article id 49. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.49
Keywords: barges; discrete-event simulation; forest fuels; logistics; supply chains; tugboats
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
New and cost-efficient methods for use in supply chains for energy wood should be found, to reach the targets of the renewable energy utilisation set by the European Union. The long-distance waterway transportation of forest fuels should be thoroughly investigated, especially in areas where the transport distance is long and waterways could provide a feasible method of conveying forest fuel. In comparison to transport of forest chips by truck, barge-based waterway transport shows a competitive advantage due to the larger loads and higher bulk density of chips it allows. The cost-efficiency of waterway transportation operations related to forest chips in Finland’s Lake Saimaa region was studied using practical demonstrations and discrete-event simulation. The varying demand for fuel wood in three separate bio-power plants on the Saimaa lakeside (near the cities of Varkaus, Mikkeli, and Savonlinna) was addressed in several barge transportation scenarios. Finally, the economy of barge transportation was compared to the economy of truck transportation as a function of transportation distance and in terms of the annual performance of the transportation methods examined. The waterway supply chain of forest chips was cost-competitive to road transport by truck after 100–150 km. According to the simulation study, the most economical waterway transport options were based on fixed barge system and shift-independent harbor logistics where loading and unloading of barges were carried-out with a wheeled loader and a belt conveyor. Total supply chain costs including the best waterway logistics from road side storage to power plant ranged from 10.75 euros to 11.64 euros/MWh in distances of 100–150 km by waterways. The energy-density of forest chips in the barge load was found to be, on average, 25% higher than that in truck hauling, because of the better compaction of chips. Waterway transport is a viable option for long-distance transportation of forest chips in Eastern Finland.
  • Karttunen, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: kalle.karttunen@lut.fi (email)
  • Väätäinen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.vaatainen@metla.fi
  • Asikainen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.asikainen@metla.fi
  • Ranta, Lappeenranta University of Technology, LUT Savo Sustainable Technologies, Mikkeli, Finland E-mail: tapio.ranta@lut.fi
article id 47, category Research article
Iulian Dragotescu, Daniel D. Kneeshaw. (2012). A comparison of residual forest following fires and harvesting in boreal forests in Quebec, Canada. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 3 article id 47. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.47
Keywords: forest fires; biodiversity; boreal mixedwood; clearcuts; disturbances; residual forests; tree retention
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Residual forests are a key component of post-burned areas creating structure within burns and providing habitat and seed sources. Yet, despite their importance to biodiversity and ecosystem processes there is little information on how similar or different residuals in burned landscape are to harvested landscapes. Our goal was to examine and compare the density, size, shape, and spatial arrangement of residual forest vegetation after fire and clearcutting. We evaluated residual forest in two locations within the boreal mixedwood region of Quebec, Canada using aerial photo interpretation and ArcGIS 9.1 software. We found residual stands to be larger and more abundant in harvested zones relative to sites affected by fire. Differences with respect to shape and spatial arrangement of residual forest were also observed among disturbance types. Factors such as proximity to watercourses, watercourse shape, and physiography affected residual abundance and spatial distribution. Residual forest in harvested zones tended to be more elongated with greater edge due to rules governing forest operations. Despite greater quantity of residual forest in harvested areas than fires, managers should still be prudent as the surrounding forest matrix is reduced in many managed landscapes.
  • Dragotescu, Université du Québec à Montréal, Centre d’Étude de la Forêt (CEF), Montreal, Quebec, Canada E-mail: idragot@hotmail.com (email)
  • Kneeshaw, Université du Québec à Montréal, Centre d’Étude de la Forêt (CEF), Montreal, Quebec, Canada E-mail: ddk@nn.ca
article id 44, category Research article
Anabel Aparecida de Mello, Leif Nutto, Karla Simone Weber, Carlos Eduardo Sanquetta, Jorge Luis Monteiro de Matos, Gero Becker. (2012). Individual biomass and carbon equations for Mimosa scabrella Benth. (bracatinga) in southern Brazil. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 3 article id 44. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.44
Keywords: carbon offsets; forest inventory; firewood; modeling; tree compartments
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Mimosa scabrella Benth. is an important native species of southern Brazil widely used for energy and promising for reforestation carbon offsets. Quantification of biomass and carbon stock is valuable for both purposes. From a forest inventory conducted in southern Brazil, data of M. scabrella were analyzed. Thirty sample trees were felled, excavated and weighed in the field and brought to laboratory for biomass and carbon determination. The total aboveground biomass represented 85% of the tree biomass, while roots corresponded to 15%. Correlation matrix of diameter at 1.3 m height (D), tree height (H) versus total and compartment biomass (P) indicated strong association between tree dimensions and biomasses. Five regression models were tested and equations were fitted to data of five biomass compartments and total tree biomass. The best fitting model for total biomass was P = –0.49361 + 0.034865 x D2H whereas for the partial biomass of the compartments was lnP = β0 + β1 x ln(D) + β2 lnH. Carbon concentration was statistically significantly different in foliage than in other compartments. Three approaches of calculating carbon stocks were evaluated and compared to actual data: 1) Estimated total biomass x weighted mean carbon concentration; 2) Estimated partial (compartment) biomass x compartment average carbon concentration; and 3) Carbon regression equations. No statistical difference was detected among them. It was concluded that biomass equations fitted in this study were accurate and useful for fuelwood and carbon estimations.
  • de Mello, Federal University of Sergipe, Brazil E-mail: aadm@nn.br
  • Nutto, Federal University of Paraná, Brazil E-mail: lnutto.ufpr@gmail.com (email)
  • Weber, Federal University of Paraná E-mail: ksw@nn.br
  • Sanquetta, Carlos Eduardo Sanquetta E-mail: ces@nn.br
  • Monteiro de Matos, Jorge Luis Monteiro de Matos E-mail: jlmdm@nn.br
  • Becker, University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Utilization and Work Science, Germany E-mail: gb@nn.de
article id 58, category Research article
Ilona Suuriniemi, Jukka Matero, Harri Hänninen, Jussi Uusivuori. (2012). Factors affecting enlargement of family forest holdings. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 58. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.58
Keywords: economies of scale; structural change; forest ownership; non-industrial private forest owners; land policy; parcelization; consolidation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study contributes to the research of enlargement – a counterforce of parcelization – of forest holdings. To help planning policy measures aiming at increased average size of forest holdings, we study the characteristics of family forest owners who acquired additional forestland area during the years 2004–2008. Increases of forestland area due to purchases on the open market, purchases from parents or other relatives, inheritance or gift are studied. Survey data, containing information of 6318 forest owners, are analyzed with logistic regression analysis in order to establish a relationship between the probability of increasing the forestland area and the characteristics of landowners. The results indicate that young male owners, who appreciate economic values of the ownership and are active users of their forest estates, most often expand their forest property. This can be considered as an encouraging result from the point of view of the political objective to boost forest management activity through enlarging family forest holdings.
  • Suuriniemi, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: is@nn.fi
  • Matero, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jukka.matero@uef.fi (email)
  • Hänninen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Uusivuori, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ju@nn.fi
article id 53, category Research article
Saana Kataja-aho, Aino Smolander, Hannu Fritze, Sini Norrgård, Jari Haimi. (2012). Responses of soil carbon and nitrogen transformations to stump removal. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 53. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.53
Keywords: biofuel; boreal forest; carbon; nitrogen; nutrient dynamics; stump removal
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied in central Finland whether stump harvesting after clear felling of coniferous forest poses further short-term changes in soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics when compared to the traditional site preparation method, mounding. Exposed mineral soil patches in Norway spruce (Picea abies) dominated clear-cut stands were sampled 1–5 years after the treatments. The extent of the exposed mineral soil surface was significantly larger at the stump removal sites when compared to the mounding sites. No differences were found in soil pH, organic matter content or total concentration of soil C between the treatments or treatment years. Total concentration of soil N was consistently higher and C:N ratio lower in the stump removal plots than in the mounded plots. Further, both net N mineralisation and nitrification were clearly increased in the stump removal plots one year after the treatments. Soil microbial activity (CO2 production) was higher in the stump removal plots but similar difference was not found in sieved soil samples incubated in the laboratory. Fluxes of other important greenhouse gases (CH4 and N2O) did not seem to be affected by stump removal. The differences between the stump removal and mounding procedures were most obviously attributed to more substantial soil disturbance by stump pulling and/or differences in the microbial communities and quality of soil organic matter in the differently treated soil.
  • Kataja-aho, University of Jyväskylä, Dept. of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: saana.m.kataja-aho@jyu.fi (email)
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: as@nn.fi
  • Fritze, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hf@nn.fi
  • Norrgård, University of Jyväskylä, Dept. of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: sn@nn.fi
  • Haimi, University of Jyväskylä, Dept. of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
article id 444, category Research article
Sovu, Mulualem Tigabu, Patrice Savadogo, Per Christer Odén. (2012). Facilitation of forest landscape restoration on abandoned swidden fallows in Laos using mixed-species planting and biochar application. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 444. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.444
Keywords: black carbon; charcoal; rice husk biochar; secondary forest; shifting cultivation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The cessation of swidden cultivation and the increasing trend of abandonment of swidden fallows have created an opportunity for forest landscape restoration. However, ways need to be found to improve the poor soil fertility at these sites with affordable materials and to generate short-term socio-economic benefits for small-scale swidden fallow holders. This study assessed the feasibility of using mixed-planting of eight native species and application of rice husk biochar as soil amendment measure at a site in Laos. The effect of biochar application was compared against addition of inorganic (NPK) fertilizer and the control. The establishment and growth of the planted seedlings was then monitored for four years. The addition of rice husk biochar and NPK fertilizer did not significantly (p = 0.578) improve the survival rate of planted seedlings, which ranged from 72% to 91% (depending on the species) compared to the control. No significant growth responses to the soil amendments were observed for most of the species during the first year after planting compared to the control. The biochar effect was, however, more evident at the fourth year for diameter (p < 0.01) and height (p < 0.01) of sapling for all species; particularly its effect was more vivid on the diameter of slow-growing species. The results indicate that the species tested in the mixed-planting showed marked growth variation while application of rice husk biochar boosted their growth. Thus, planting mixed-species in swidden fallows has potential to provide continuous supplies of wood from different species to diversify the livelihood of swidden field owners, while maintaining ecosystem services.
  • -, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: s@nn.se
  • Tigabu, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: mulualem.tigabu@slu.se (email)
  • Savadogo, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ps@nn.se
  • Odén, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: pco@nn.se
article id 70, category Research article
Joonas Järvinen, Jaakko Linnakangas. (2012). Firm capabilities in the Finnish forest cluster: comparisons based on self-organizing map. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 70. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.70
Keywords: forest cluster; capability; content analysis; self-organizing map
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper examines the capability portfolios of Finnish forest cluster firms in 1998–2008. In particular, the focus is on what kind of capabilities the firms in the cluster have developed, whether the firms have developed such capabilities consistently, and whether they have developed similar capability portfolios. Further, a particular focus is on the links between innovativeness and other identified capabilities. We approach the topic with an exploratory quantitative analysis of the annual reports of 11 large firms in the cluster by using computerized content analysis and a self-organizing map as the main research methods. Based on the content analysis and earlier literature, we first identify fifteen capabilities, and then build capability portfolios for the firms on the basis of the results of the self-organizing map. At the firm level, the results reveal both similarities and differences in the capability portfolios of the forest cluster firms. Similarly, we identify both continuity and change in the development of the portfolios. At the cluster level, the focus is on innovativeness capability and its relationship with other capabilities. The results suggest that especially being strategic, market-oriented, and monitoring the external environment are positively related with innovativeness; in contrast, a focus on finance and change seems to suppress innovativeness.
  • Järvinen, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Aalto University, P.O.Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: joonas.jarvinen@aalto.fi (email)
  • Linnakangas, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Aalto University, P.O.Box 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
article id 69, category Research article
Tarja Wallenius, Risto Laamanen, Jussi Peuhkurinen, Lauri Mehtätalo, Annika Kangas. (2012). Analysing the agreement between an Airborne Laser Scanning based forest inventory and a control inventory – a case study in the state owned forests in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 69. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.69
Keywords: forest inventory; quality assessment; airborne laser scanning
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Airborne laser scanning based forest inventories have recently shown to produce accurate results. However, the accuracy varies according to the test area and used methodology and therefore, an unambiguous and practical quality assessment will be needed as a part of each inventory project. In this study, the accuracy of an ALS inventory was evaluated with a field sampling based control inventory. The agreement between the ALS inventory and the control inventory was analysed with four methods: 1) root mean square error (RMSE) and bias, 2) scatter plots with 95% confidence intervals, 3) Bland-Altman plots and 4) tolerance limits within Bland-Altman plots. Each method has its own special features which have to be taken into account when the agreement is analysed. The pre-defined requirements of the ALS inventory were achieved. A simplified control inventory approach with a slightly narrower focus is proposed to be used in the future. The Bland-Altman plots with the tolerance limits are proposed to be used in quality assessments of operational ALS inventories. Further studies to improve the efficiency of quality assessment are needed.
  • Wallenius, Metsähallitus, P.O. Box 94, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tarja.wallenius@metsa.fi (email)
  • Laamanen, Metsähallitus, P.O. Box 94, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rl@nn.fi
  • Peuhkurinen, Oy Arbonaut Ltd, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
  • Kangas, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ak@nn.fi
article id 68, category Research article
Maria Villikka, Petteri Packalén, Matti Maltamo. (2012). The suitability of leaf-off airborne laser scanning data in an area-based forest inventory of coniferous and deciduous trees. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 68. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.68
Keywords: forest inventory; group-specific estimates; leaf-off data; LIDAR
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This study examined the suitability of airborne laser scanner (ALS) data collected under leaf-off conditions in a forest inventory, in which deciduous and coniferous trees need to be separated. All analyses were carried out with leaf-on and leaf-off ALS data collected from the same study area. Additionally, aerial photographs were utilized in the Nearest Neighbor (NN) imputations. An area-based approach was used in this study. Regression estimates of plot volume were more accurate in the case of leaf-off than leaf-on data. In addition, regression models were more accurate in coniferous plots than in deciduous plots. The results of applying leaf-on models with leaf-off data, and vice versa, indicate that leaf-on and leaf-off data should not be combined since this causes serious bias. The total volume and volume by coniferous and deciduous trees was estimated by the NN imputation. In terms of total volume, leaf-off data provided more accurate estimates than leaf-on data. In addition, leaf-off data discriminated between coniferous and deciduous trees, even without the use of aerial photographs. Accurate results were also obtained when leaf-off ALS data were used to classify sample plots into deciduous and coniferous dominated plots. The results indicate that the area-based method and ALS data collected under leaf-off conditions are suitable for forest inventory in which deciduous and coniferous trees need to be distinguished.
  • Villikka, University of Easten Finland, Department of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mv@nn.fi
  • Packalén, University of Easten Finland, Department of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: petteri.packalen@uef.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, University of Easten Finland, Department of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 65, category Research article
Kristóf Kelemen, Barbara Mihók, László Gálhidy, Tibor Standovár. (2012). Dynamic response of herbaceous vegetation to gap opening in a Central European beech stand. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 1 article id 65. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.65
Keywords: continuous cover forestry; dispersal; gap colonization; herbs; seed bank type; species richness
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Herbaceous ground vegetation in artificially-created gaps was studied in a managed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest over a period of eight years in Northern Hungary, Central Europe. These gaps were being used as an alternative to the regular shelterwood system to create uneven-aged stands. The effects of gap size (15 and 40 m diameter) and canopy openness on herbaceous species colonization and persistence were assessed in a systematic grid of 5 5 m. Overall, herbaceous cover was low before gap creation, increased soon afterwards, and continued to rise over time. The number of herb species increased in the gaps and, to a lesser extent, in adjacent areas under the remaining tree canopy. Colonization of gaps was rapid and there was substantial turnover of species i.e. various species disappeared from the gaps over time whilst others colonized. Species with both long-term persistent seed banks and long distance dispersal abilities were the most successful types colonizing gaps. Six species occurred preferentially in large gaps, while only one species was found to prefer small gaps. Species present before gap creation survived in both gap sizes. Smaller gaps with a diameter of half the height of canopy trees also tended to remain free of common weed species, whereas large cover of Rubus fruticosus L. and Calamagrostis epigejos (L.) Roth could hamper natural regeneration in larger gaps. For the successful regeneration of beech we recommend the use of small gaps complemented by few large gaps.
  • Kelemen, Loránd Eötvös University, Institute of Biology, Department of Plant Systematics, Ecology and Theoretical Biology, Budapest, Hungary E-mail: kk@nn.hu
  • Mihók, Loránd Eötvös University, Institute of Biology, Department of Plant Systematics, Ecology and Theoretical Biology, Budapest, Hungary E-mail: bm@nn.hu
  • Gálhidy, Loránd Eötvös University, Institute of Biology, Department of Plant Systematics, Ecology and Theoretical Biology, Budapest, Hungary E-mail: lg@nn.hu
  • Standovár, Institute of Biology, Department of Plant Systematics, Ecology and Theoretical Biology, Budapest, Hungary E-mail: standy@ludens.elte.hu (email)
article id 90, category Research article
Per Angelstam, Kjell Andersson, Robert Axelsson, Marine Elbakidze, Bengt Gunnar Jonsson, Jean-Michel Roberge. (2011). Protecting forest areas for biodiversity in Sweden 1991–2010: the policy implementation process and outcomes on the ground. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 90. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.90
Keywords: forest policy; forest protection; restoration ecology; connectivity; green infrastructure; umbrella species; forest disturbance regimes; participation and collaboration
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Swedish forest and environmental policies imply that forests should be managed so that all naturally occurring species are maintained in viable populations. This requires maintenance of functional networks of representative natural forest and cultural woodland habitats. We first review the policy implementation process regarding protected areas in Sweden 1991–2010, how ecological knowledge was used to formulate interim short-term and strategic long-term biodiversity conservation goals, and the development of a hierarchical spatial planning approach. Second, we present data about the amount of formally protected and voluntarily set aside forest stands, and evaluate how much remains in terms of additional forest protection, conservation management and habitat restoration to achieve forest and environmental policy objectives in the long-term. Third, a case study in central Sweden was made to estimate the functionality of old Scots pine, Norway spruce and deciduous forest habitats, as well as cultural woodland, in different forest regions. Finally, we assess operational biodiversity conservation planning processes. We conclude that Swedish policy pronouncements capture the contemporary knowledge about biodiversity and conservation planning well. However, the existing area of protected and set-aside forests is presently too small and with too poor connectivity. To bridge this gap, spatial planning, management and restoration of habitat, as well as collaboration among forest and conservation planners need to be improved.
  • Angelstam, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: per.angelstam@slu.se (email)
  • Andersson, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: ka@nn.se
  • Axelsson, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: ra@nn.se
  • Elbakidze, School for Forest Management, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, Sweden E-mail: me@nn.se
  • Jonsson, Dept of Natural Science, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: bgj@nn.se
  • Roberge, Dept of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Forest Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jmr@nn.se
article id 89, category Research article
Russell Grenfell, Tuomas Aakala, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2011). Microsite occupancy and the spatial structure of understorey regeneration in three late-successional Norway spruce forests in northern Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 89. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.89
Keywords: boreal forest; disturbance; microsite; spatial correlation; stand structure; natural forest
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We compared microsite occupancy and three spatial structure of regeneration in three primeval late-successional Norway spruce dominated forests. One area lay in the middle boreal zone in Russia (Dvina-Pinega) where larger-scale disturbance from bark beetles and drought had occurred; the other areas lay in the northern boreal zone, one in Finland (Pallas-Ylläs) had encountered only small-scale disturbance, and one in Russia (Kazkim) had been influenced by fire. We mapped all spruce (Picea abies) and birch (Betula pendula and Betula pubescens) trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm on 40 m 400 m plots, and those with DBH < 10 cm on 2 m or 4 m 400 m subplots. On the subplots we also recorded microsite occupancy and estimated microsite availability. At all study areas small seedlings (h < 0.3 m) of both spruce and birch were found largely on disturbance-related microsites. Birch saplings (h ≥ 1.3 m, DBH < 10 cm) disproportionately occupied deadwood-related microsites at Dvina-Pinega. In contrast, spruce saplings at all study areas, and birch saplings at Kazkim and Pallas-Ylläs, showed less, or no, preference. Our results thus confirm the importance of disturbance-related microsites for regeneration establishment, but not necessarily for long-term survival. No spatial segregation between the overstorey (DBH ≥ 10 cm) and saplings (h ≥ 1.3 m, DBH < 10 cm) or seedlings (h < 1.3 m) was found at Pallas-Ylläs or Kazkim, and only three instances of very weak segregation were found at Dvina-Pinega. This suggests that the regeneration gap concept may not be useful for describing the regeneration dynamics of primeval boreal forests.
  • Grenfell, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: russell.grenfell@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Aakala, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ta@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
article id 88, category Research article
Seppo Rouvinen, Jari Kouki. (2011). Tree regeneration in artificial canopy gaps established for restoring natural structural variability in a Scots pine stand. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 88. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.88
Keywords: ecosystems; diversity; restoration
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In Finland and elsewhere in Europe, many protected forest areas include also stands that were previously managed and that lack several naturally occurring stand characteristics. In these areas, ecosystem restoration can be used to facilitate and accelerate the formation of structural and habitat features resembling those of natural forests. For example, by creating small gaps it could be possible to diversify forest structure and tree species composition and to produce dead wood while still maintaining mostly continous canopy coverage. We examined experimentally the effects of artificial gap formation on post-disturbance tree regeneration in the gaps in a young protected, but formerly commercially managed pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated forest. In the experimental sites, gap size and the portion of girdled trees out of all treated trees (girdled and felled trees combined) in the gaps varied. Natural and artificial (direct seeding of silver birch Betula pendula Roth) tree regeneration and development was monitored both on disturbed (scarified soil patches) and undisturbed forest floor during three growing seasons. Results show that gaps can be valuable in diversifying stand structure but to be successful and rapid, tree regeneration needs disturbed forest floor. Pine regenerated numerously, but birch had clearly lower regeneration, especially on small-sized gaps. In conclusion, increasing tree diversity in young pine-dominated forests seems to be difficult when only small artificial gaps are used. But even small gaps can be used to create and maintain diverse cohort structure of the dominant species and thus they can contribute to restoration goals.
  • Rouvinen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.rouvinen@uef.fi (email)
  • Kouki, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
article id 85, category Research article
Ville A.O. Selonen, Maija Mussaari, Tero Toivanen, Janne S. Kotiaho. (2011). The conservation potential of brook-side key habitats in managed boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 85. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.85
Keywords: forest management; saproxylic species; dead wood; vegetation
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Today, maintaining biodiversity is included in the targets of boreal forest management. A widespread approach in northern Europe is to identify and preserve woodland key habitats within managed forests. Woodland key habitats are expected to be patches that host populations of threatened and declining species, and the preservation of these patches is assumed to enable the persistence of the focal species in the landscape. In Finland, the criteria for selecting woodland key habitats are defined in the Finnish Forest Act, and the selection has been done by forest practitioners. Our objective was to determine whether the surroundings of boreal brooks and rivulets qualified as key habitats are truly different from brook-side habitats not granted the key habitat status, and whether the brook-side habitats of the two types differ from the forest matrix managed for timber production. We found that the two brook-side habitats were in most aspects rather alike but there was a difference in the composition of ground vegetation assemblages. In contrast, the control forests were distinct from the brook-sides in terms of dead wood, species richness and assemblages of polypores, species richness of epiphytic mosses, and the composition of beetle assemblages. We conclude that brook-sides in general provide an important habitat clearly diverging from the surrounding matrix but that the conservation value of the brook-sides granted the key habitat status may not be substantially larger than that of the brook-sides without the status.
  • Selonen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Lahti, Finland E-mail: ville.selonen@juy.fi (email)
  • Mussaari, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Lahti, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Toivanen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Lahti, Finland E-mail: tt@nn.fi
  • Kotiaho, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Lahti, Finland E-mail: jsk@nn.fi
article id 84, category Research article
Asko Lõhmus, Piret Lõhmus. (2011). Old-forest species: the importance of specific substrata vs. stand continuity in the case of calicioid fungi. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 84. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.84
Keywords: forest management; conservation; continuity; habitat; lichen; limiting factor; structural diversity
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Appropriate conservation management of old-forest species depends on the causes of their old-forest affinity, which, however, are insufficiently known. Calicioid fungi are often considered old-forest dependent because of their special requirements for microhabitat, microclimate, and stand continuity for at least two tree generations. We demonstrate that, for several methodological or interpretational problems, published studies do not provide unequivocal evidence for such mechanisms and even for old-forest dependency of calicioids in general. We then analyse a large Estonian dataset (ca. 2300 records of 32 species) representing various management types and site types to answer whether old forests have more calicioid species, and any specific species, than could be expected for the substratum availability observed. Although old growth had more species and records than mature managed stands or cutover sites, those substratum types that occurred at roughly similar abundances also hosted comparable numbers of species in different management types. The characteristic substrata adding extra species to old growth were snags and root-plates of treefall mounds; wood surfaces in general comprised more than half of all calicioid records. Although substratum abundance did not fully explain the species-richness contrast between old growth and mature stands, additional evidence suggested that the unexplained variance is rather due to small-scale habitat characteristics than stand-scale continuity or microclimate. Finally, we review the evidence for old-forest affinity of calicioid species and distinguish a set of threatened species. We conclude that the availability of specific substrata is the main limiting factor for calicioid fungi in forests, and its quantitative and stochastic nature explains the large random and region-specific variation in the published lists of ‘old-forest species’.
  • Lõhmus, Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise st. 46, EE-51014, Tartu, Estonia E-mail: asko.lohmus@ut.ee (email)
  • Lõhmus, Department of Botany, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia E-mail: pl@nn.ee
article id 83, category Research article
Inari Ylläsjärvi, Håkan Berglund, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2011). Relationships between wood-inhabiting fungal species richness and habitat variables in old-growth forest stands in the Pallas-Yllästunturi National Park, northern boreal Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 83. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.83
Keywords: species-area relationship; species richness; old-growth forest; indicators; northern Fennoscandia; polyporaceae; polypores
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Indicators for biodiversity are needed for efficient prioritization of forests selected for conservation. We analyzed the relationships between 86 wood-inhabiting fungal (polypore) species richness and 35 habitat variables in 81 northern boreal old-growth forest stands in Finland. Species richness and the number of red-listed species were analyzed separately using generalized linear models. Most species were infrequent in the studied landscape and no species was encountered in all stands. The species richness increased with 1) the volume of coarse woody debris (CWD), 2) the mean DBH of CWD and 3) the basal area of living trees. The number of red-listed species increased along the same gradients, but the effect of basal area was not significant. Polypore species richness was significantly lower on western slopes than on flat topography. On average, species richness was higher on northern and eastern slopes than on western and southern slopes. The results suggest that a combination of habitat variables used as indicators may be useful in selecting forest stands to be set aside for polypore species conservation.
  • Ylläsjärvi, Rovaniemi University of Applied Sciences, School of Forestry and Rural Industries, Jokiväylä 11 c, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: inari.yllasjarvi@ramk.fi (email)
  • Berglund, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hb@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
article id 82, category Research article
Nicole J. Fenton, Yves Bergeron. (2011). Dynamic old-growth forests? A case study of boreal black spruce forest bryophytes. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 82. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.82
Keywords: disturbances; old-growth forest; succession; boreal; bryophytes; climax; gap dynamics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Old-growth forests have sparked significant interest over the last twenty years and definitions have evolved from structure based to process based, acknowledging the diversity of forests that could be considered old growth. However studies frequently group all forests over a certain age into a single type, negating the dynamic processes that create old growth. In this study we examine a 2350-year chronosequence in boreal black spruce forests in northwestern Quebec to determine whether continued community change can be observed in the bryophyte layer. Bryophytes dominate the understory of boreal forests and influence ecosystem functioning, particularly in paludified forests where production exceeds decomposition in the organic layer. Community composition and richness changed throughout the chronosequence with no evidence of a steady state associated with an old-growth phase. In contrast the bryophyte community continued to evolve with multiple phases being evident. These results suggest that old-growth forests on the Clay Belt of northwestern Quebec and northeastern Ontario, Canada, should be regarded as part of the continuous gradient in forest development rather than a single state. This complicates conservation of these forests as multiple phases should be considered when planning forest reserves.
  • Fenton, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 Boulevard de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, Canada J9X 4E5 E-mail: nicole.fenton@uqat.ca (email)
  • Bergeron, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 Boulevard de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, Canada J9X 4E5 E-mail: yb@nn.ca
article id 81, category Research article
Tuomas Aakala. (2011). Temporal variability of deadwood volume and quality in boreal old-growth forests. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 81. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.81
Keywords: forest dynamics; Picea abies; coarse woody debris; range of variability
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Reference deadwood volumes from natural forests for forest management and restoration are often derived from one-time measurements or from repeated measurements over short time-scales. Such an approach often assumes an equilibrium state between tree mortality and decomposition, which is questionable in many boreal forest ecosystems due to the occurrence of allogenic disturbances. Using a simulation model based on empirical estimates of tree mortality, disturbance chronologies and models of wood decay class dynamics, this study aimed at characterizing variability in the volume and quality of deadwood for the past 200 years. The variability of deadwood volumes in old-growth forests, arising from differences in disturbance regimes and differing decay rates, was exemplified in two areas of Picea abies-dominated forests in northern Europe. The results imply that with stable deadwood input and slow decay rates the deadwood volume may be in an equilibrium state. On the contrary, if moderate-severity disturbances occur such a state seems improbable. Both study areas displayed continuity in deadwood availability, although temporary paucity in the early decay classes with shortest residence times was also observed. The results stress the importance of understanding the dynamic nature of deadwood in old-growth forests, instead of the traditional view of deadwood as a static ecosystem component.
  • Aakala, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomas.aakala@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 80, category Research article
Mari T. Jönsson, Shawn Fraver, Bengt Gunnar Jonsson. (2011). Spatio-temporal variation of coarse woody debris input in woodland key habitats in central Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 80. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.80
Keywords: boreal forest; Picea abies; dendrochronology; disturbance dynamics; tree mortality; woodland key habitats; windstorms
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The persistence of many saproxylic (wood-living) species depends on a readily available supply of coarse woody debris (CWD). Most studies of CWD inputs address stand-level patterns, despite the fact that many saproxylic species depend on landscape-level supplies of CWD. In the present study we used dated CWD inputs (tree mortality events) at each of 14 Norway spruce (Picea abies) dominated woodland key habitat sites to analyze the spatial and temporal patterns of CWD additions between 1950 and 2002 within a small landscape in central Sweden. We found that inputs were episodic within sites, where local windstorms created pulses in CWD input. Pulses occurred simultaneously in many sites, yielding landscape-level synchrony of CWD input. These synchronous pulses, and importantly, the breaks between pulses, may have negative implications for saproxylic species that are dependent on large volume inputs of freshly killed Norway spruce. In addition, the inherent small size and relative isolation of these sites may further increase extinction risks due to stochastic events. However, background CWD input rates occurring between pulses varied substantially among sites, presumably the result of the sites’ varied histories and structural characteristics. This finding suggests that the different sites have varied abilities to provide habitat for saproxylic species during periods with low landscape-level input of CWD.
  • Jönsson, Department of Ecology, SLU, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (current); Department of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: mari.jonsson@slu.se (email)
  • Fraver, U.S. Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Grand Rapids, Minnesota, USA (current); Department of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: sf@nn.us
  • Jonsson, Department of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: bgj@nn.se
article id 79, category Research article
Jean-Philippe Légaré, Christian Hébert, Jean-Claude Ruel. (2011). Alternative silvicultural practices in irregular boreal forests: response of beetle assemblages. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 79. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.79
Keywords: biodiversity; old-growth forest; irregular stands; selection cutting; coarse woody debris; sustainable management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the process of implementing sustainable management in the eastern Canadian boreal forest, we tested two selection cutting methods and compared them with two widely used practices in the boreal forest: clearcutting with protection of the advanced growth and soils and irregular shelterwood cutting leaving small merchantable stems. We used old-growth irregular stands as references in comparing the impact of these silvicultural treatments on the diversity and abundance of beetles. Three groups were targeted: saproxylic flying beetles, epigaeic saproxylic beetles and epigaeic non-saproxylic beetles. A sampling design including 320 pitfall traps and 80 multidirectional flight-interception traps was deployed in 2007. A total of 26 906 beetles was captured including 407 taxa distributed among 52 families. We found that clearcutting with protection of the advanced growth and soils and irregular shelterwood cutting leaving small merchantable stems had a greater impact on beetle communities than both selection cuttings. Canopy opening as well as the presence of snags and downed woody debris appear as important attributes for several saproxylic and non-saproxylic species. Beetle communities in selection cuttings remained more similar to those found in controls; these silvicultural treatments are new tools to implement ecosystemic and sustainable management in irregular boreal forests.
  • Légaré, Université Laval, Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, Québec, Canada E-mail: jpl@nn.ca
  • Hébert, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du P.E.P.S., P.O. Box 10380, Stn. Sainte-Foy, Québec (Québec), G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: christian.hebert@rncan.gc.ca (email)
  • Ruel, Université Laval, Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et de géomatique, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, Québec, Canada E-mail: jcr@nn.ca
article id 76, category Research article
Alessandra Bottero, Matteo Garbarino, Vojislav Dukic, Zoran Govedar, Emanuele Lingua, Thomas A. Nagel, Renzo Motta. (2011). Gap-phase dynamics in the old-growth forest of Lom, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 76. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.76
Keywords: disturbance regime; Lom; old-growth forest; canopy gaps; beech-spruce-fir; small-scale
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We investigated forest canopy gaps in the mixed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), silver fir (Abies alba Miller), and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) old-growth forest of Lom in the Dinaric Mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Gap size, age, gap fraction, gapmaker characteristics and the structure and composition of gapfillers were documented to investigate gap dynamics. The percentages of forest area in canopy and expanded gaps were 19% and 41%, respectively. The median canopy gap size was 77 m2, and ranged from 11 to 708 m2. Although there were many single tree-fall gaps, the majority had multiple gapmakers that were often in different stages of decay, suggesting gap expansion is important at the study site. Of the gapmakers recorded, 14% were uprooted stems, 60% snapped stems, and 26% were standing dead trees. Dendroecological analysis suggests that gap formation varied in time. The density of gapfillers was not correlated to gap size, and the species composition of gapfillers varied between seedling, sapling, and tree life stages. The results suggest that gaps are mainly formed by endogenous senescence of single canopy trees. Exogenous disturbance agents, most likely related to wind and snow, act mainly as secondary agents in breaking weakened trees and in expanding previously established gaps. Although the findings are partially consistent with other studies of gap disturbance processes in similar old-growth forests in central Europe, the observed gap dynamic places the Lom core area at the end of a gradient that ranges from forests controlled by very small-scale processes to those where large, stand replacing disturbances predominate.
  • Bottero, University of Turin, Department Agroselviter, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy E-mail: alessandra.bottero@unito.it (email)
  • Garbarino, University of Turin, Department Agroselviter, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy E-mail: mg@nn.it
  • Dukic, University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Forestry, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mail: vd@nn.ba
  • Govedar, University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Forestry, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mail: zg@nn.ba
  • Lingua, University of Padua, Department of TeSAF, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: el@nn.it
  • Nagel, University of Ljubljana, Department of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: tan@nn.si
  • Motta, University of Turin, Department Agroselviter, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy E-mail: rm@nn.it
article id 75, category Research article
Silvia Lamedica, Emanuele Lingua, Ionel Popa, Renzo Motta, Marco Carrer. (2011). Spatial structure in four Norway spruce stands with different management history in the Alps and Carpathians. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 75. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.75
Keywords: Picea abies; LISA; old-growth forests; point pattern analyses; random mortality; spatial structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Europe most Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) mountain forests have been altered by human activities, leading to a lack of reference condition concerning their original structure. Nonetheless, remnants of Norway spruce primeval forests still exist in the Carpathians. Our objective was to assess the differences in structure between managed and unmanaged stands, concerning diameter distributions, amount of standing deadwood, spatial distributions and spatial structure of trees. We established four permanent plots: one in a virgin forest in the Eastern Carpathians and three in a previously managed forest in the Alps. In each plot, species, DBH, and position of the live and dead standing trees were collected. Spatial distribution and structure of all the trees was analysed through several indices. In the Carpathians forest there are clear signs of natural density-dependent mortality processes whereas in the Alpine plots such dynamics are less evident. In these latter plots, the lower snags volume and the random trees spatial distribution can be considered the legacies of past management. Nonetheless, despite the different history of the four stands, they all seem to converge towards a similar spatial structure with the presence of groups (30–40 m) of trees of similar size.
  • Lamedica, Forest Ecology Research Unit, Dept TeSAF, University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: sl@nn.it
  • Lingua, Forest Ecology Research Unit, Dept TeSAF, University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: el@nn.it
  • Popa, Forest Research and Management Institute, Research Station for Norway Spruce Silviculture, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Romania E-mail: ip@nn.ro
  • Motta, Department AGROSELVITER, University of Torino, Grugliasco (TO), Italy E-mail: rm@nn.it
  • Carrer, Forest Ecology Research Unit, Dept TeSAF, University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: marco.carrer@unipd.it (email)
article id 101, category Research article
Risto Laamanen, Annika Kangas. (2011). Large-scale forest owner’s information needs in operational planning of timber harvesting - some practical views in Metsähallitus, Finnish state-owned enterprise. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 101. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.101
Keywords: forest inventories; harvest planning; information needs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Laamanen, Metsähallitus, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: risto.laamanen@metsa.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Metsähallitus, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ak@nn.fi
article id 100, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Lauri Mehtätalo, Antti Mäkinen, Kalle Vanhatalo. (2011). Sensitivity of harvest decisions to errors in stand characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 100. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.100
Keywords: forest planning; inventory; measurement errors; decision making; logistic regression; regression tree
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In forest planning, the decision maker chooses for each stand a treatment schedule for a predefined planning period. The choice is based either on optimization calculations or on silvicultural guidelines. Schedules for individual stands are obtained using a growth simulator, where measured stand characteristics such as the basal area, mean diameter, site class and mean height are used as input variables. These characteristics include errors, however, which may lead to incorrect decisions. In this study, the aim is to study the sensitivity of harvest decisions to errors in a dataset of 157 stands. Correct schedules according to silvicultural guidelines were first determined using error-free data. Different amounts of errors were then generated to the stand-specific characteristics, and the treatment schedule was selected again using the erroneous data. The decision was defined as correct, if the type of harvest in these two schedules were similar, and if the timings deviated at maximum ±2 for thinning and ±3 years for clear-cut. The dependency of probability of correct decisions on stand characteristics and the degree of errors was then modelled. The proposed model can be used to determine the required level of measurement accuracy for each characteristics in different kinds of stands, with a given accuracy requirement for the timing of treatments. This information can further be utilized in selecting the most appropriate inventory method.
  • Kangas, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
  • Mäkinen, Simosol Oy, Riihimäki, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
  • Vanhatalo, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kv@nn.fi
article id 98, category Research article
Meeri Pearson, Markku Saarinen, Kari Minkkinen, Niko Silvan, Jukka Laine. (2011). Mounding and scalping prior to reforestation of hydrologically sensitive deep-peated sites: factors behind Scots pine regeneration success. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 4 article id 98. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.98
Keywords: soil preparation; peatland forest regeneration; mound; scalp; Scots pine; OM decomposition; excess moisture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Watering up typically ensues after clearcutting forestry-drained peatland forests. Thus, the effectiveness of maintenance drainage and soil preparation procedures becomes paramount for establishing a new generation of commercial forest. Mounding is the primary method of soil preparation applied in regeneration sites lying on deep peat. As raised planting spots, mounds are resistant to waterlogging and assumed to be beneficial for organic matter (OM) decomposition via, e.g., increased soil aeration and temperature, which would also enhance seedling growth. In recent years, however, less intensive and cheaper alternatives like scalping have been sought with some reported cases of success. Our case study investigated the survival and growth of Scots pine outplants in mounds, scalps, and unprepared microsites along a moisture gradient. After three growing seasons, mounding accelerated neither seedling growth nor OM decomposition relative to the unprepared treatment. Survival in mounds was nonetheless superior overall. Scalps behaved as water collecting depressions leading to a catastrophic regeneration result. Based on our findings, water table level (WTL) overrides other growth-controlling factors in excess moisture conditions. To combat watering up coupled with greater than normal rainfall, we recommend reforestation strategies which provide elevated, prepared planting spots (i.e., mounds) or utilize unprepared, higher microforms.
  • Pearson, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: meeri.pearson@metla.fi (email)
  • Saarinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ms@nn.fi
  • Minkkinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
  • Silvan, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ns@nn.fi
  • Laine, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Western Finland Regional Unit, Kaironiementie 15, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: jl@nn.fi
article id 449, category Research article
Thomas Wutzler, Ingolf Profft, Martina Mund. (2011). Quantifying tree biomass carbon stocks, their changes and uncertainties using routine stand taxation inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 3 article id 449. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.449
Keywords: forest management; forest inventory; uncertainty; carbon stocks
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
For carbon (C) trading or any other verifiable C reports, it would be reasonable to identify and quantify continuous changes in carbon stocks at regional scales without high investments into additional C-specific, time- and labor-intensive inventories. Our study demonstrates the potential of using routine stand taxation data from large scale forestry inventories for verifiable quantification of tree biomass C stocks, C stock change rates, and associated uncertainties. Empirical models, parameters, and equations of uncertainty propagation have been assembled and applied to data from a forest management unit in Central Germany (550 000 ha), using stand taxation inventories collected between 1993 and 2006. The study showed: 1) The use of stand taxation data resulted in a verifiable and sufficiently precise (cv = 7%) quantification of tree biomass carbon stocks and their changes at the level of growth-regions (1700 to 140 000 ha). 2) The forest of the test region accumulated carbon in tree biomass at a mean annual rate of 1.8 (–0.9 to 4.5) tC/ha/yr over the studied period. 3) The taxation inventory data can reveal spatial patterns of rates of C stock changes, specifically low rates of 0.4 tC/ha/yr in the northwest and high rates of 3.0 tC/ha/yr in the south of the study region.
  • Wutzler, Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Strasse 10, 07745 Jena, Germany E-mail: twutz@bgc-jena.mpg.de (email)
  • Profft, Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Stra§e 10, 07745 Jena, Germany E-mail: ip@nn.de
  • Mund, Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Stra§e 10, 07745 Jena, Germany E-mail: mm@nn.de
article id 109, category Research article
Ann Kristin Raymer, Terje Gobakken, Birger Solberg. (2011). Optimal forest management with carbon benefits included. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 3 article id 109. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.109
Keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; substitution; CO2; greenhouse gas mitigation; optimisation; wood products
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In this paper, we analyse how optimal forest management of even aged Norway spruce changes when economic values are placed on carbon fixation, release, and saved greenhouse gas emissions from using wood instead of more energy intensive materials or fossil fuels. The analyses are done for three different site qualities in Norway, assuming present climate and with a range of CO2 prices and real rates of return. Compared to current recommended management, the optimal number of plants per ha and harvest age are considerably higher when carbon benefits are included, and increase with increasing price on CO2. Furthermore, planting becomes more favourable compared to natural regeneration. At the medium site quality, assuming 2% p.a. real rate of return and 20 euros per ton CO2, optimal planting density increases from 1500 per ha to 3000 per ha. Optimal harvest age increases from 90 to 140 years. Including saved greenhouse gas emissions when wood is used instead of more energy intensive materials or fossil fuels, i.e. substitution effects, does not affect optimal planting density much, but implies harvesting up to 20 years earlier. The value of the forest area increases with increasing price on CO2, and most of the income is from carbon. By using the current recommended management in calculations of carbon benefit, our results indicate that the forest’s potential to provide this environmental good is underestimated. The study includes many uncertain factors. Highest uncertainty is related to the accuracy of the forest growth and mortality functions at high stand ages and densities, and that albedo effects and future climate changes are not considered. As such, the results should be viewed as exploratory and not normative.
  • Raymer, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: akr@nn.no
  • Gobakken, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: terje.gobakken@umb.no (email)
  • Solberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: bs@nn.no
article id 107, category Research article
Jaana Luoranen, Risto Rikala, Heikki Smolander. (2011). Machine planting of Norway spruce by Bracke and Ecoplanter: an evaluation of soil preparation, planting method and seedling performance. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 3 article id 107. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.107
Keywords: Picea abies; height growth; machine planting; mechanized forestry; mounding; quality of planting; survival
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We evaluated the effects of planting date and planting machine (Bracke: three machines, 69 regeneration areas in three years; Ecoplanter: six areas, two years) on the quality and field performance one and three years after planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings in central Finland. Both machine types planted on average 1800 seedlings per hectare, and after three years approximately 1600 (Bracke) and 1200 (Ecoplanter) were still alive. This study suggests that planting with a Bracke machine can achieve better regeneration rates than those observed in privately-owned Finnish forests. We characterized the quality of mounding and planting with the Bracke machine as excellent and that of the Ecoplanter as good. The soil preparation method of the Ecoplanter produced humus-rich mounds where seedlings were susceptible to pine weevils and consequently suffered higher mortality. Different machines were used in different regional areas and each machine was operated by different driver/s which may have influenced the results. No negative effects of planting date were observed. Seedling growth decreased if they were tall in relation to their root plug volume, grown too densely in the nursery, and if stored in the field for several months prior to planting. We conclude that mechanized planting is successful when the soil preparation method produces mounds covered by purely mineral soil. Planting from May to the end of September is suitable for seedlings intended for use during this period.
  • Luoranen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: jaana.luoranen@metla.fi (email)
  • Rikala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: rr@nn.fi
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 106, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Heli Hyttinen, Hannu Marttila, Juha Jämsen, Bjørn Kløve. (2011). Effect of peak runoff control method on growth of Scots pine stands on drained peatlands in central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 3 article id 106. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.106
Keywords: peatland; forest drainage; stand growth; runoff control; water quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In drained peatland forests ditch networks need regular maintenance operations in order to sustain their drainage capacity. These operations however have a significant impact on the quality of the runoff water from the ditched areas. Peak runoff control (PRC) method has been proposed as a possible method to diminish the load to water courses through retention of the runoff temporarily in the ditch network during maximum runoff events using dams with a plastic control pipe. However, blocking water into the ditched area for periods of varying length during the growing season may have a negative impact on the growth of the tree stands. In this study past stand growth was investigated in Central Finland in altogether 10 sample Scots pine thinning stands in which the PRC method has been applied 5 growing seasons earlier. In each stand, a pair of sample plots was established: one plot next to the dam within the influence of periodic flooding and the other one outside the effect of periodic flooding. For determining stand growth, field measurements were made in August 2009. Stand growth near the dam was on average 0.54 m3 ha-1 a-1 lower than farther away from the dam but the analysis of covariance showed that the dam effect was not significant. The results of this study suggest that the PCR method does not decrease Scots pine stand growth during the first five year growth period after ditch cleaning.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Hyttinen, Metsänhoitoyhdistys Keski-Suomi, Viitasaari, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Marttila, University of Oulu, Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Lab, Oulu, Finland E-mail: hm@nn.fi
  • Jämsen, Forestry Centre Keski-Suomi, Pihtipudas, Finland E-mail: jj@nn.fi
  • Kløve, University of Oulu, Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Lab, Oulu, Finland E-mail: bk@nn.fi
article id 116, category Research article
Eva-Maria Nordström, Ljusk Ola Eriksson, Karin Öhman. (2011). Multiple criteria decision analysis with consideration to place-specific values in participatory forest planning. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 116. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.116
Keywords: forest management; decision support; public participation; spatial planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The combination of multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and participatory planning is an approach that has been applied in complex planning situations where multiple criteria of very different natures are considered, and several stakeholders or social groups are involved. The spatial character of forest planning problems adds further to the complexity, because a large number of forest stands are to be assigned different treatments at different points in time. In addition, experience from participatory forest planning indicates that stakeholders may think about the forest in terms of place-specific values rather than in forest-wide terms. The objective of this study was to present an approach for including place-specific values in MCDA-based participatory forest planning and illustrate the approach by a case study where the objective was to choose a multipurpose forest plan for an area of urban forest in northern Sweden. Stakeholder values were identified in interviews, and maps were used to capture place-specific spatial values. The nonspatial and nonplace-specific spatial values were formulated as criteria and used to build an objective hierarchy describing the decision situation. The place-specific spatial values were included in the creation of a map showing zones of different silvicultural management classes, which was used as the basis for creation of forest plan alternatives in the subsequent process. The approach seemed to work well for capturing place-specific values, and the study indicates that formalized methods for including and evaluating place-specific values in participatory forest planning processes should be developed and tested further.
  • Nordström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: eva-maria.nordstrom@slu.se (email)
  • Eriksson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: loe@nn.se
  • Öhman, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Skogsmarksgränd 1, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ko@nn.se
article id 114, category Research article
Roy V. Rea. (2011). Impacts of moose (Alces alces) browsing on paper birch (Betula papyrifera) morphology and potential timber quality. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 114. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.114
Keywords: deciduous; browse damage; forestry; hardwood; silviculture; ungulate; wood quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Rea, University of Northern British Columbia, 3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, Canada V2N 4Z9 E-mail: reav@unbc.ca (email)
article id 112, category Research article
Mike R. Saunders, Shawn Fraver, Robert G. Wagner. (2011). Nutrient concentration of down woody debris in mixedwood forests in central Maine, USA. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 112. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.112
Keywords: Acadian Forest; hardwoods; softwoods; carbon-nitrogen ratios; decay classes; disturbance-based silviculture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Both nutrient concentrations and pre- and post-harvest pool sizes were determined across down woody debris decay classes of several hardwood and softwood species in a long-term, natural disturbance based, silvicultural experiment in central Maine. Concentrations of N, P, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, and Zn generally increased 2- to 5-fold with increasing decay class. Concentrations of Mn, Al and B did not differ among decay classes, while K decreased by 20–44% from decay class 1 to class 4. C:N-ratios declined with increasing decay class, while N:P-ratios increased from decay class 1 to 2 and then plateaued with further decay. Within decay classes, softwoods generally had lower nutrient concentrations and higher C:N-ratios than hardwoods; N:P-ratios did not differ between hardwoods and softwoods. Although gap harvesting increased the size of the overall down woody debris nutrient pools, mostly through a large pulse of decay class 1 material, harvesting generally reduced the nutrients held in advanced decay classes. Pre-harvest down woody debris pools for N, P, K and Ca were 11.0, 0.6, 2.1 and 21.1 kg ha–1, respectively, while postharvest were 20.0, 1.3, 6.2 and 46.2 kg ha–1, respectively. While the gap-based silvicultural systems sampled in this study doubled the size of the pre-harvest, downed woody debris nutrient pools, the post-harvest pools were estimated to be only 3.2–9.1% of aboveground nutrients.
  • Saunders, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 State Street, West Lafayette, IN, USA E-mail: msaunder@purdue.edu (email)
  • Fraver, USFS Northern Research Station, Grand Rapids, MN, USA E-mail: sf@nn.us
  • Wagner, School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA E-mail: rgw@nn.us
article id 40, category Research article
Jorge Martín-García, Elba Espiga, Valentín Pando, Julio Javier Diez. (2011). Factors influencing endophytic communities in poplar plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 40. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.40
Keywords: endophyte; poplar; management; site quality; foliar nutrients; forest health
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The fungal species associated with leaves and twigs from stands of Populus x euramericana in northern Spain were studied with the aim of evaluating the effects of several factors on endophytic communities in these plantations. Endophyte assemblages were analysed in 12 poplar plantations (clone I-214), chosen according to a factorial scheme with two factors: age and site quality. Crown condition, dendrometric variables and foliar nutrients were recorded in each sampled tree to evaluate their effects on endophytic communities. Fungal species richness and relative isolation frequency (RIF) were higher in young stands than in adult stands. Moreover, the age-related differences depended on site quality, with the lowest richness levels observed in adult stands located in poor sites. At stand level, endophyte assemblages varied among stands according to site quality and, to a lesser extent, stand age. On the other hand, crown discoloration, total height and foliar concentrations of iron and zinc may be key indicators of endophytic communities in poplar plantations, at tree level.
  • Martín-García, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Avenida de Madrid 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain, and Forestry Engineering, University of Extremadura, Plasencia, Spain E-mail: jorgemg@pvs.uva.es (email)
  • Espiga, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Palencia, Spain E-mail: ee@nn.es
  • Pando, Statistics and Operations Research Department, University of Valladolid, Spain E-mail: vp@nn.es
  • Diez, Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute, University of Valladolid – INIA, Palencia, Spain E-mail: jjd@nn.es
article id 35, category Research article
Tapio Rantala. (2011). Democratic legitimacy of the forest sector and nature conservation decision-making in Finnish print media discussion. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 1 article id 35. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.35
Keywords: legitimacy; democracy; policy evaluation; forest policy; nature conservation policy; national forest program; nature conservation program
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The study explores perceived democratic legitimacy of forest-related decision-making processes in the Finnish print media discourse. The data consists of the readers’ letters in four journals (n = 530), and the comments given during the preparation of the Finnish National Forest Program (n = 140). The objective is to identify the patterns of democratic legitimacy and respective performance evaluations of actual decision-making processes. The patterns can be classified as support for: (A) democracy and other forms of government, (B) different forms of participation, and (C) principles of democracy. The principles can be further classified into 1) core regime, 2) input, 3) throughput, and 4) output principles. Democratic legitimacy was found to be an important source of legitimacy in the public discussion since democratic patterns were found in more than half of the texts. The most common core legitimacy principles included freedom of speech, good national and international standing, forerunnership, and legality at national and international level. The central principles related to input legitimacy included popular sovereignty, a voice for the people, popular participation, openness, presenting alternatives, and urgency. The consensus and majority rules were found to be the most prominent throughput principles. Democratic output legitimacy included accountability, responsibility, cooperation, commitment, responsiveness, the possibility to appeal, credibility, comprehensiveness, and understandability. The findings suggest that among the writers of readers’ letters there is less contestation regarding the principles of democratic legitimacy but there are significant disagreements concerning the performance of decision-making processes. The negative performance evaluations were two times more frequent than the positive evaluations.
  • Rantala, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tapio.rantala@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 32, category Research article
Susete Marques, Jordi Garcia-Gonzalo, José G. Borges, Brigite Botequim, M. Manuela Oliveira, José Tomé, Margarida Tomé. (2011). Developing post-fire Eucalyptus globulus stand damage and tree mortality models for enhanced forest planning in Portugal. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 1 article id 32. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.32
Keywords: forest fires; forest management; Eucalyptus globulus Labill; damage model; post-fire mortality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest and fire management planning activities are carried out mostly independently of each other. This paper discusses research aiming at the development of methods and tools that can be used for enhanced integration of forest and fire management planning activities. Specifically, fire damage models were developed for Eucalyptus globulus Labill stands in Portugal. Models are based on easily measurable forest characteristics so that forest managers may predict post-fire mortality based on forest structure. For this purpose, biometric data and fire-damage descriptors from 2005/2006 National Forest Inventory plots and other sample plots within 2006, 2007 and 2008 fire areas were used. A three-step modelling strategy based on logistic regression methods was used. In the first step, a model was developed to predict whether mortality occurs after a wildfire in a eucalypt stand. In the second step the degree of damage caused by wildfires in stands where mortality occurs is quantified (i.e. percentage of mortality). In the third step this mortality is distributed among trees. Data from over 85 plots and 1648 trees were used for modeling purposes. The damage models show that relative damage increases with stand basal area. Tree level mortality models indicate that trees with high diameters, in dominant positions and located in regular stands are less prone to die when a wildfire occurs.
  • Marques, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: smarques@isa.utl.pt (email)
  • Garcia-Gonzalo, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: jgg@nn.pt
  • Borges, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: jgb@nn.pt
  • Botequim, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: bb@nn.pt
  • Oliveira, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: mmo@nn.pt
  • Tomé, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: jt@nn.pt
  • Tomé, Technical University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Center, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal E-mail: mt@nn.pt
article id 31, category Research article
Jeovanna Lowe, David Pothier, Jean-Pierre L. Savard, Ghislain Rompré, Mathieu Bouchard. (2011). Snag characteristics and cavity-nesting birds in the unmanaged post-fire northeastern Canadian boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 1 article id 31. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.31
Keywords: snags; cavity nesting birds; boreal forests; old-growth; long term chronosequence; time since fire; mortality rate; basal area
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied the availability and characteristics of snags and their use by cavity-nesting birds in the northeastern part of the Canadian boreal forest. We built up two long-term (> 200 years) chronosequences following time since the last fire in the unmanaged boreal forest of northeastern Québec, one in the balsam fir-white birch domain (southern region) and one in the spruce-mosses domain (northern region). We then sampled and characterized snags and live trees in 30 stands from each of these two chronosequences. We also looked for nest cavities on all sampled snags, performed bird inventories by point counts, and calculated tree mortality rate from permanent sample plots. Results show that mortality rates follow a U-shaped pattern, with more snags of large diameter (> 20 cm DBH) in young (< 50 years) and in old (> 200 years) forests. In the latter, we also found more nest cavities than in any other age classes. Although abundance of primary cavity nesters (excavating species) did not vary among age classes, secondary cavity nesters (using cavities already available) tend to be more numerous in older forests. Our results highlight the capacity for young and old-growth forests to provide quality habitat for species that are dependent on large snags. Proper forest management should maintain a mosaic of different age forest stands, including snags, to promote biodiversity and provide important resources for resident bird species.
  • Lowe, Centre d’étude de la foret, Département des sciences du bois et de la foret, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada E-mail: jeovannalowe@gmail.com (email)
  • Pothier, Centre d’étude de la foret, Département des sciences du bois et de la foret, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada E-mail: dp@nn.ca
  • Savard, Wildlife Research, Science and Technology, Québec Region, 1141 Route de l’Église, P.O. Box 10100, Québec, Québec, G1V 4H5, Canada E-mail: jpls@nn.ca
  • Rompré, Centre d’étude de la foret, Département des sciences du bois et de la foret, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada & Department of Biology and Health Sciences, 84 West South Street, Wilkes University, PA 18766, USA E-mail: gr@nn.ca
  • Bouchard, Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune, Direction de l’Environnement et de la Protection des Forets, 880 Chemin Ste-Foy, Quebec, Québec, G1S 4X4, Canada E-mail: mb@nn.ca
article id 127, category Research article
Mika Rekola, Annukka Valkeapää, Tapio Rantala. (2010). Nordic forest professionals’ values. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 127. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.127
Keywords: forest professionals; values; cognitive mapping; Nordic countries
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The present study analyses the values held by forest professionals in three Nordic countries: Finland, Norway, and Sweden. The data is from a large (n = 1113) internet survey that used cognitive mapping as a research tool, which is a novelty in value measurement. The questionnaire is based on the organisational value theory of Schein (1992), supplemented with relevant forest-related and environmental values. The forest-related main value factors were in the following order of importance: Expertise, Private forestry, Forest production, Nature conservation, and Tradition. The measurement included two kinds of cases: action values, referring to present decision-making, and ideal values, referring to decisions concerning future ideals. Most of the values’ scores were similar. Almost all values received higher scores of importance in the ideal cases compared to action cases, a fact that can probably be explained by constraints related to the professionals’ current working environment. Some international differences were also found: Sweden and Norway were closer to each other and both differed from Finland, where private forestry, forest production, and traditions are highly valued. Moreover, respondents working in industry were found to be slightly more production-oriented than other forest professionals. The study also revealed several weaknesses of the cognitive mapping method in measuring values.
  • Rekola, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: mika.rekola@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Valkeapää, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: av@nn.fi
  • Rantala, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: tapio.rantala@helsinki.fi
article id 124, category Research article
Johannes Windisch, Lauri Sikanen, Dominik Röser, David Gritten. (2010). Supply chain management applications for forest fuel procurement – cost or benefit? Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 124. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.124
Keywords: logistics; forest fuel; supply chain management; cost-benefit analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
It is commonly agreed that logistics is very demanding in forest fuel business. Even though logistics and supply chain management (SCM) tools already have found their way into forestry business, for example, in roundwood operations, they are not yet very widespread in the field of forest fuel procurement. The present study investigates if modern supply chain management applications are capable of increasing the profitability of forest fuel procurement operations. Since margins are low, decreasing the provision costs could boost wood-based bioenergy business. The study is based on the investigation of two Finnish forest owners associations (FOA) involved in forest fuel procurement using a modern SCM tool. The investigation is done by cost-benefit analysis (CBA) using the net present value (NPV) methodology to determine the profitability. According to the estimates made by the staff, which are based on data such as work time records and delivery notes from before and after introduction of the new system, in both FOAs, the benefits far outweigh the costs over a considered timespan of ten years. However, the amount of the NPV varied significantly. For FOA1, with an annual chip production of 150 000 loose m3, the NPV is 212 739 euro, while for FOA2, with an annual chip production of 37 000 loose m3, the NPV is 969 841 euro. Even if the NPV of FOA2 seems to be very high, the profitability of SCM tools in forest fuel procurement is clearly demonstrated. Additionally, the results indicate that a considerable cost saving potential in forest fuel procurement is attainable through improving work flows and thus reduce the work input.
  • Windisch, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, Yliopistokatu 6, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: johannes.windisch@metla.fi (email)
  • Sikanen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Science, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ls@nn.fi
  • Röser, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, Yliopistokatu 6, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dr@nn.fi
  • Gritten, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Science, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dg@nn.fi
article id 123, category Research article
Staffan Jacobson, Folke Pettersson. (2010). An assessment of different fertilization regimes in three boreal coniferous stands. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 123. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.123
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; boreal forests; Picea abies; biomass yield; carbon sequestration; fertilization regimes; foliar analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In 1981–82 three field experiments were established with the aim of elucidating (i) the growth response of middle-aged coniferous stands at different fertilization intensities and, hence, the economic outcomes; and (ii) the need to add nutrients other than nitrogen (N). Nutrient additions were performed at intervals of two, four, six and eight years. The experiments were established on typical podzolized and N-limited mor-humus sites, two in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands and one in a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stand, at three different locations in Sweden. The ages of the stands were 65–70 years at the time of establishment. Growth responses were calculated after a 22-year study period. The growth responses were significant in all treatments. The addition of nutrients other than N did not affect stem growth at any of the sites. The growth response tended to increase with decreasing application interval. The results also revealed that the efficiency of fertilization is reduced as the interval between fertilizations is shortened. Accordingly, the growth effect per kg of added N was negatively correlated to fertilization intensity. The least intensive fertilization regime (an eight-year interval) resulted in an average net increase in C sequestration of 35 kg per kg N added. The profitability, in terms of internal rate of return, the present net value at different interest rates and the cost of production, i.e. the cost to produce one extra m3 under the different N regimes, are presented and discussed.
  • Jacobson, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-75183 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: staffan.jacobson@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Pettersson, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-75183 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: fp@nn.se
article id 122, category Research article
Benoit Lafleur, Nicole J. Fenton, David Paré, Martin Simard, Yves Bergeron. (2010). Contrasting effects of season and method of harvest on soil properties and the growth of black spruce regeneration in the boreal forested peatlands of eastern Canada. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 122. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.122
Keywords: soil disturbance; peatland; Picea mariana; careful logging; clearcutting; paludification; forest productivity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
It has been suggested that without sufficient soil disturbance, harvest in boreal forested peatlands may accelerate paludification and reduce forest productivity. The objectives of this study were to compare the effects of harvest methods (clearcutting vs. careful logging) and season (summer vs. winter harvest) on black spruce regeneration and growth in boreal forested peatlands of eastern Canada, and to identify the soil variables that favour tree growth following harvest. Moreover, we sought to determine how stand growth following harvest compared with that observed following fire. The average tree height of summer clearcuts was greater than that of summer carefully logged stands and that of all winter harvested sites. Summer clearcutting also resulted in a higher density of trees > 3 m and > 4 m tall and in a 50% reduction in Rhododendron groenlandicum cover, a species associated with reduced black spruce growth. Height growth of sample trees was related to foliar N and P concentrations, and to soil total N, pH and available Ca and Mg but not to harvest method or season. Our results also indicate that summer clearcutting could produce stand productivity levels comparable to those observed after high-severity soil burns. These results suggest that summer clearcutting could be used to restore forest productivity following harvest in forested peatlands, and offer further support to the idea that sufficient levels of soil disturbance may be required to restore productivity in ecosystems undergoing paludification.
  • Lafleur, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: benoit.lafleur@uqat.ca (email)
  • Fenton, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: njf@nn.ca
  • Paré, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 du P.E.P.S., P.O. Box 10380, Stn. Sainte-Foy, QC G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: dp@nn.ca
  • Simard, Département de Géographie, Université Laval, Pavillon Abitibi-Price, 2405 rue de la Terrasse, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada E-mail: ms@nn.ca
  • Bergeron, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 boul. de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: yb@nn.ca
article id 111, category Research article
Ilona Pietilä, Annika Kangas, Antti Mäkinen, Lauri Mehtätalo. (2010). Influence of growth prediction errors on the expected losses from forest decisions. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 5 article id 111. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.111
Keywords: growth prediction; uncertainty; forest information; updating; inoptimality loss
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In forest planning, forest inventory information is used for predicting future development of forests under different treatments. Model predictions always include some errors, which can lead to sub-optimal decisions and economic loss. The influence of growth prediction errors on the reliability of projected forest variables and on the treatment propositions have previously been examined in a few studies, but economic losses due to growth prediction errors is an almost unexplored subject. The aim of this study was to examine how the growth prediction errors affected the expected losses caused by incorrect harvest decisions, when the inventory interval increased. The growth models applied in the analysis were stand-level growth models for basal area and dominant height. The focus was entirely on the effects of growth prediction errors, other sources of uncertainty being ignored. The results show that inoptimality losses increased with the inventory interval. Average relative inoptimality loss was 3.3% when the inventory interval was 5 years and 11.6% when it was 60 years. Average absolute inoptimality loss was 230 euro ha–1 when the inventory interval was 5 years and 860 euro ha–1 when it was 60 years. The average inoptimality losses varied between development classes, site classes and main tree species.
  • Pietilä, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ip@nn.fi
  • Kangas, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mäkinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
article id 135, category Research article
Ola Lindroos, Marina Henningsson, Dimitris Athanassiadis, Tomas Nordfjell. (2010). Forces required to vertically uproot tree stumps. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 135. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.135
Keywords: forest fuels; Picea abies; bioenergy; stump harvesting; machine development; Betula spp.
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stumpwood attracts renewed interest due to increased use of forest biomass for bioenergy. In Nordic countries stumps are generally uprooted with crawler excavators, which have strong cranes (ca. 400 kNm gross lift torque), but are not designed for moving in forest terrain. Their use is based on practical experience with available and tested machine types rather than thorough examinations of requirements, partly due to limited knowledge of force requirements for uprooting of stumps. Therefore, in this work mean and maximum forces required to vertically uproot stumps of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and birch (Betula spp.) were quantified together with the effects of various soil types and uprooting methods. The used excavator’s crane-mounted uprooting device enabled comparisons between usage of solely crane force, and a method in which preparatory loosening forces were applied prior to crane force. Uprooting stumps in single pieces proved difficult; 61% split unintentionally. Force requirements were similar across tree species, increasing curve-linearly with stump diameter, and stumps uprooted in a single piece required more force than split stumps. Preparatory loosening reduced crane force requirements and, surprisingly, less force was required to uproot stumps from a mesic, till soil than from a moist, finer-textured soil. No stump required more than 60 kN crane force and functions for maximum force requirements indicate that powerful harvesters and forwarders (gross crane lifting capacity of 273 and 155 kNm, respectively) should be able to uproot all stumps with ≤ 61 cm and ≤ 32 cm diameter, respectively, in one piece. Larger stumps could be managed if it is acceptable that stumps are split before uprooting.
  • Lindroos, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ola.lindroos@srh.slu.se (email)
  • Henningsson, Komatsu Forest AB, Box 7124, SE-907 04 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: mh@nn.se
  • Athanassiadis, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: da@nn.se
  • Nordfjell, Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tn@nn.se
article id 133, category Research article
Fumiaki Kitahara, Nobuya Mizoue, Shigejiro Yoshida. (2010). Effects of training for inexperienced surveyors on data quality of tree diameter and height measurements. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 133. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.133
Keywords: diameter tape; measurement error; National Forest Inventory; training; Vertex III hypsometer
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Due to the large number of sample plots and variables to be measured, inexperienced surveyors are expected to take field measurements in National Forest Inventories (NFIs). However, very little information exists on the data quality that can be expected from inexperienced surveyors given different levels of training. We evaluated the quality of data produced by inexperienced undergraduate students when measuring the most fundamental variables: tree diameter using a diameter tape and height using an ultrasonic Vertex III hypsometer. We found that a single training session on how to use the instruments and how to reduce measurement errors was insufficient for inexperienced surveyors to achieve measurement quality objectives (MQOs). Providing a single feedback of control team measurements significantly improved data quality, except in the measurements of tree height of broad-leaved trees, but additional feedback did not contribute to further improvement. We propose that field training courses for inexperienced surveyors incorporate a one-day exercise with feedback instruction.
  • Kitahara, Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Science, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashiku, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan E-mail: bunsho@ffpri.affrc.go.jp (email)
  • Mizoue, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan E-mail: nm@nn.jp
  • Yoshida, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan E-mail: sy@nn.jp
article id 128, category Research article
Shelley L. Hunt, Andrew M. Gordon, Dave M. Morris. (2010). Carbon stocks in managed conifer forests in northern Ontario, Canada. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 128. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.128
Keywords: forest management; boreal forest; carbon sequestration; carbon stocks; jack pine; black spruce; plantations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Carbon pools and net primary productivity (aboveground) were measured in managed stands of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) and black spruce (Picea mariana [Mill.] B.S.P.), ranging in age from 10 to 53 years, in the Lake Nipigon area of northern Ontario. Organic carbon in the forest floor and surface mineral soil (top 15 cm) ranged from 13 to 46 Mg C ha-1 and 10 to 29 Mg C ha-1, respectively. Carbon in aboveground tree biomass ranged from 11 to 74 Mg C ha-1 in crop trees, and 0 to 11 Mg C ha-1 in non-crop trees. Coarse woody debris (downed woody debris and snags) contained between 1 and 17 Mg C ha-1. Understory vegetation rarely represented more than 1% of total ecosystem carbon accumulation, but was responsible for a larger proportion of aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP). Rates of ANPP (expressed as carbon) ranged from 0.8 to 3.5 Mg C ha-1 y-1. Carbon stocks in managed stands were compared with published values from similarly aged fire-origin stands in the North American boreal region. Carbon stocks in our study stands generally exceeded those in unmanaged fire-origin stands of the same age, due to larger tree and forest floor carbon pools.
  • Hunt, University of Guelph, School of Environmental Sciences, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1 E-mail: shunt@uoguelph.ca (email)
  • Gordon, University of Guelph, School of Environmental Sciences, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1 E-mail: amg@nn.ca
  • Morris, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research, 955 Oliver Rd., Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada P7B 5E1 E-mail: dmm@nn.ca
article id 146, category Research article
Karri Uotila, Juho Rantala, Timo Saksa, Pertti Harstela. (2010). Effect of soil preparation method on economic result of Norway spruce regeneration chain. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 146. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.146
Keywords: Picea abies; soil preparation; cleaning; disc trenching; forestry investment analysis; pre-commercial thinning; regeneration chain; spot mounding; sprouting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Economic result of forest regeneration chains, based either on spot mounding or on disc trenching and planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) seedlings, were clarified and compared to each other. First, effects of soil preparation method on early development of Norway spruce stands were measured from field experiments. Second, the effects of soil preparation method on stand level management programs were modelled. The modelling was based on growth simulation and investment calculations. The soil preparation methods substantially affected early development of a stand. The density of the removed trees in early cleaning was 56% higher on the disc-trenched area compared to the spot-mounded area. The difference was especially high (120%), close by (< 25 cm) the remained spruce seedlings. There was also a difference between the methods in the growth of crop spruces; at biological age of 8 years, the mean height of spruce was 110 cm on the spot-mounded area and 68 cm on the disc-trenched area. The differences led to divergent management programs between the areas. The disc-trenched area needed three young stand management operations whereas two was enough at the spot-mounded area. Although disc trenching is a less expensive method than spot mounding, the total management costs were higher in disc trenching than in spot mounding. Furthermore, incomes from the first commercial thinning were higher when regeneration based on spot mounding. At the interest rate of 3%, the investment in spot mounding had 329 EUR ha–1 higher net present value than the investment in disc trenching.
  • Uotila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: karri.uotila@metla.fi (email)
  • Rantala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: jr@nn.fi
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi
  • Harstela, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ph@nn.fi
article id 143, category Research article
Juha Laitila, Jani Heikkilä, Perttu Anttila. (2010). Harvesting alternatives, accumulation and procurement cost of small-diameter thinning wood for fuel in Central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 143. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.143
Keywords: biomass resources; multi-tree-handling; delimbed stemwood; whole trees; Finland; early thinnings; forest chips
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study compared harvesting alternatives, accumulation and procurement costs of small-diameter thinning wood chips for fuel, when trees were harvested either as delimbed stemwood or whole trees. The calculation was made for a hypothetical plant located in Central Finland and the radius of the procurement area was 100 km via the existing road network. Cutting was done with conventional harvester head equipped with multi-tree-handling (MTH) accessories, with the logged trees being chipped at the roadside storage. The cost of delimbed stemwood chips at heating plant was 24% higher compared to the cost of whole tree chips. The availability analysis attested that delimbing lowered the regional cutting removal by 42% compared to the whole tree harvesting, when the minimum accumulation for the fuel fraction at the stand was set at 25 m3/ha. Delimbing diminishes the recovery rate at the site, resulting in a diminishing number of potential recovery sites meeting the threshold volume. However, the study showed that the forest energy potential is increased and procurement costs are reduced, if delimbed stemwood is harvested from stands where the whole tree harvesting is not acceptable due to nutrient loss or for other ecological reasons. Intelligent selection of cutting methods for different stands enables minimization of transport distance and control of procurement cost.
  • Laitila, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha.laitila@metla.fi (email)
  • Heikkilä, L&T Biowatti Oy, Seinäjoki, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Anttila, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pa@nn.fi
article id 142, category Research article
Helmer Belbo. (2010). Comparison of two working methods for small tree harvesting with a multi tree felling head mounted on farm tractor. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 142. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.142
Keywords: Norway spruce; cost functions; forest biomass harvesting; multi-tree handling; young stands
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In this study, the efficiency of a small multi-tree felling head, mounted on a farm tractor with a timber trailer was studied, when harvesting small trees for energy in thinnings. Both separate loading and direct loading of the felled trees was studied. Time studies were carried out in a mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.). The time consumption of the work elements in the different work methods was formulated by regression analysis, where the independent variables were tree size and degree of accumulation. The average size of the harvested trees was 0.035 m3. The time consumption for the harvesting and loading were similar for the two studied methods, 20 minutes per m3 at a tree size of 0.035 m3, but the two methods showed different characteristics for different tree sizes and level of accumulation. The direct loading method had the highest productivity when more than 0.1 m3 were collected in the felling cycle, whereas the separate loading method had the highest productivity when less than 0.05 m3 were collected in the felling cycle. The total effective time consumption for harvesting and forwarding the biomass 300 meters to roadside landing was 27 minutes per m3. The efficiency of the initial felling and collecting of the small trees was the main challenge. Both the harvesting technique and harvesting technology needs further development to provide a feasible production chain for woodfuel from energy thinning.
  • Belbo, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Box 115, 1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: helmer.belbo@skogoglandskap.no (email)
article id 141, category Research article
Per Kristian Rørstad, Erik Trømborg, Even Bergseng, Birger Solberg. (2010). Combining GIS and forest modelling in estimating regional supply of harvest residues in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 141. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.141
Keywords: bioenergy; forestry; SGIS; supply functions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
New and ambitious targets for renewable energy production put attention to increased supply of biomass. Harvest residues are only to a limited extent demanded by the traditional forest industries and represent an unutilized resource for increased production of renewable energy in Norway. The overall objective of this paper is to study how GIS and forest modelling can be combined to improve estimates of the supply of harvest residues, taking different environmental and economic constraints into consideration. The analyses are based on a case study of a forest area of more than 40 000 ha in Southern Norway divided into about 500 private forest properties. The study was carried out by computations of timber harvest using the forestry scenario model SGIS based on extensive forest inventory data at stand level. In the studied area energy utilization of harvest residues is not profitable below an energy price of about EUR 3.2/GJ (NOK 0.10 /kWh) when the distance from roadside to industry is 20 km. Above this level supply increases rapidly over a rather narrow price range and is nearly inelastic above EUR 4.1/GJ (NOK 0.12/kWh). We did not find significant negative shifts in the residues supply caused by changes in location of roundwood harvest over time. Exclusion of collection from stands with a site index (H40) below 14 reduced the potential supply of residues by 16–27%. The optimisation method combined selection of exogenous variables in order to map observed harvesting level and is probably the best approach to map future harvest.
  • Rørstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: per.kristian.rorstad@umb.no (email)
  • Trømborg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: et@nn.no
  • Bergseng, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: eb@nn.no
  • Solberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: bs@nn.no
article id 139, category Research article
Ulf Sikström, Curt Almqvist, Gunnar Jansson. (2010). Growth of Pinus sylvestris after the application of wood ash or P and K fertilizer to a peatland in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 3 article id 139. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.139
Keywords: fertilization; wood ash; nitrogen; ammonium nitrate; forest yield; needle element concentrations; potassium chloride; raw phosphate
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of the application of wood ash and of fertilizer regimes including phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), with and without simultaneous addition of nitrogen (N), were investigated on a stand of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) saplings growing on a drained oligotrophic peatland site in southern Sweden. A randomized block design was used. Tree growth and concentrations of various elements in the needles were measured. The addition of similar doses of P (approx. 40 kg P ha–1) from different sources resulted in similar growth responses, amounting to 1.6–1.9 m3 ha–1 yr–1 of stem wood over the 26-year study. The P source was either wood ash (2500 kg d.w. ha–1) or PK-fertilizer (raw phosphate and potassium chloride). In response to several treatments there were both increased numbers of trees and increased growth of individual trees. The high PK-dose (40 kg P ha–1 and 80 kg K ha–1) appeared to result in a larger growth increase than the low dose (20 kg P ha–1 and 40 kg K ha–1). The N treatment had no additional effect on growth. In the control plots, tree growth was more or less negligible (0.04 m3 ha–1 yr–1). After almost 26 years, concentrations of P and K in the needles of treated plants were still higher than in the untreated control plants. Nevertheless, in spite of the elevated P concentration, P appears to limit the growth of Scots pine. In conclusion, after sufficient drainage of this type of peatland site, it is possible for a forest stand to develop to the pole stage if wood ash or PK-fertilizer is applied.
  • Sikström, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ulf.sikstrom@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Almqvist, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ca@nn.se
  • Jansson, Skogforsk (The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: gj@nn.se
article id 456, category Research article
Sam B. Coggins, Nicholas C. Coops, Michael A. Wulder. (2010). Improvement of low level bark beetle damage estimates with adaptive cluster sampling. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 2 article id 456. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.456
Keywords: forest inventory; adaptive cluster sampling; mountain pine beetle; object-based classification; high spatial resolution; satellite; digital aerial imagery
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Detection of low level infestation in forest stands is of principle importance to determine effective control strategies before the attack spread to large areas. Of particular concern is the ongoing mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Hopkins) epidemic, which has caused approximately 14 million hectares of damage to lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex. Loud var. latifolia Engl.) forests in western Canada. At the stand level attacked trees are often difficult to locate and can remain undetected until the infestation has become established beyond a small number of trees. As such, methods are required to detect and characterise low levels of attack prior to infestation expansion, to inform management, and to aid mitigation activities. In this paper, an adaptive cluster sampling approach was applied to very fine-scale (20 cm) digital aerial imagery to locate mountain pine beetle damaged trees at the leading edge of the current infestation. Results indicated a mean number of 7.36 infested trees per hectare with a variance of 18.34. In contrast a non-adaptive approach estimated the mean number of infested trees in the same area to be 61.56 infested trees per hectare with a variance of 41.43. Using a relative efficiency estimator the adaptive cluster sampling approach was found to be over two times more efficient when compared to the non-adaptive approach.
  • Coggins, Department of Forest Resources Management, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: scoggins@interchange.ubc.ca (email)
  • Coops, Department of Forest Resources Management, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: ncc@nn.ca
  • Wulder, Canadian Forest Service (Pacific Forestry Centre), Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Rd., Victoria, B.C., Canada V8Z 1M5 E-mail: maw@nn.ca
article id 158, category Research article
Ville Hallikainen, Mikko Hyppönen, Leena Pernu, Jouni Puoskari. (2010). Family forest owners’ opinions about forest management in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 2 article id 158. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.158
Keywords: forest management; silviculture; family forest owner; northern Finland; forest owner typology; forest management objective; forest management activity; tourism
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Hallikainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ville.hallikainen@metla.fi (email)
  • Hyppönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mh@nn.fi
  • Pernu, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: lp@nn.fi
  • Puoskari, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Eteläranta 55, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
article id 151, category Research article
Janne Miettinen, Pekka Helle, Ari Nikula, Pekka Niemelä. (2010). Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) habitat characteristics in north-boreal Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 2 article id 151. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.151
Keywords: forest management; forestry; grouse; thinnings; landscape composition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study aimed to identify tools for taking capercaillie habitats into consideration in forest management. This would provide new alternatives for ecologically more sustainable forest management. Capercaillie summer and winter locations, from wildlife monitoring counts (1998–2004) in northern Finland, and reference, non-capercaillie locations were combined with forest planning data, and the area proportions of different landscape classes in an 800-m radius circle surrounding capercaillie and reference locations were compared. Thinning stands (in summer and winter) and spruce mires (in summer) were more abundant in capercaillie habitats than in reference landscapes, whereas e.g. seedling stands, mature stands and waste land areas were less abundant. The relative habitat use was highest in mean tree diameter (DBH) classes from 10.5 to 14.5 cm in summer habitats of adult capercaillie in heath forests, whereas in peatland forests, in brood habitats and in winter habitats it peaked in diameter classes 14.5 to 18.5 cm. The tree layer density was positively associated with the relative habitat use. A trend of lower habitat use was detected in the largest diameters (17–40 cm) in comparison to middle-sized diameters (10–16 cm) in heath forests, but not in peatland forests. Relatively young managed forests (age 30–40 years or more) can form suitable capercaillie habitats in north-boreal forests. However, this suitability is not necessarily permanent. Understorey management, longer rotations and multicohort forest management are suitable tools for capercaillie habitat management, because they can increase the available cover close to the ground, canopy cover, overall forest cover at the landscape scale and bilberry cover.
  • Miettinen, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Finland E-mail: janne.miettinen@rktl.fi (email)
  • Helle, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Finland E-mail: ph@nn.fi
  • Nikula, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Finland E-mail: an@nn.fi
  • Niemelä, University of Turku, Dept of Biology E-mail: pn@nn.fi
article id 150, category Research article
Sini Eräjää, Panu Halme, Janne S. Kotiaho, Anni Markkanen, Tero Toivanen. (2010). The volume and composition of dead wood on traditional and forest fuel harvested clear-cuts. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 2 article id 150. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.150
Keywords: dead wood; forest fuel harvesting; fine woody debris (FWD); clear-cut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Logging residue and cut stumps are increasingly used as a renewable energy source known as forest fuel. Forest fuel harvesting obviously reduces the volume of dead wood and is likely to alter the dead wood composition, but the magnitude of the change is not known. Such information is important for the evaluation of the effects of forest fuel harvesting on biodiversity because a large proportion of forest dwelling species are directly dependent on dead wood. We measured the volume and characteristics of all dead wood units with a minimum diameter of 2 cm and a minimum length of 20 cm on 10 forest-fuel harvested and 10 traditional (control) clear-cuts. The total volume of dead wood at forest fuel harvested and control clear-cuts was 26.0 and 42.3 m3/ha, respectively. The volumes were much greater than expected suggesting that the volume of dead wood on clear-cuts has been underestimated in previous studies. Forest fuel harvested clear-cuts had 42% less branches and 81% less cut stumps than control clear-cuts but there were no differences in the volume of logs and pieces of logs, snags or roots. The volume of fine woody debris was negatively affected by forest fuel harvesting. We conclude that fine woody debris and cut stumps form a considerable resource on clear-cuts that is reduced by forest fuel harvesting. These components of dead wood have potential to be of importance in managed forests and thus deserve more attention in future biodiversity studies.
  • Eräjää, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: se@nn.fi
  • Halme, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: panu.halme@jyu.fi (email)
  • Kotiaho, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: jsk@nn.fi
  • Markkanen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: am@nn.fi
  • Toivanen, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: tt@nn.fi
article id 458, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Kalle Eerikäinen, Anett Schibalski, Markus Haakana, Aleksi Lehtonen. (2010). Mapping biomass variables with a multi-source forest inventory technique. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 458. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.458
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; remote sensing; biomass models; biomass maps
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Map form information on forest biomass is required for estimating bioenergy potentials and monitoring carbon stocks. In Finland, the growing stock of forests is monitored using multi-source forest inventory, where variables are estimated in the form of thematic maps and area statistics by combining information of field measurements, satellite images and other digital map data. In this study, we used the multi-source forest inventory methodology for estimating forest biomass characteristics. The biomass variables were estimated for national forest inventory field plots on the basis of measured tree variables. The plot-level biomass estimates were used as reference data for satellite image interpretation. The estimates produced by satellite image interpretation were tested by cross-validation. The results indicate that the method for producing biomass maps on the basis of biomass models and satellite image interpretation is operationally feasible. Furthermore, the accuracy of the estimates of biomass variables is similar or even higher than that of traditional growing stock volume estimates. The technique presented here can be applied, for example, in estimating biomass resources or in the inventory of greenhouse gases.
  • Tuominen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@metla.fi (email)
  • Eerikäinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ke@nn.fi
  • Schibalski, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24–25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany E-mail: as@nn.de
  • Haakana, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mh@nn.fi
  • Lehtonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: al@nn.fi
article id 167, category Research article
Berit H. Lindstad, Birger Solberg. (2010). Assessing national compliance with international forest policy processes – the role of subjective judgments. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 167. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.167
Keywords: sustainable forest management; multiple objectives; implementation; participatory process
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Several international policy processes with sustainable forest management (SFM) as a common goal have emerged during the past two decades. Based on an empirical study from Norway, this paper analyses the role of subjective judgments in assessing national compliance with three international forest policy processes, and the implications for determination of the effects of these processes. The Expanded Programme of Work on Forest Biological Diversity, the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe and the United Nations Forum on Forests, including its predecessors, collectively provide more than 600 recommendations for SFM. While it is nothing new that SFM encompasses value questions, this paper is a systematic review of where in a process of assessing national compliance the role of judgments is most profound. The paper shows that the multiple objectives of the forest recommendations, references to national circumstances and provisions for stakeholder involvement lead to differing opinions about the degree of conformity between international recommendations and national situation, i.e. compliance. These differing opinions mean different prospects for the international processes to have effects, because only implementation, or active responses to international recommendations, constitutes effects. The roles of judgments and values are recommended topics for further investigation. Factors influencing how compliance is assessed, and consequently the degree to which implementation is deemed necessary, require specific attention. Due consideration to substantive and methodological choices in determining national changes and in separation of other sources of influence will provide a better basis for informed discussion of compliance with and effects of international forest-related policy processes.
  • Lindstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: berit.lindstad@umb.no (email)
  • Solberg, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås, Norway E-mail: bs@nn.no
article id 166, category Research article
Kim Pingoud, Johanna Pohjola, Lauri Valsta. (2010). Assessing the integrated climatic impacts of forestry and wood products. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 166. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.166
Keywords: carbon stocks; managed forests; silvicultural guidelines; harvested wood products; energy and material substitution; displacement of fossil carbon emissions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Managed forests serve as a store of carbon (C) and a renewable source of energy and materials. By using forest products as substitutes for fossil fuels or non-renewable materials, emissions from fossil C sources can be displaced. The efficiency of emissions displacement depends on the product, its lifecycle and the fossil-fuel based reference system that is substituted. Forest management practices have an impact on C stocks in biomass and on the annual supply of products and their mix. There are trade-offs between sequestering C stocks in forests and the climatic benefits obtained by sustainable forest harvesting and using wood products to displace fossil C emissions. This article presents an integrated, steady-state analysis comparing various equilibrium states of managed forests and wood product pools that represent sustainable long-term forestry and wood-use strategies. Two climatic indicators are used: the combined C stock in forests and wood products and the fossil C emissions displaced annually by harvested wood products. The study indicates that long-term strategies could be available that are better according to both indicators than forestry practices based on the existing silvicultural guidelines in Finland. These strategies would involve increasing the basal area and prolonging rotations to produce more sawlogs. Further, the climate benefits appear to be highest in case the sawlog supply is directed to production of long-lived materials substituting for fossil-emission and energy intensive materials and recycled after their useful life to bioenergy.
  • Pingoud, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland E-mail: kim.pingoud@vtt.fi (email)
  • Pohjola, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
  • Valsta, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: lv@nn.fi
article id 163, category Research article
Blas Mola-Yudego. (2010). Regional potential yields of short rotation willow plantations on agricultural land in Northern Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 163. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.163
Keywords: short rotation forestry; willow; production models; regional biomass supply; energy planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The development of short rotation forestry for bioenergy requires accurate and reliable yield estimates. This paper analyses the current, expected and potential regional productivity of short rotation willow plantations for six countries in Northern Europe. The estimations for present productivity are based on empirical models, using data regarding management, and local productivity based on the regional cereal yields. The estimates of expected yield rely on the current trends of yield increase from commercial willow plantations in the region. The estimates for potential yield are based on climatic restrictions. The results show potential average yields of 9.5, 6.8, 7.9, 9.0, 9.3, and 8.0 odt ha–1 yr–1 for Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Sweden, respectively. The results of the study also show that there is a wide regional variation between the different countries. In Denmark, Finland and Sweden there is a convergence between the future forecasts and the climatic potential yields in the areas of high productivity. The Baltic countries seem to present lower estimates of present productivity, reflecting possible socio-economic restrictions, although they show a high biomass potential. The methods presented in this study can be further developed in other areas where willow cultivation is considered, and can serve as a basis for future economic considerations.
  • Mola-Yudego, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: blas.mola@uef.fi (email)
article id 162, category Research article
Ruut Rabinowitsch-Jokinen, Ilkka Vanha-Majamaa. (2010). Immediate effects of logging, mounding and removal of logging residues and stumps on coarse woody debris in managed boreal Norway spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 162. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.162
Keywords: forest management; soil preparation; bioenergy; log; stump harvesting; CWD; logging residues; snag
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Wood fuel production has increased remarkably, but its environmental effects within the forest ecosystem have not yet been studied much. We investigated the immediate effects of two series of forest management treatments, which produce timber and forest chips, on the volume and decay classes of coarse woody debris (CWD). One of the treatment series included logging and residue harvesting (LRH) and mounding (M), while the other series included LRH and mounding combined with stump harvesting (MSH). We hypothesized that, i) LRH reduces CWD, excluding stumps; ii) the more intense the soil preparation treatment is, M vs. MSH, the more CWD is destroyed; iii) both LRH and soil preparation treatments (M and MSH) reduce the occurence of snags, highly decayed CWD and deciduous CWD in particular. Ten sample plots in mature managed Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) dominated forests were located in Southern Finland. The total volume of CWD on the sample plots was measured three times: before and after LRH, and after M or MSH. LRH significantly decreased the volume of snags and the combined volume of snags and logs. MSH significantly decreased the total volume of CWD, while M had no significant effect on the volume of CWD. The middle and highly decayed CWD were destroyed most easily in the treatments.
  • Rabinowitsch-Jokinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rrj@nn.fi
  • Vanha-Majamaa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ilkka.vanha-majamaa@metla.fi (email)
article id 161, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Erkki Ahti, Harri Koivusalo, Tuija Mattsson, Sakari Sarkkola, Ari Laurén. (2010). Export of suspended solids and dissolved elements from peatland areas after ditch network maintenance in south-central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 161. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.161
Keywords: drained peatlands; forestry; ditching; hydrochemistry; nutrient export; suspended solids
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Finland nearly 6 million hectares of peatlands are drained for forestry purposes. Ditch network maintenance in the drained peatlands, i.e. cleaning old ditches or digging complementary ditches, deteriorates surface water quality by increasing the export of dissolved elements and suspended solids (SS). Effect of ditch network maintenance on the export of SS, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and dissolved nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) was studied in nine pairs of treated and control (no maintenance) catchments located in southern and central Finland. In this study we extended the paired catchment approach by combining data from several catchments and identifying the treatment effect on SS and element loads from the entire dataset. Following the method of Laurén et al. (2009) we identified how uncertainty in correlation between treatment and control catchments during pre-treatment period is reflected in the estimated treatment effect on SS and element loads. In the experiment, the export of SS increased significantly for the four year study period following the ditch network maintenance and Al export increased for one year. The export of N, P and Fe was not significantly changed and DOC and Mn export decreased after the ditch maintenance operation.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Ahti, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ea@nn.fi
  • Koivusalo, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Aalto University School of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 15200, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
  • Mattsson, Finnish Environment Institute, P.O. Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
  • Sarkkola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ss@nn.fi
  • Laurén, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: al@nn.fi
article id 159, category Research article
Johan Stendahl, Maj-Britt Johansson, Erik Eriksson, Åke Nilsson, Ola Langvall. (2010). Soil organic carbon in Swedish spruce and pine forests – differences in stock levels and regional patterns. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 1 article id 159. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.159
Keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; Scots pine; soil carbon; temperature sum; tree species; simulation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The selection of tree species is one factor to consider if we want to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere through forest management. The objectives of this study were to estimate the differences in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks under Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests and to examine causes of differences in the accumulation of carbon in the forest soil. Large-scale inventory data was used to quantify variations in SOC stock in relation to stand type and the accumulation of carbon for spruce and pine stands was analysed by simulation. Based on field data, the national mean SOC stock was 9.2 kg m–2 in spruce dominated stands and 5.7 kg m–2 in pine dominated stands. For both species, the SOC stock, measured in the field inventory, increased significantly with increasing temperature, although at different rates. The SOC stock was larger for spruce under all temperature conditions, but the difference between species diminished with increasing temperature. The simulations indicated that the build-up of SOC over several rotations was 22% higher in spruce stands than in pine stands under similar environmental conditions. The main difference was found to be the greater input of harvest residues for spruce. Further, the simulations showed that ground vegetation contributed considerably more to the litter production under pine than under spruce. On sites where both Scots pine and Norway spruce are considered suitable, the latter should be selected if the aim of the forest management policy is to maximize the accumulation of SOC in the forest. Further, spruce is more favourable for SOC accumulation in areas with cold temperatures and on sites with low productivity.
  • Stendahl, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: johan.stendahl@mark.slu.se (email)
  • Johansson, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mbj@nn.se
  • Eriksson, Department of Energy and Technology, P.O. Box 7061, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ee@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Department of Soil and Environment, P.O. Box 7001, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
  • Langvall, Unit for Field-based Forest Research, Asa Experimental Forest and Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-36030 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: ol@nn.se
article id 178, category Research article
Raili Hokajärvi, Teppo Hujala, Leena A. Leskinen, Jukka Tikkanen. (2009). Effectiveness of sermon policy instruments: forest management planning practices applying the activity theory approach. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 178. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.178
Keywords: forest policy; forest planning; activity theory; advisory; extension; non-industrial private forests; qualitative study
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Recent and ongoing societal changes have brought about a need to foster multiple-use forestry and to strengthen customer orientation in family forestry outreach. The study assesses how forest management planning in family forest holdings could be developed to tackle these challenges. The approach introduces a new way of evaluating the effectiveness of information- and communication-based policy instruments. Here, the cultural-historical activity theory is applied in studying the interwoven practices of present-day planning and the associated advisory services targeted at landowners. The data, comprising semi-structured in-depth interviews with 19 professional planners, were qualitatively examined, and a forest management planning activity model was constructed with the emphasis placed on the inherent contradictions of planning work. As the main contradiction, the forest and the forest owner compete as objects. The aims of making the forest productive and advising the landowners towards an increased activeness motivate forest management planning but the planners feel that they lack the opportunity to respond to the needs of the landowner. A wood-production-emphasizing interpretation of the benefits to the national economy frustrates the policy goal of genuinely promoting the goals of multiple-use forestry. The conclusion drawn is that the actors engaged in forest management planning can reveal the needs for change by discussing their opinions and practical innovations. This can be done with the aid of facilitation by e.g. researchers oriented to developmental work study.
  • Hokajärvi, Oulu University of Applied Sciences, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Metsäkouluntie 4–6, FI-90650 Oulu, Finland E-mail: raili.hokajarvi@oamk.fi (email)
  • Hujala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: th@nn.fi
  • Leskinen, University of Eastern Finland, Department of Geographical and Historical Studies, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lal@nn.fi
  • Tikkanen, Oulu University of Applied Sciences, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Metsäkouluntie 4–6, FI-90650 Oulu, Finland E-mail: jt@nn.fi
article id 177, category Research article
Tuomo Nurminen, Heikki Korpunen, Jori Uusitalo. (2009). Applying the activity-based costing to cut-to-length timber harvesting and trucking. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 177. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.177
Keywords: logistics; bucking; cutting; forest transport; long-distance transportation; trucking; time consumption; timber assortment; cost driver
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The supply chain of the forest industry has increasingly been adjusted to the customer’s needs for precision and quality. This has changed the operative environment both in the forest and on the roads. As the total removal of timber is increasingly divided into more log assortments, the lot size of each assortment decreases and the time consumed in sorting the logs increases. In this respect, the extra assortments have made harvesting work more difficult and affected the productivity of both cutting and forest transport; this has thus increased the harvesting costs. An activity-based cost (ABC) management system is introduced for timber harvesting and long-distance transport, based on the cut-to-length (CTL) method, in which the logistic costs are assigned to timber assortments and lots. Supplying timber is divided into three main processes: cutting, forest transport, and long-distance transportation. An ABC system was formulated separately for each of these main operations. Costs were traced to individual stands and to timber assortment lots from a stand. The cost object of the system is thus a lot of timber that makes up one assortment that has been cut, forwarded, and transported from the forest to the mill. Application of the ABC principle to timber harvesting and trucking was found to be relatively easy. The method developed gives estimates that are realistic to actual figures paid to contractors. The foremost use for this type of costing method should be as a tool to calculate the efficiency of an individual activity or of the whole logistic system.
  • Nurminen, Metsätoimisto Tuomo Nurminen, Joensuuntie 5 B 8, FI-41800 Korpilahti, Finland E-mail: tn@nn.fi (email)
  • Korpunen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
  • Uusitalo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ju@nn.fi
article id 173, category Research article
Erik Hellberg, Torbjörn Josefsson, Lars Östlund. (2009). The transformation of a Norway spruce dominated landscape since pre-industrial times in northern Sweden: the influence of modern forest management on forest structure. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 173. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.173
Keywords: birch; disturbance dynamics; forest history; deciduous forest; fire
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Logging history and the study of reference conditions in Scandinavian boreal forests has tended to focus on Scots pine dominated ecosystems. This paper presents a regional study of pre-industrial forest conditions and examines the effects of the industrial exploitation of ecosystems dominated by Norway spruce in northern Sweden. Historical records covering a period which preceded industrial logging in the study area (1917–1927) were used to obtain quantitative data on forest structure and influence of forest fires. These data were compared with a modern data set (2003) to analyse changes due to the industrial transformation of the forest. The early 20th century landscape was dominated by old, multi-cohorted spruce forests and mixed coniferous forests. It was found that fire affected both the structure and composition of the landscape. In post-burnt areas, even-aged forests dominated by deciduous species were the principal forest type. Between the early and modern data sets, profound changes in tree-species composition and age structure were documented. While the total volume of deciduous species increased substantially, the coverage of forests dominated by deciduous species decreased. There was also a significant increase in pine-dominated forests and in the total volume of pine. The industrial transformation of the studied landscapes has had profound effects on the structure of spruce forests, but much less so on deciduous forests. The study concludes that the present forest structure is a function of past management regimes, and that future transformations of the landscape will continue, thus affecting the natural variability and biodiversity of the forests.
  • Hellberg, Tunstigen 10, SE-831 43 Östersund, Sweden E-mail: eh@nn.se
  • Josefsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: torbjorn.josefsson@svek.slu.se (email)
  • Östlund, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Ecology and Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: lo@nn.se
article id 172, category Research article
Guntis Brumelis, Maris Strazds, Zanna Eglava. (2009). Stand structure and spatial pattern of regeneration of Pinus sylvestris in a natural treed mire in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 172. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.172
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; regeneration; natural forest; mire
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examined the regeneration patterns of Pinus sylvestris L. in a natural treed mire in the hemiboreal zone in Latvia. Data on tree stem age and size was collected in 207 fine-scale plots (10 m2) and 4 medium-scale plots (400 m2). Size structure of living and dead trees was also estimated on transects 180-m and 250-m length and 10-m width. In addition, the vegetation was described in 1-m2 plots to determine preferred microsites for P. sylvestris establishment. Pinus sylvestris showed continuous regeneration by an inverse J-shaped age and size structure. Pulses of mortality induced by fire were also evident. Regeneration of P. sylvestris was mostly on Sphagnum magellanicam Brid. hummocks free of competition from Ledum palustre L. and graminoids, which were found in small interspersed patches throughout the mire. The spatial pattern of tree cohorts differed, probably due to changing moisture conditions altering seedbed conditions and by fire-induced mortality in specific areas. Recent rapid invasion by Betula pubescens Ehrh. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. in a post-fire period since 1971 is probably associated with drier conditions.
  • Brumelis, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Kronvalda bulv. 4, Riga LV1586, Latvia E-mail: guntis.brumelis@lu.lv (email)
  • Strazds, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Kronvalda bulv. 4, Riga LV1586, Latvia E-mail: ms@nn.lv
  • Eglava, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Kronvalda bulv. 4, Riga LV1586, Latvia E-mail: ze@nn.lv
article id 168, category Research article
Saila Varis, Anne Pakkanen, Aina Galofré, Pertti Pulkkinen. (2009). The extent of south-north pollen transfer in Finnish Scots pine. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 5 article id 168. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.168
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; gene flow; adaptation; coniferous phenology; plant population biology; boreal forest dynamics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In order to evaluate the possibility of long distance gene flow in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), we measured the amount and germinability of airborne pollen and flowering phenology in central, northern, and northernmost Finland during 1997–2000. Totally 2.3% of the detected germinable pollen grains were in the air prior to local pollen shedding. The mean number of germinable pollen grains m–3 air per day was lower prior to local pollen shedding, but in the year 2000 there were more germinable pollen grains in the air of central study site prior to local pollen shedding. Prior to the onset of pollen shedding, 7.5% of female strobili which we observed were receptive. On average female strobili became receptive three days earlier than local pollen shedding started. During the period of pollen shedding in the central study site, we detected germinable airborne pollen in the northern site in years 1997, 1999 and 2000. At the northermost site, we detected germinable airborne pollen during the pollen-shedding period of the northern site in 2000. Our detection of germinable airborne pollen and synchrony of strobili maturation from south to north suggest that populations of Scots pine in central and northern Finland may provide genetic material to populations in northern and northernmost Finland, respectively.
  • Varis, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: saila.varis@metla.fi (email)
  • Pakkanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ap@nn.fi
  • Galofré, Passeig de l’estació 21, 5-1, 43800 Valls, Tarragona, Spain E-mail: ag@nn.fi
  • Pulkkinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Haapastensyrjä Breeding Station, Karkkilantie 247, FI-12600 Läyliäinen, Finland E-mail: pp@nn.fi
article id 185, category Research article
Bianca N. I. Eskelson, Tara M. Barrett, Hailemariam Temesgen. (2009). Imputing mean annual change to estimate current forest attributes. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 185. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.185
Keywords: forest inventory and analysis; forest monitoring; national forest inventories; nearest neighbor imputation; Pacific Northwest; paneled inventory data
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
When a temporal trend in forest conditions is present, standard estimates from paneled forest inventories can be biased. Thus methods that use more recent remote sensing data to improve estimates are desired. Paneled inventory data from national forests in Oregon and Washington, U.S.A., were used to explore three nearest neighbor imputation methods to estimate mean annual change of four forest attributes (basal area/ha, stems/ha, volume/ha, biomass/ha). The randomForest imputation method outperformed the other imputation approaches in terms of root mean square error. The imputed mean annual change was used to project all panels to a common point in time by multiplying the mean annual change with the length of the growth period between measurements and adding the change estimate to the previously observed measurements of the four forest attributes. The resulting estimates of the mean of the forest attributes at the current point in time outperformed the estimates obtained from the national standard estimator.
  • Eskelson, Oregon State University, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources and Management, 204 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: bianca.eskelson@oregonstate.edu (email)
  • Barrett, Oregon State University, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources and Management, 204 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: tmb@nn.us
  • Temesgen, Oregon State University, Department of Forest Engineering, Resources and Management, 204 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: ht@nn.us
article id 182, category Research article
Janne Miettinen, Pekka Helle, Ari Nikula, Pekka Niemelä. (2009). Changes in landscape-scale habitat selection of capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) in managed north-boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 182. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.182
Keywords: forestry; landscape composition; capercaillie; wildlife triangle
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We studied changes in habitat selection of capercaillie in northern Finnish boreal forests at two spatial scales during two time periods, 1989–1992 and 2000–2003. We studied capercaillie densities and their changes between the study periods in relation to the landscape class proportions within 3-km buffer zones around the wildlife triangle center points. Furthermore, we compared the landscape class proportions in 800-meter buffer zones around capercaillie wildlife triangle count observations and around the counted wildlife triangle transects using t-tests and compositional analysis. At the local population scale (3 km) the change in adult density between the study periods was associated positively with the proportion of young thinning stands in 2003 and reversely with the mature stand (1992 and 2003) and clear-cut (1992) proportions. Capercaillie juvenile and pooled densities during 2000–2003 were positively associated with the advanced thinning stand proportion in 2003. At the capercaillie home range scale (800 m) habitats were rich in mature stands during 1989–1992 in relation to available habitats, but not during 2000–2003 when young thinning stands were more abundant in relation to available habitats. Relatively young managed forests can be suitable for capercaillie, but mature managed forests as capercaillie habitats may have deteriorated between the study periods. Spatial planning may help to form suitable areas that are large enough for the species, but the highest potential may lay in the forest stand scale, where increased cover on the ground could promote the habitat quality.
  • Miettinen, Kankurinhaka 14, FI-90450 Kempele, Finland E-mail: janne.miettinen@rktl.fi (email)
  • Helle, Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Tutkijantie 2 E, FI-90570 Oulu, Finland E-mail: ph@nn.fi
  • Nikula, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-99600 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: an@nn.fi
  • Niemelä, University of Turku, Department of Biology, FI-20014 University of Turku, Finland E-mail: pn@nn.fi
article id 181, category Research article
Jari Miina, Juha-Pekka Hotanen, Kauko Salo. (2009). Modelling the abundance and temporal variation in the production of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) in Finnish mineral soil forests. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 181. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.181
Keywords: vegetation; generalized linear mixed model; heath forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Miina, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.miina@metla.fi (email)
  • Hotanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jph@nn.fi
  • Salo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ks@nn.fi
article id 180, category Research article
Hongzhang Kang, Björn Berg, Chunjiang Liu, Carl J. Westman. (2009). Variation in mass-loss rate of foliar litter in relation to climate and litter quality in Eurasian forests: differences among functional groups of litter. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 180. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.180
Keywords: carbon sequestration; climate; Eurasian forests; leaf litter; mass-loss; litter quality
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
With a data set of litter decomposition collected by means of literature survey, our objectives are 1) to determine the differences in the variation in the first-year mass loss (%) of leaf litter with regard to climate and litter quality among different functional groups of tree species in Eurasian forests, and 2) to determine the difference in effect of mean annual temperature (°C), annual precipitation (dm), as well as concentration of nitrogen (%), and lignin (%) on first-year mass loss over a wide range in climate and litter quality. The main results are as follows. 1) The significant differences between litter types in the relationships between first-year mass loss and climatic factors plus litter quality revealed clearly different decomposition patterns over the continent. Thus, differences were found between coniferous and broadleaf litter, between deciduous broadleaf and evergreen broadleaf as well as between genera and even within a genus, viz. between deciduous and evergreen Quercus. 2) With a change in a relative unit of climate and litter quality variables, there were clear differences in effects of mean annual temperature, annual precipitation, and nitrogen on first-year mass loss for different functional groups of trees. 3) We identified some broadleaf litter species that decomposed to 100% in one year and thus did not contribute to carbon sequestration in a humus layer. Thus, the variation in pattern of foliar litter decomposition with climate and litter quality across functional groups in Eurasian forests showed different decomposition strategies for litter of different groups and genera.
  • Kang, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Dongchuan Rd. 800, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China E-mail: hk@nn.cn
  • Berg, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Latokartanonkaari 7, FIN-00014 Finland; Dipartimento Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale. Complesso Universitario, Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, IT-80126 Napoli, Italy E-mail: bb@nn.fi
  • Liu, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Dongchuan Rd. 800, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South), Ministry of Agriculture, P. R. China, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai 200240, P. R. China E-mail: chjliu@sjtu.edu.cn (email)
  • Westman, Dipartimento Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale. Complesso Universitario, Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, IT-80126 Napoli, Italy E-mail: cjw@nn.it
article id 204, category Research article
Gaby Deckmyn, Bostjan Mali, Hojka Kraigher, Niko Torelli, Maarten Op de Beeck, Reinhart Ceulemans. (2009). Using the process-based stand model ANAFORE including Bayesian optimisation to predict wood quality and quantity and their uncertainty in Slovenian beech. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 3 article id 204. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.204
Keywords: forest management; wood quality; Bayesian calibration; beech; forest model; mechanistic; red heart
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The purpose of this study was to expand an existing semi-mechanistic forest model, ANAFORE (ANAlysing Forest Ecosystems), to allow for the prediction of log quality and the accompanying uncertainty as influenced by climate and management. The forest stand is described as consisting of trees of different cohorts, either of the same or of different species (deciduous or coniferous). In addition to photosynthesis, transpiration, total growth and yield, the model simulates the daily evolution in vessel biomass and radius, parenchyma and branch development. From these data early and latewood biomass, wood tissue composition, knot formation and density are calculated. The new version presented here, includes the description of log quality, including red heart formation of beeches. A Bayesian optimisation routine for the species parameters was added to the stand model. From a given range of input parameters (prior), the model calculates an optimised range for the parameters (posterior) based on given output data, as well as an uncertainty on the predicted values. A case study was performed for Slovenian beech forests to illustrate the main model functioning and more in particular the simulation of the wood quality. The results indicate that the ANAFORE model is a useful tool for analyzing wood quality development and forest ecosystem functioning in response to management, climate and stand characteristics. However, the Bayesian optimization showed that the remaining uncertainty on the input parameters for the chosen stand was very large, due to the large number of input parameters in comparison to the limited stand data.
  • Deckmyn, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: gaby.deckmyn@ua.ac.be (email)
  • Mali, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: bm@nn.si
  • Kraigher, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: hk@nn.si
  • Torelli, Slovenian Forestry Institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: nt@nn.si
  • Op de Beeck, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: modb@nn.be
  • Ceulemans, Research Group Plant and Vegetation Ecology, University of Antwerpen, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerpen, Belgium E-mail: rc@nn.be
article id 202, category Research article
Tuula Nuutinen, Antti Kilpeläinen, Hannu Hirvelä, Kari Härkönen, Veli-Pekka Ikonen, Reetta Lempinen, Heli Peltola, Lars Wilhelmsson, Seppo Kellomäki. (2009). Future wood and fibre sources – case North Karelia in eastern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 3 article id 202. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.202
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; fibre length; wood density; proportion of latewood; forest scenario analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Information on the potential wood supply is important for the wood industry. In this study, the future development of growing stock, cutting potential and wood properties corresponding to the regional scenario of North Karelian Forest Programme 2006–2010 was analysed. The simulations were performed by employing the Finnish MELA system together with the sample plot and tree data of the 9th Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI9) as initial data for the simulations. Disc-based models for basic wood density, proportion of latewood and fibre length of Norway spruce and Scots pine in Sweden were calibrated and integrated into the MELA system. The wood properties at breast height of both harvested and standing trees were analysed in different strata (age, site type and cutting method) during the scenario period of 50 years (2002–2052). The average wood properties within the same strata varied only slightly over time. However, the results for different strata differed considerably. In general, wood density, fibre length and proportion of latewood increased, on average, as a function of tree age and along with a decrease in site fertility (excl. wood density and proportion of latewood in harvested Norway spruce in the first case and fibre length in the latter case for both species). For trees less than 80 years, properties in harvested trees were equal to or slightly greater than those of standing trees. The values for clear-cuttings were greater or equal to those of thinnings (excl. wood density and proportion of latewood in Norway spruce). The study demonstrates the value of model-based analyses utilising NFI tree measurements in regions that are considered to be sources of raw material.
  • Nuutinen, European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tuula.nuutinen@efi.int (email)
  • Kilpeläinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ak@nn.fi
  • Hirvelä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Härkönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: kh@nn.fi
  • Ikonen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: vpi@nn.fi
  • Lempinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: rl@nn.fi
  • Peltola, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hp@nn.fi
  • Wilhelmsson, Skogforsk, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lw@nn.fi
  • Kellomäki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
article id 196, category Research article
Aaron R. Weiskittel, Laura S. Kenefic, Robert S. Seymour, Leah M. Phillips. (2009). Long-term effects of precommercial thinning on the stem dimensions, form and branch characteristics of red spruce and balsam fir crop trees in Maine, USA. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 3 article id 196. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.196
Keywords: Acadian Forest; growth and yield; Abies balsamea; Picea rubens; precommercial thinning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of precommercial thinning (PCT) on stem dimensions, form, volume, and branch attributes of red spruce [Picea rubens Sarg.] and balsam fir [Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.] crop trees were assessed 25 years after treatment in an even-aged northern conifer stand. Treatments were a uniform 2.4 x 2.4-m spacing and a control (no PCT). The PCT treatment significantly increased individual tree diameter at breast height (DBH), height growth, crown ratio, and crown width, while it reduced the tree height to DBH ratio. PCT also significantly increased stem taper and consequently, regional volume equations overpredicted observed stem volume by 2 to 15%, particularly for the spaced trees. PCT also increased the number and maximum size of branches on the lower bole. The sizes of knots on half of the sampled spruce crop trees in the spaced plots precluded them from being used as select structural lumber; there were no other effects on log grade. Our findings indicate that PCT can have a long-term influence on the structural attributes of individual trees, and that improved stem-volume prediction equations are needed in the Acadian region of North America.
  • Weiskittel, School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA E-mail: aaron.weiskittel@umit.maine.edu (email)
  • Kenefic, U.S. Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Bradley, ME 04411, USA E-mail: lsk@nn.us
  • Seymour, School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA E-mail: rss@nn.us
  • Phillips, School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA E-mail: lmp@nn.us
article id 213, category Research article
Bum-Jin Park, Yuko Tsunetsugu, Tamami Kasetani, Takeshi Morikawa, Takahide Kagawa, Yoshifumi Miyazaki. (2009). Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in Hinokage Town, Japan. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 2 article id 213. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.213
Keywords: blood pressure; heart rate variability; pulse rate; relaxation; Shinrin-yoku; therapeutic effects of forest; well-being
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
It is widely believed that coming into contact with forest environments is somehow beneficial to human well-being and comfort. In Japan, “Shinrin-yoku” (taking in the atmosphere of a forest) has been proposed to be a relaxation activity associated with forest recreation. The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological effects of forest recreation on the autonomic nervous activity. The subjects were twelve male university students (21.8 ± 0.8 years old). On the first day of the experiment, six subjects were sent to a forest area, and the other six to a city area. On the second day, each subject was sent to the area he did not visit on the first day as a cross check. The subjects walked (15 minutes) around their assigned areas before noon, and sat on chairs viewing (15 minutes) the landscapes of their assigned areas in the afternoon. Heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, and pulse rate were measured as physiological indices. Measurements were taken at the place of accommodation in the morning, before and after walking, and before and after viewing at their assigned field areas. Pulse rate, diastolic blood pressure and LF/(LF+HF) (LF – low frequency, HF – high frequency) components of HRV were significantly lower in the forest area than in the city area. HF components of HRV tended to be higher in the forest than in the city. In conclusion, the results of the physiological measurements show that forest recreation enabled effective relaxation in people, both of the mind and body.
  • Park, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: bjpark@faculty.chiba-u.jp (email)
  • Tsunetsugu, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: yt@nn.jp
  • Kasetani, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tk@nn.jp
  • Morikawa, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tm@nn.jp
  • Kagawa, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: tk@nn.jp
  • Miyazaki, Chiba University, Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, 277-0882 Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan E-mail: ym@nn.jp
article id 207, category Research article
Mats T. Olsson, Maria Erlandsson, Lars Lundin, Torbjörn Nilsson, Åke Nilsson, Johan Stendahl. (2009). Organic carbon stocks in Swedish Podzol soils in relation to soil hydrology and other site characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 2 article id 207. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.207
Keywords: temperature sum; soil organic carbon; forest land; soil hydrological class; N deposition; latitude; site capacity; mean annual precipitation; altitude
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Site characteristics influence soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. In Podzols under Swedish forest land, SOC stocks were related to latitude, altitude, soil hydrological class categorized by mean groundwater level, mean annual precipitation, temperature sum during the growing season, total annual nitrogen (N) deposition and site capacity. SOC stocks were determined for the O-horizon and for total soil (O-horizon + mineral soil to a depth of 50 cm). Data from the Swedish National Forest Soil Inventory 1993–2001 were used (1477 field plots). The O-horizon was sampled with a core sampler and carbon (C) stocks were determined. For the mineral soil layers the SOC stock was calculated based on the SOC concentrations, bulk density and content of rock fragments. The results showed that the overall mean SOC stock was 2.8 and 8.2 kg C m–2 for O-horizon and total soil, respectively. Soil hydrological class strongly affected SOC stocks, which increased from on average 6.7 kg C m–2 at dry sites to 9.7 kg C m–2 at slightly moist sites. Corresponding values for the O-horizon were 2.0 to 4.4 kg C m–2. The correlation coefficients for the linear relationship between SOC stock and site characteristics were highest for N deposition, which explained up to 25% of variation, and latitude, which explained up to 20% of variation. Altitude had the lowest degree of explanation.
  • Olsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mto@nn.se
  • Erlandsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: me@nn.se
  • Lundin, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ll@nn.se
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: torbjorn.nilsson@mark.slu.se (email)
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
  • Stendahl, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of Soil and Environment, Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: js@nn.se
article id 206, category Research article
Qiaoying Zhang, Yunchun Zhang, Shaolin Peng, Eshetu Yirdaw, Ning Wu. (2009). Spatial structure of alpine trees in Mountain Baima Xueshan on the southeast Tibetan Plateau. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 2 article id 206. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.206
Keywords: treeline; timberline; Abies forestii var. georgei (Orr) Farjon; Juniperus saltuaria Rehder & E.H. Wilson; spatial point pattern
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Zhang, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong Province, China; Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China E-mail: lsspsl@mail.sysu.edu.cn (email)
  • Zhang, Shandong Institute of Light Industry, Jinan 250353, Shandong Province, China E-mail: yz@nn.cn
  • Peng, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong Province, China E-mail: sp@nn.cn
  • Yirdaw, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ey@nn.fi
  • Wu, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China E-mail: nw@nn.cn
article id 222, category Research article
Yi Pan, Yaoqi Zhang, Indrajit Majumdar. (2009). Population, economic welfare and holding size distribution of private forestland in Alabama, USA. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 222. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.222
Keywords: consolidation; private forestland owners; parcellation; land tenure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper analyzes structural differences in holding size distribution of private forestland at the county level in Alabama, USA. The following categories are used to describe the timberland holding distribution: mean holding size, Gini coefficient of timberland holdings, and share of county timberland in holding sizes of fewer than 80 hectares and more than 800 hectares. Regressions are conducted to explore the socio-economic correlates of forestland holding size distribution. Results indicate that population density, age structure, urban-rural population structure, income structure and land tenure type are strongly associated with the forest holding size distribution.
  • Pan, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849, USA E-mail: yp@nn.us
  • Zhang, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849, USA E-mail: yaoqi.zhang@auburn.edu (email)
  • Majumdar, Auburn University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn, AL 36849, USA E-mail: im@nn.us
article id 218, category Research article
Md. Nurul Islam, Mikko Kurttila, Lauri Mehtätalo, Arto Haara. (2009). Analyzing the effects of inventory errors on holding-level forest plans: the case of measurement error in the basal area of the dominated tree species. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 218. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.218
Keywords: inoptimality loss; dominated tree species; erroneous inventory data; forest plan
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Accurate inventory data are required for ensuring optimal net return on investment from the forest. Erroneous data can lead to the formulation of a non-optimal plan that can cause inoptimality losses. Little is known of the effect of using erroneous stand inventory data in preparing holding-level forest plans. This study reports on an approach for analyzing such inoptimality losses. Furthermore, inoptimality losses caused by measurement errors in the basal area of the dominated tree species were investigated in a case study. Based on the inventory data including routine measurements by 67 measurers, four measurer groups were created with different measurement error profiles for the basal area of the dominated tree species. This was followed by measurement error simulations for each group and by adding these to the accurate control inventory data to create erroneous data of different error profiles. Three different forest plans were then constructed by using erroneous data of each group. The plans were then analyzed and compared with plans based on correct data. The effect of measurement errors on the net present value from the whole planning period, and on the amount of remaining growing stock at the end of planning period, were analyzed and utilized in calculating the inoptimality losses. It was concluded that even errors involving dominated tree species can cause significant changes in the holding-level forest plans.
  • Islam, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: nurul.islam@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Kurttila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mk@nn.fi
  • Mehtätalo, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Resource Management, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: lm@nn.fi
  • Haara, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ah@nn.fi
article id 217, category Research article
Ville Kankaanhuhta, Timo Saksa, Heikki Smolander. (2009). Variation in the results of Norway spruce planting and Scots pine direct seeding in privately-owned forests in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 217. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.217
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; quality control; forest regeneration survey; forest regeneration inventory; quality management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study describes the variation in the planting results for 3-year-old Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and 4-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) using direct seeding in privately-owned regeneration areas in southern Finland. The study material consists of operative forest regeneration quality management inventory areas from the years 2000–2006. The effect of both the regional and the administrative levels as well as ecological factors was modelled on the basis of the hierarchy structure forestry centre, Forest Owners’ Association (= FOA), forestry professional, regeneration area and sample plot. The major part of the variation occurred at the sample plot and regeneration area level. Particular attention was paid to observation of the clustered spatial distribution of Scots pine seedlings. The FOA and forestry professional levels explained 5% of the variation in Norway spruce planting and 11% of the variation in Scots pine direct seeding. Applied forest regeneration operations, site and soil characteristics were included in the fixed effects. In the planting of Norway spruce the most important factor explaining the regeneration result was soil preparation. Mounding produced better results than patching and disc trenching. The site and soil characteristics were other important factors in the operations. The selection of direct seeding of Scots pine on too fertile, fine textured or moist sites yielded poor results.
  • Kankaanhuhta, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankaanhuhta@metla.fi (email)
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Unit, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 216, category Research article
Juha Siitonen, Jenni Hottola, Auli Immonen. (2009). Differences in stand characteristics between brook-side key habitats and managed forests in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 1 article id 216. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.216
Keywords: dead wood; woodland key habitats; stand structure; CWD; WKH; Forest Act
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Preservation of small habitat patches termed as “woodland key habitats” or “especially important habitats” in the Finnish Forest Act has become an integral part of biodiversity-oriented forest management. Forest Act habitats belong to particular habitat types defined in the act, and they are supposed to have natural-like stand characteristics. However, very little is known about the actual stand structure in the designated habitats. Our aim was to compare stand characteristics between brook-side key habitats and comparable managed forests as controls. Seven study areas were selected from four regions across southern Finland. Within each study area ten key habitats and ten controls (140 stands) were randomly selected. Living and dead trees and cut stumps were measured in each stand within a 0.2 ha plot. The average degree of previous cutting was significantly lower whereas the volume of dead wood, volume of deciduous trees, and stand diversity were each significantly higher in key habitats than controls. The average volume of dead wood was 11.7 m3 ha–1 in key habitats and 6.5 m3 ha–1 in controls. However, there was considerable variation among individual stands, and a large part of key habitats could not be distinguished from randomly selected control stands with respect to stand characteristics. The preservation of natural brook channels with their immediate surroundings is undoubtedly important for maintaining aquatic and semiaquatic biodiversity. Nevertheless, when complementing the forest conservation network in the future, main emphasis in selecting potentially valuable stands should be placed on important structural features such as dead wood and old trees.
  • Siitonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: juha.siitonen@metla.fi (email)
  • Hottola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Immonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ai@nn.fi
article id 467, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Ruut Haapakoski, Liisa Tyrväinen. (2008). Integrating place-specific social values into forest planning – Case of UPM-Kymmene forests in Hyrynsalmi, Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 5 article id 467. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.467
Keywords: collaborative planning; experienced values of forests; social value mapping; survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In participatory forest management planning, the perceived values of local inhabitants concerning the area under planning are collected. The results may, however, depend on the methods used. In this study, values of residents of Hyrynsalmi municipality concerning the nearby forests owned by UPM-Kymmene Ltd. were evaluated with a questionnaire consisting of general value questions and mapping of social values of forests. The data was collected from a public meeting and from a mailed survey from randomly sampled people and from members of municipal council. The aims of the study were to 1) test the social value mapping method in commercial forests in a rural-urban interface as well as to examine the benefits and drawbacks 2) in place-specific and non-specific data collection, and 3) in different data collection methods, from the viewpoint of forest management planning. We noted that while all respondents can claim to represent local values, different data collection methods produced statistically significantly different local values. This needs to be accounted for when planning a participatory process. In operational forest planning, place-specific information is more useful than questions concerning the general values, while the latter may help in defining forest policy goals. The social values mapping method is also relatively easy for the participants. However, in the studied case about one fifth of the area was delineated by the participants per each positive value. The answers were quite scattered, suggesting that most of the area had some social values for local people. This indicates that utilising a social values mapping method in planning needs further development in rural areas, where distinctive patches can not be easily detected.
  • Kangas, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: annika.kangas@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Haapakoski, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki E-mail: rh@nn.fi
  • Tyrväinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland. E-mail: lt@nn.fi
article id 466, category Research article
Ilkka Korpela, Tuukka Tuomola, Timo Tokola, Bo Dahlin. (2008). Appraisal of seedling stand vegetation with airborne imagery and discrete-return LiDAR – an exploratory analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 5 article id 466. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.466
Keywords: silviculture; remote sensing; forest regeneration; classification; species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The potential for combined use of airborne discrete-return LiDAR and digital imagery in the classification and measurement of common seedling stand vegetation was examined in southern Finland (61°50’N, 24°20’E). Classification was based on spectral and textural image features in addition to geometric and radiometric features of the LiDAR. The accuracy of leaf-on, LiDAR-based terrain elevation models was tested as well as the accuracy of LiDAR in the measurement of vegetation heights. LiDAR-based canopy height and the range-normalized intensity of the LiDAR were strong explanatory variables in vegetation classification. Interspecies variation was observed in the height measurement accuracy of LiDAR for different tree, shrub and low vegetation canopies. Elevation models derived with 1–15 pulses per m2 showed an inherent noise of app. 15–25 cm, which restricts the use of LiDAR in regeneration assessment of very young stands. The spatial pattern of the competing vegetation was reproduced in classification-based raster surfaces, which could be useful in deriving meaningful treatment proposals.
  • Korpela, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Finland E-mail: ilkka.korpela@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Tuomola, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Finland E-mail: tt@nn.fi
  • Tokola, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Finland E-mail: tt@nn.fi
  • Dahlin, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Finland E-mail: bd@nn.fi
article id 465, category Research article
Ken Olaf Storaunet, Jørund Rolstad, Målfrid Toeneiet, Erlend Rolstad. (2008). Effect of logging on the threatened epiphytic lichen Usnea longissima: a comparative and retrospective approach. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 5 article id 465. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.465
Keywords: Picea abies; forest history; dendroecology; epiphytic lichens; historic logging; selective logging; stand reconstruction; Usnea longissima
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Storaunet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: ken.storaunet@skogoglandskap.no (email)
  • Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: jr@nn.no
  • Toeneiet, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: mt@nn.no
  • Rolstad, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: er@nn.no
article id 238, category Research article
Mikko Kurttila, Pekka Leskinen, Jouni Pykäläinen, Tiina Ruuskanen. (2008). Forest owners' decision support in voluntary biodiversity-protection projects. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 4 article id 238. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.238
Keywords: biodiversity protection; compensation fee; multi-criteria decision support; multi-objective forest planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
New forest-biodiversity-protection instruments based on temporary protection periods and non-industrial private forest owners’ voluntary participation have been recently introduced and tested in pilot areas located in Southern Finland. Thanks to their several benefits, the use of voluntary instruments is becoming more common in many other countries as well. Voluntary protection here means that forest owners voluntarily set aside tracts of forest to be protected and define their compensation fees. Depending on the objectives of the forest owners, the compensation fee reflects the forest owners’ (positive) attitude towards biodiversity, scenic beauty, recreational values and/or the existence of long-term cutting possibilities. When a forest owner decides to offer part of his/her forest holding to be temporarily protected, the owner faces a new decision problem related to definition of the compensation fee, which should be based on diverse information concerning stand- and holding-level opportunity costs as well as on the biodiversity value of the stand. This article introduces three decision-support elements for assisting forest owners in defining their compensation fees. The first element relates to the assessment of the potential stand-level loss of timber harvesting income that the temporary protection of the stand may cause. The second element sets the holding-level opportunity cost of protection by utilizing the forest owners’ holding level goals, the holdings’ production possibilities and optimization methods. The third element describes the biodiversity value of the stand by means of a multi-criteria expert model. Case study material collected from the area of Central Karelia Herb-rich Forests Network pilot project is used to illustrate the characteristics of the decision-support elements and to point out some development needs for the future use of these elements.
  • Kurttila, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mikko.kurttila@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Leskinen, Finnish Environment Institute, Research Programme for Production and Consumption, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pl@nn.fi
  • Pykäläinen, Metsämonex Ltd., Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
  • Ruuskanen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tr@nn.fi
article id 235, category Research article
Ari Nikula, Ville Hallikainen, Risto Jalkanen, Mikko Hyppönen, Kari Mäkitalo. (2008). Modelling the factors predisposing Scots pine to moose damage in artificially regenerated sapling stands in Finnish Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 4 article id 235. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.235
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; boreal forest; forestry; Alces alces; damage; modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Moose (Alces alces) damage in forest plantations have been at a high level in Finland in recent decades. Nowadays, moose is the most severe pest in Scots pine plantations also in Finnish Lapland. So far, despite the high level of damage and different bio-geographical conditions in Northern Finland, most of the moose-damage research has been carried out in Southern Finland. A number of research have also been performed to analyse factors affecting browsing but predictive models are rare. Data from 123 randomly selected and artificially regenerated pine plantations in Northern Finland were used in modelling the risk of moose browsing. The stands had been regenerated during 1984–1995. A total of 508 sample plots (range 2–8 plots per stand) were measured. Hierarchical logistic regression models with a random factor were constructed to predict the probability of leader-shoot browsing of pine on a plot. The number of planted pines and deciduous trees overtopping the pines were the most important predictors increasing the browsing probability. The results support earlier findings that deciduous trees overtopping or reaching the height of the pines should be cleaned from the immediate vicinity of the pines. Seedlings with a height ranging from 75 to 299 centimetres were more susceptible to browsing. Heavy soil scarification, such as ploughing or mounding, increased the browsing probability compared with lighter scarification methods. Soil type did not affect the browsing probability, but paludification decreased it. The within-stand variation in deciduous trees density and height should be taken into account in future moose browsing risk assessments. In Lapland, high moose damage risk areas are characterized by a low elevation and higher temperature sum.
  • Nikula, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: ari.nikula@metla.fi (email)
  • Hallikainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: vh@nn.fi
  • Jalkanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: rj@nn.fi
  • Hyppönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mh@nn.fi
  • Mäkitalo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, Eteläranta 55, FI-96300 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: km@nn.fi
article id 231, category Research article
Hilppa Gregow, Ulla Puranen, Ari Venäläinen, Heli Peltola, Seppo Kellomäki, David Schultz. (2008). Temporal and spatial occurrence of strong winds and large snow load amounts in Finland during 1961-2000. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 4 article id 231. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.231
Keywords: soil frost; coniferous forest; wind climate; precipitation; snow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Information on the temporal and spatial occurrence of strong winds and snow loads on trees is important for the risk management of wind- and snow-induced damage. Meteorological measurements made at 19 locations across Finland during 1961–2000 are used to understand the temporal and spatial occurrence of strong winds and large snow loads. A Kriging interpolation method was used to produce a spatial analysis of wind-speed events above 11 m s–1, 14 m s–1, and greater or equal to 17 m s–1 and snowfall accumulation above 20 kg m–2 and 30 kg m–2. According to the analysis, wind speeds exceeded 14 m s–1 at least 155 times and reached 17 m s–1 only 5 times at inland locations during the 40 years. Large snowfall accumulations were more frequent in the higher-elevation inland areas than along the coast. The snow load on trees exceeded 20 kg m–2 about 65 times a year when averaged over all 40 years, but was as high as 150 times a year during the mild 1990s. The maximum number of heavy snow-load events occurred in 1994 in northern Finland, consistent with a forest inventory by the Finnish Forest Research Institute in 1992–1994. The findings of this study imply that the risk of wind-induced damage is highest in the late autumn when trees do not have the additional support of frozen soil. In contrast, the risk of snow-induced damage is highest at higher-elevations inland, especially in northern Finland.

* Erratum (23 Oct 2012): The authors have requested inclusion of an additional author. Author information should thus be as follows: Hilppa Gregow, Ulla Puranen, Ari Venäläinen, Heli Peltola, Seppo Kellomäki & David Schultz
  • Gregow, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hilppa.gregow@fmi.fi (email)
  • Puranen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: up@nn.fi
  • Venäläinen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: av@nn.fi
  • Peltola, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: heli.peltola@uef.fi
  • Kellomäki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.kellomaki@uef.fi
  • Schultz, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ds@nn.fi
article id 243, category Research article
Rupert Seidl, Werner Rammer, Petra Lasch, Franz-Werner Badeck, Manfred J. Lexer. (2008). Does conversion of even-aged, secondary coniferous forests affect carbon sequestration? A simulation study under changing environmental conditions. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 3 article id 243. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.243
Keywords: forest management; Norway spruce; climate change mitigation; PICUS; 4C; model comparison
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
To circumvent problems associated with even-aged, pure coniferous stands propagated outside their natural range alternative management strategies and conversion programs are currently discussed in Central Europe. However, a mainstreaming of such adapted silvicultural systems with climate change mitigation objectives is missing to date. In this study the objective was to assess in situ C storage under conditions of climate change in a secondary Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forest management unit in Austria. Four management strategies (Norway spruce age class forestry, transition to continuous cover forestry with Norway spruce, conversion to mixed conifer/broadleaved stands, no management) were investigated under current climate and two transient climate change scenarios in a simulation study. By comparing the results of two independent forest ecosystem models (PICUS v1.41, 4C) applied under identical forcings and boundary conditions we aimed at addressing uncertainties in model-based projections. A transition to continuous cover forestry increased C storage in all climate scenarios (+45.4 tC·ha–1 to +74.0 tC·ha–1 over the 100 year analysis period) compared to the approximately balanced C budget under the age class system. For the mixed conifer/broadleaved management variant predictions of the two models diverged significantly (+29.4 tC·ha–1 and –10.6 tC·ha–1 in PICUS and 4C respectively, current climate). With regard to climate change impacts both models agreed on distinct effects on productivity but lower sensitivity of C stocks due to compensation from respiration and adaptive harvest levels. In conclusion, considering the potential effects of silvicultural decisions on C stocks climate change mitigation should be addressed explicitly in programs advocating targeted change in management paradigms.
  • Seidl, Institute of Silviculture, BOKU, Vienna, Austria E-mail: rupert.seidl@boku.ac.at (email)
  • Rammer, Institute of Silviculture, BOKU, Vienna, Austria E-mail: wr@nn.at
  • Lasch, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research e.V., Potsdam, Germany E-mail: pl@nn.de
  • Badeck, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research e.V., Potsdam, Germany E-mail: fwb@nn.de
  • Lexer, Institute of Silviculture, BOKU, Vienna, Austria E-mail: mjl@nn.at
article id 242, category Research article
Jyrki Hytönen, Paula Jylhä. (2008). Fifteen-year response of weed control intensity and seedling type on Norway spruce survival and growth on arable land. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 3 article id 242. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.242
Keywords: Norway spruce; afforestation; frost damage; seedling size; seedling type; vegetation control
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of seedling type (2-year-old container seedlings vs. 4-year-old bare-rooted seedlings) and post-planting vegetation control intensity on the growth and survival of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings were compared based on 15-year data from a field experiment established on arable land. Vegetation control treatments with terbuthylazine and glyphosate were carried out 1–3 times on successive years, either as overall or spot applications. The highest stand volumes were obtained with the combination of large bare-rooted seedlings and effective vegetation control. Volume of bare-rooted seedlings was greater than that of container seedlings in all treatments (e.g. on the control plots 9.5 m3/ha vs. 4.1 m3/ha). The best results were obtained with the most intensive weed control treatments (spot treatment repeated twice and overall application repeated three times). These treatments increased both bare-rooted and containerised seedlings’ survival by 33–40% units and their height, breast height diameter, and volume by 45–49%, 17–47%, and 249–279%, respectively. In terms of survival, the container seedlings, in due part to their smaller size, benefited from vegetation control more than the bare-rooted seedlings. Successive early summer frosts damaged the seedlings and significantly retarded their growth. The frequency of frost damage was not affected by vegetation control nor was it attributed to seedling type.
  • Hytönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Unit, P.O. Box 44, FI-69101, Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@metla.fi (email)
  • Jylhä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Unit, P.O. Box 44, FI-69101, Kannus, Finland E-mail: pj@nn.fi
article id 241, category Research article
Hailemariam Temesgen, Tara M. Barrett, Greg Latta. (2008). Estimating cavity tree abundance using Nearest Neighbor Imputation methods for western Oregon and Washington forests. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 3 article id 241. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.241
Keywords: stand structure; nearest neighbor imputation; snag size; snag frequency; forest landscape modeling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Cavity trees contribute to diverse forest structure and wildlife habitat. For a given stand, the size and density of cavity trees indicate its diversity, complexity, and suitability for wildlife habitat. Size and density of cavity trees vary with stand age, density, and structure. Using Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data collected in western Oregon and western Washington, we applied correlation analysis and graphical approaches to examine relationships between cavity tree abundance and stand characteristics. Cavity tree abundance was negatively correlated with site index and percent composition of conifers, but positively correlated with stand density, quadratic mean diameter, and percent composition of hardwoods. Using FIA data, we examined the performance of Most Similar Neighbor (MSN), k nearest neighbor, and weighted MSN imputation with three variable transformations (regular, square root, and logarithmic) and Classification and Regression Tree with MSN imputation to estimate cavity tree abundance from stand attributes. There was a large reduction in mean root mean square error from 20% to 50% reference sets, but very little reduction in using the 80% reference sets, corresponding to the decreases in mean distances. The MSN imputation using square root transformation provided better estimates of cavity tree abundance for western Oregon and western Washington forests. We found that cavity trees were only 0.25 percent of live trees and 13.8 percent of dead trees in the forests of western Oregon and western Washington, thus rarer and more difficult to predict than many other forest attributes. Potential applications of MSN imputation include selecting and modeling wildlife habitat to support forest planning efforts, regional inventories, and evaluation of different management scenarios.
  • Temesgen, Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA E-mail: hailemariam.temesgen@oregonstate.edu (email)
  • Barrett, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Anchorage, AK, USA E-mail: tmb@nn.us
  • Latta, Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA E-mail: gl@nn.us
article id 468, category Research article
Antti Lännenpää, Tuomas Aakala, Heikki Kauhanen, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2008). Tree mortality agents in pristine Norway spruce forests in northern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 468. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.468
Keywords: Picea abies; northern Fennoscandia; Coniophora; mortality agent; pristine forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examined tree mortality agents in pristine old Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests in northern Finland and northwestern Russia. The data was collected on nine 40 m   400 m transects. The primary mortality agents of recently dead trees were recorded and their frequencies were calculated. The pattern of tree growth prior to death was studied based on increment core samples and compared with the growth of healthy dominant trees. Of all recently dead trees, 72% could be associated with a primary mortality agent. In both study areas the most common primary mortality agent was a Coniophora (Mérat) DC. -genus fungi, which was found on average in 33% of trees sampled. The fungi Phellinus chrysoloma (Fr.) Don and Onnia leporina (Fr.) H. Jahn as mortality agents were more common in the Finnish area compared to the Russian area. Analysis on the growth patterns indicated weak differences between different pathogens’ influence on prior-to-death growth of trees, so that fungi rotting the whole tree decreased tree growth more rapidly than fungi rotting only the heart wood. The results demonstrated that in old Norway spruce forests of northern Fennoscandia the most common primary tree mortality agents were wood rotting fungi, which weaken the mechanical stability of tree stems until they fall due to snow or wind, which should be considered only as secondary mortality agents. It is evident that tree death in pristine forest typically results from a long-lasting process involving both biotic and abiotic factors.
  • Lännenpää, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: al@nn.fi
  • Aakala, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomas.aakala@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Kauhanen, Kolari Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
article id 255, category Research article
Claude Vidal, Adrian Lanz, Erkki Tomppo, Klemens Schadauer, Thomas Gschwantner, Lucio di Cosmo, Nicolas Robert. (2008). Establishing forest inventory reference definitions for forest and growing stock: a study towards common reporting. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 255. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.255
Keywords: national forest inventories; reference definitions; growing stock; harmonisation; analytical decomposition
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
International agreements such as the Kyoto protocol and Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), as well as, criteria and indicator processes require reports on the status of nations’ forests. Any comparison of the current status and trends of forest resources among nations presumes that the nations’ applied definitions and concepts produce comparable estimates of the status of forests. In spite of this, the FAO has already collected global information for 60 years and made noticeable efforts in creating common definitions, but forest related data are still collected using diverse definitions, even regarding basic concepts such as forest and forest area. A simple consequence is that the cross-countries estimates are not comparable. The reasons behind the differences in the definitions are diverse histories, and sometimes different use of forests. In an ideal case, national forest inventories should fulfil both national and international needs. In addition to the FAO’s Forest Resources Assessment process, other efforts are made to assess the status of forests in European countries, e.g. European Forest Information and Communication System (EFICS). EFICS produced reports about forest inventories but does not suggest any common definition or method to convert estimates from one definition to another one. This article presents principles and methods to create commonly acceptable and adoptable definitions for forest inventories. The principles and methods are demonstrated using two examples: the reference definitions of forest and growing stock. The article is based on the work of COST Action E43 (http://www.metla.fi/eu/cost/e43/).
  • Vidal, Inventaire Forestier National, Château des Barres, Nogent-sur-Vernisson, France E-mail: claude.vidal@ifn.fr (email)
  • Lanz, WSL/FNP, Abteilung Landschaftsinventuren, Birmensdorf, Switzerland E-mail: al@nn.ch
  • Tomppo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: et@nn.fi
  • Schadauer, Bundesamt und Forschungszentrum für Wald, Wien, Austria E-mail: ks@nn.at
  • Gschwantner, Bundesamt und Forschungszentrum für Wald, Wien, Austria E-mail: tg@nn.at
  • di Cosmo, ISAFA, Villazzano, Italy E-mail: ldc@nn.it
  • Robert, Inventaire Forestier National, Ch‰teau des Barres, Nogent-sur-Vernisson, France E-mail: nr@nn.fr
article id 254, category Research article
Johanna Joensuu, Kari Heliövaara, Eino Savolainen. (2008). Risk of bark beetle (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) damage in a spruce forest restoration area in central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 254. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.254
Keywords: biodiversity; dead wood; damage; forest pests; forest restoration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A beetle inventory using window traps was performed to examine the effect of forest restoration by artificial addition of dead wood on the abundance of beetles and to evaluate the risk of bark beetle damage in a forest restoration area. The number of beetle families was slightly increased, but no consistent differences were found in the abundance of families containing saproxylic Coleoptera between the restoration and control plots. The abundance and species number of bark beetles and longhorn beetles were significantly higher on the restoration plots. Ips typographus and Pityogenes chalcographus increased only slightly in abundance. In the regression models produced, the abundance of bark beetles was best explained by the volume of recently dead wood. However, the bark beetle species whose abundance increased most were secondary and the material also suggests an increase in the abundance of bark beetles’ natural enemies. The risk of bark beetle damage in the area is thus considered insignificant.
  • Joensuu, Dept. of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: johanna.joensuu@metsanhoitajat.fi (email)
  • Heliövaara, Dept. of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kh@nn.fi
  • Savolainen, Kuopio Natural History Museum, Kuopio, Finland E-mail: es@nn.fi
article id 251, category Research article
Lina R. Steinke, Andrea C. Premoli, Cintia P. Souto, Mikael Hedrén. (2008). Adaptive and neutral variation of the resprouter Nothofagus antarctica growing in distinct habitats in north-western Patagonia. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 251. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.251
Keywords: isozymes; morphological variation; leaf traits; South America; temperate forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
N. antarctica occurs in the widest range of habitat types among all South American Notho–fagus. The aim of this study is to investigate adaptive responses by variation in morphological (tree form and leaf characters), and environmental traits (soils) of the polymorphic N. ant–arctica. Also we analyze the effect of genetic drift and limited gene flow in such predominantly apomict by means of neutral variation (isozymes). We studied four potentially different morphological variants each associated with a separate habitat 1) an arboreal variant growing in optimal environments; 2) a sparsely branched variant of temporarily flooded basins or flats; 3) a dwarf variant growing at high elevation, and 4) a shrub-like variant inhabiting matorral environments. The study was restricted latitudinally to Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina. For each habitat type we investigated two sites. Nothofagus antarctica shows locally occurring phenotypes. The forest and the high elevation variants were morphologically distinct from the matorral and the basin types. The latter were undistinguishable except for more profuse branching in the matorral type as a result of sprouting due to recent fires. Isozyme evidence indicates a great deal of within-population genetic diversity which is maintained by outcrossing and significant among-site divergence (FST = 18%) that reflects limited gene flow.The apparent high phenotypic and genetic variability in N. antarctica is due to both plasticity and genotypic effects as a result of stable population structure and long periods of isolation which may be reinforced by selection at diverse biotopes.
  • Steinke, Plant Ecology and Systematics, Lund University, Ecology Department, 223 62 Lund, Sweden E-mail: lks@nn.se
  • Premoli, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Laboratorio Ecotono – CRUB, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina E-mail: apremoli@crub.uncoma.edu.ar (email)
  • Souto, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Laboratorio Ecotono – CRUB, Quintral 1250, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina E-mail: cps@nn.ar
  • Hedrén, Plant Ecology and Systematics, Lund University, Ecology Department, 223 62 Lund, Sweden E-mail: mh@nn.se
article id 250, category Research article
Saara Lilja-Rothsten, Michelle de Chantal, Chris Peterson, Timo Kuuluvainen, Ilkka Vanha-Majamaa, Pasi Puttonen. (2008). Microsites before and after restoration in managed Picea abies stands in southern Finland: effects of fire and partial cutting with dead wood creation. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 2 article id 250. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.250
Keywords: biodiversity; boreal forest; regeneration; coarse woody debris; disturbance dynamics; CWD; managed forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Different types of microsites, e.g. CWD (coarse woody debris), mounds, and uprooting pits, are important for tree regeneration and biodiversity. However, microsite diversity is greatly reduced in managed stands. We studied how restoration treatments changed microsite distribution in mature managed Picea abies stands. Four cutting treatments were used: uncut, low-CWD (5 m3 ha–1 of down retention trees, DRT, and 50 m3 ha–1 of standing retention trees), intermediate-CWD (as previous but leaving 30 m3 ha–1 of DRT), and high-CWD (as previous but with 60 m3 ha–1 of DRT). Timber harvested from stands ranged from 108–168 m3 ha–1. Half of the stands were burned, and half remained unburned. Sampling was stratified into upland and paludified biotopes within each stand. The pre-treatment microsite distributions were dominated by level ground in both biotopes; mounds and microsites on or next to CWD or a stump were slightly more abundant in the paludified than in the upland biotopes. Microsites were more diverse after cutting, with and without fire. The cutting treatment increased the relative abundances of microsites on or next to CWD. Fire consumed small diameter dead wood and flattened mounds. Microsites were more diverse in paludified than in upland biotopes. The results demonstrate that microsite diversity can rapidly be restored to structurally impoverished managed Picea stands despite a large portion of wood volume being harvested.
  • Lilja-Rothsten, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: saara.lilja@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Chantal, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: mdc@nn.fi
  • Peterson, Dept. of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA E-mail: cp@nn.us
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Vanha-Majamaa, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, Finland E-mail: ivm@nn.fi
  • Puttonen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Unit, Finland E-mail: pp@nn.fi
article id 265, category Research article
Emil Cienciala, Erkki Tomppo, Arnor Snorrason, Mark Broadmeadow, Antoine Colin, Karsten Dunger, Zuzana Exnerova, Bruno Lasserre, Hans Petersson, Tibor Priwitzer, Gerardo Sanchez, Göran Ståhl. (2008). Preparing emission reporting from forests: use of National Forest Inventories in European countries. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 265. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.265
Keywords: forest carbon pools; greenhouse gas inventory; Kyoto Protocol; UNFCCC
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examine the current status of greenhouse gas inventories of the sector Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF), in European countries, with specific focus on the utilization of National Forest Inventory (NFI) programs. LULUCF inventory is an integral part of the reporting obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol. The analysis is based on two questionnaires prepared by the COST Action E43 “Harmonisation of National Forest Inventories in Europe”, which were answered by greenhouse gas reporting experts in European countries. The following major conclusions can be drawn from the analysis: 1) definitions used to obtain carbon pool change estimates vary widely among countries and are not directly comparable 2) NFIs play a key role for LULUCF greenhouse gas estimation and reporting under UNFCCC, and provide the fundamental data needed for the estimation of carbon stock changes covering not only living biomass, but increasingly also deadwood, litter and soil compartments. The study highlights the effects of adopting different definitions for two major reporting processes, namely UNFCCC and FAO, and exemplifies the effect of different tree diameter thresholds on carbon stock change estimates for Finland. The results demonstrate that more effort is needed to harmonize forest inventory estimates for the purpose of making the estimates of forest carbon pool changes comparable. This effort should lead to a better utilization of the data from the European NFI programs and improve the European greenhouse gas reporting.
  • Cienciala, Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research (IFER), Areal 1. Jilovske a.s. 1544, 254 01 Jilove u Prahy, Czech Republic E-mail: emil.cienciala@ifer.cz (email)
  • Tomppo, Metla, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Finland E-mail: et@nn.fi
  • Snorrason, Icelandic Forest Research, Iceland E-mail: as@nn.is
  • Broadmeadow, Forestry Commission, Forest Research Alice Holt Logdge, United Kingdom E-mail: mb@nn.uk
  • Colin, French National Forest Inventory, France E-mail: ac@nn.fr
  • Dunger, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute of Forest Ecology and Forest Assessment, Germany E-mail: kd@nn.de
  • Exnerova, Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research, Czech Republic E-mail: ze@nn.cz
  • Lasserre, Department of Environment and Territory Sciences and Technologies, University of Molise, Italy E-mail: bl@nn.it
  • Petersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Sweden E-mail: hp@nn.se
  • Priwitzer, National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute. Slovak Republic E-mail: tb@nn.sk
  • Sanchez, Forest Health Unit, General Directorate for Biodiversity, Environmental Ministry, Spain E-mail: gs@nn.es
  • Ståhl, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management, Sweden E-mail: gs@nn.se
article id 469, category Research article
Henri Vanhanen, Timo O. Veteli, Sonja Päivinen, Seppo Kellomäki, Pekka Niemelä. (2007). Climate change and range shifts in two insect defoliators: gypsy moth and nun moth – a model study. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 469. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.469
Keywords: insects; forest pests; CLIMEX; Lymantria monacha; Lymantria dispar; poleward shift; geographical range
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Environmental factors influenced by global climate change determine the distribution ranges of organisms. Especially ectothermic animals are expected to shift their distribution ranges northwards in the next hundred years or so. In this study simulations made with CLIMEX-modelling software were used to predict the future distribution ranges of two Central European serious forest pest species: the nun moth (Lymantria monacha L. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)) and the gypsy moth (L. dispar L). The software calculates an ecoclimatic index based on the life cycle requirements of a species and thus represents the probability of a viable population to exist at a certain location. Three different climate warming scenarios were considered: temperature increase of 1.4, 3.6 and 5.8°C. Simulations generated with the current climate conditions corresponded well to the current distributions of the species. The climate warming scenarios shifted the northern boundary of the distribution for both of these species north by c. a. 500–700 km. Also the southern edge of the ranges retracted northwards by 100–900 km. The results of this study are in agreement with the results of empirical studies on other species. Being serious pest species, these species pose a potential threat to silviculture and therefore, have to be considered in the planning of forest management practices.
  • Vanhanen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O.B. 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hv@nn.fi
  • Veteli, Faculty of Biosciences, University of Joensuu, P.O.B. 111, FI-80101, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: timo.veteli@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Päivinen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O.B. 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
  • Kellomäki, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O.B. 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
  • Niemelä, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O.B. 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pn@nn.fi
article id 279, category Research article
Gerben Janse. (2007). Characteristics and challenges of forest sector communication in the EU. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 279. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.279
Keywords: forest policy; European level; forest sector; communication processes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fragmentation of forest policy at the EU level and image problems of the forest industry have increased forest sector actors’ interest for cooperation on and coordination of communication activities. Although internal communication in the forest sector at the European level is generally well developed both formally and informally, the desired strengthening of communication with other sectors and the public at large is perceived as difficult. In this pre-study 39 interviews were conducted with EU and UNECE/FAO officials, EU level Forest-based Industries and forestry sector federation representatives, and forest scientists working at the European level. The results indicate that EU level forest sector core actors’ ideas on communication differ. Ideas range from strictly image improvement; being more successful at lobbying with other sectors and high-level policy-makers; up to building long-lasting relations and two-way communication processes with other sectors. This makes it difficult to come to coordinated action among forest sector actors. A more active exchange of information on best practices in forest communication between national as well as European level actors, and increased coordination of communication efforts is desired by industry, forest owners as well as policy-makers. However, clear ideas on how to improve, especially inter-sectoral, communication are largely lacking.
  • Janse, European Forest Institute, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: gerben.janse@efi.int (email)
article id 276, category Research article
Jianping Zhu, Pete Bettinger, Rongxia Li. (2007). Additional insight into the performance of a new heuristic for solving spatially constrained forest planning problems. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 276. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.276
Keywords: forest planning; harvest scheduling; heuristics; raindrop method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Zhu, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: jz@nn.us
  • Bettinger, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: pbettinger@warnell.uga.edu (email)
  • Li, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: rl@nn.us
article id 275, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Kari T. Korhonen, Pauline Stenberg, Matti Maltamo, Miina Rautiainen. (2007). Local models for forest canopy cover with beta regression. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 4 article id 275. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.275
Keywords: beta regression; canopy cover; forest canopy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Accurate field measurement of the forest canopy cover is too laborious to be used in extensive forest inventories. A possible alternative to the separate canopy cover measurements is to utilize the correlations between the percent canopy cover and easier-to-measure forest variables, especially the basal area. A fairly new analysis technique, the beta regression, is specially designed for modelling percentages. As an extension to the generalized linear models, the beta regression takes into account the distribution of the model residuals, and uses a logistic link function to ensure logical predictions. In this study, the beta regression method was found to perform well in conifer dominated study area located in central Finland. The same model shape, with basal area, tree height and an additional predictor (Scots pine: site fertility, Norway spruce: percentage of hardwoods) as independent variables, produced good results for both pine and spruce dominated sites. The models had reasonably high pseudo R-squared values (pine: 0.91, spruce: 0.87) and low standard errors (pine: 6.3%, spruce: 5.9%) for the fitting data, and also performed well in a cross validation test. The models were also tested on separate test plots located in a different geographical area, where the prediction errors were slightly larger (pine: 8.8%, spruce: 7.4%). In pine plots, the model fit was further improved by introducing additional predictors such as stand age and density. This improved also the performance of the models in the cross validation test, but weakened the results for the external data set. Our results indicated that the beta regression method offers a noteworthy alternative to separate canopy cover measurements, especially if time is limited and the models can be applied in the same region where the modelling data were collected.
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Stenberg, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
  • Maltamo, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Rautiainen, Univ. of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Resource Management, P.O. BOX 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
article id 286, category Research article
Riitta Hänninen, A. Maarit I. Kallio. (2007). Economic impacts on the forest sector of increasing forest biodiversity conservation in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 286. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.286
Keywords: forest biodiversity conservation; roundwood market; forest industry production
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the next coming years, political decisions will be made upon future actions to safeguard forest biodiversity in Southern Finland. We address the economic consequences on the Finnish forest sector of conserving additional 0.5% to 5% of the old growth forest land in Southern Finland. The impacts on supply, demand and prices of wood and forest industry production are analysed employing a partial equilibrium model of the Finnish forest sector. An increase in conservation raises wood prices and thus the production costs of the forest industry. This makes sawnwood production fall, but does not affect paper and paperboard production. The forest owners’ aggregated wood sales income is unaffected or slightly increased, because an increase in stumpage prices offsets the decrease in the harvests. If conservation increases wood imports, negative effects on forest industry become smaller whereas aggregated forest owners’ income may decline depending on the magnitude of import substitution.
  • Hänninen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: riitta.hanninen@metla.fi (email)
  • Kallio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: maarit.kallio@metla.fi
article id 280, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Mikko Moilanen, Sirpa Piirainen. (2007). Phosphorus allocation in surface soil of two drained peatland forests following wood and peat ash application – why effective adsorption on low sorptive soils? Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 3 article id 280. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.280
Keywords: forestry; ash fertilization; peat; aluminium; iron; phosphorus adsorption; phosphorus fractionation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fertilization of drained peatland forests with wood ash and different commercial phosphorus fertilizers (calcium phosphates) generally give similar stand growth responses. However, it has been shown that use of calcium phosphate fertilizers generally lead to highly increased P release to recipient water courses. On the other hand, no corresponding release has been reported after ash fertilization. Soil samples from the surface peats from a nutrient poor and a fertile drained peatland site were collected before and 1–4 years after application of five different types of ash products. The changes over time in the different chemical forms of P in the substrate were studied. The results indicated that the reason for the low liability to leaching of ash fertilizers was that significant amounts of P are adsorbed by Al and Fe during weathering of the ash fertilizers. However, further studies are needed to clarify whether the adsorption of P occurs with the Al and Fe of the ash or the native Al and Fe compounds present in soil before ash fertilization.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Moilanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
  • Piirainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
article id 303, category Research article
Lars Lönnstedt. (2007). Industrial timberland ownership in the USA: arguments based on case studies. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 303. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.303
Keywords: forest management; backward vertical integration; pricing; secured supply; owner structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The forest product companies’ ownership of timberland is decreasing in the United States as in many other countries. In aggregate the forest product industry owned 26.5 million hectares (11.6% of the U.S. timberland) in 2002 compared with 28.5 million hectares in 1987 (FIA 2006). Reasons for this decrease of timberland ownership are several and complex. This article presents four case studies of U.S.-based forest product companies. The vertical integration theory and empirical studies about timberland ownership give a base for the study. Four hypotheses are formulated on the basis of the literature. The results give support to two of them. An important reason for timberland ownership is a wish to secure deliveries. Market conditions are important for the need of owning timberland. Two of the companies did not own timberland, the main reason being more profitable alternative uses of capital. The ownership structure of the company, tradition, and culture are other important explanations for timberland ownership. This study did not show the advantage of timberland ownership for information and coordination.
  • Lönnstedt, SLU, Department of Forest Products, P.O. Box 7060, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lars.lonnstedt@spm.slu.se (email)
article id 297, category Research article
Antti Marjokorpi, Jukka Salo. (2007). Operational standards and guidelines for biodiversity management in tropical and subtropical forest plantations – How widely do they cover an ecological framework? Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 297. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.297
Keywords: criteria and indicators; afforestation; conservation; sustainable forest management; reforestation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The development of standards and guidelines to secure sustainable forest management at different geographical scales has expanded greatly during the past fifteen years. Most of these efforts, however, have been formulated for natural forests only; those designed specifically for forest plantations are relatively few. The global forest plantation area is expanding rapidly, with obvious positive and negative impacts on biodiversity. We characterize the key concepts of biodiversity in tropical and subtropical forest plantations and present an analysis of how these elements are covered in the eight principal operational standards and guidelines for sustainable plantation forestry. We also examine the applicability of standards and guidelines in plantations established and managed under different initial settings. The results indicate that the standards and guidelines address certain key elements of biodiversity comprehensively, meanwhile others are ignored or receive only slight attention. There is also substantial variation between the sets in their nature (performance- vs. process-based), scope, congruity in concepts and hierarchy, and specificity. The standards and guidelines seldom take into account the varying initial settings for plantation establishment and the consequent variation in critical factors in biodiversity conservation and management. We recommend that standards and guidelines should be developed so as to pay more attention to the type and operating environment of plantations, to cover all key factors of biodiversity, and to consider building closer relationships between the social and ecological aspects of biodiversity.
  • Marjokorpi, Stora Enso, Wood Supply, Talvikkitie 40 C, FI-01300 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: antti.marjokorpi@storaenso.com (email)
  • Salo, Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20140 Turku, Finland E-mail: js@nn.fi
article id 294, category Research article
Ülle Püttsepp, Krista Lõhmus, Andres Koppel. (2007). Decomposition of fine roots and α-cellulose in a short rotation willow (Salix spp.) plantation on abandoned agricultural land. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 2 article id 294. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.294
Keywords: decomposition; α-cellulose; fine roots; acid detergent lignin; short rotation forest; Salix spp.
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Decomposition of fine roots (<1 mm in diameter) of the clones of Salix viminalis, S. dasyclados and α-cellulose sheets (50 x 10 x 1 mm) was studied in a 6-years old Salix spp. plantation established on abandoned agricultural land in Estonia. The substrates were incubated in litterbags (mesh size 0.14 mm) in 5–10 cm topsoil, in non-fertilised plots for one year. Changes in the ash-free weight of the fine roots were best described by negative exponential models (S. viminalis R2 = 0.98, S. dasyclados R2 = 0.96), and by a linear model for α-cellulose (R2 = 0.63). The sheets of α-cellulose decomposed roughly twice as rapidly as the fine roots (S. viminalis k = 0.325, S. dasyclados k = 0.165). The remaining (of the initial) ash-free weights of the fine roots were 73.3 ± 0.8% (mean ± SE) and 85.8 ± 2.2% respectively, and of the α-cellulose 35.9 ± 8.5%, in the end of the one year of decomposition. The amount of acid detergent (AD) lignin in the fine-roots of S. viminalis increased significantly and did not change in S. dasyclados, suggesting higher activity of microbial decomposers in the first substrate. Of the studied quality parameters, the AD lignin was the major factor determining the different rate of decomposition of the fine roots of S. viminalis and S. dasyclados. Nitrogen was recycled in the fine root sub-system in both Salix species. This knowledge can be applied in the management of Salix plantations, aimed at bioenergy production.
  • Püttsepp, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7072, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden; Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreuzwaldi 64, Tartu 51014, Estonia E-mail: ulle.puttsepp@ekol.slu.se (email)
  • Lõhmus, Institute of Geography, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu 51014, Estonia E-mail: kl@nn.ee
  • Koppel, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreuzwaldi 64, Tartu 51014, Estonia E-mail: ak@nn.ee
article id 474, category Research article
Tero Heinonen, Mikko Kurttila, Timo Pukkala. (2007). Possibilities to aggregate raster cells through spatial optimization in forest planning. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 474. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.474
Keywords: threshold accepting; spatial optimisation; landscape metrics; old forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Heinonen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tero.heinonen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Kurttila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mk@nn.fi
  • Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 306, category Research article
Niina Tanskanen, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (2007). Spatial distribution of fine roots at ploughed Norway spruce forest sites. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 306. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.306
Keywords: Picea abies; forest soil; fine roots; ploughing; spatial distribution; specific root length; understorey roots
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examined the spatial distribution of fine roots at two forest sites that were ploughed 20 (site K1) and 33 years (site K2) before sampling and planted with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings. Soil core samples were taken from the tilt and beneath the tilt, the furrow and the intermediate undisturbed soil to a depth of 0.4 m for fine root biomass, length and necromass determinations. Norway spruce fine roots were found throughout the ploughed forest sites. The fine roots were, however, unevenly distributed: the fine root biomass was highest in the tilt (624 and 452 g m–2 at sites K1 and K2, respectively) and lowest in the undisturbed soil at site K1 (79 g m–2) and in the furrow at site K2 (145 g m–2). The estimated average fine root biomass at the ploughed forest sites (268 and 248 g m–2 at sites K1 and K2, respectively) was, however, similar to those presented in other studies concerning sites that had not been ploughed. In the tilt, a substantial proportion of the fine roots was in the inverted mineral soil horizons and in the new organic horizon above the tilt. Consistent with the fine root biomass findings, the Norway spruce necromass was highest in the tilt but the vertical distribution of the dead roots was different: the necromass was highest in the buried OBT horizon. The results of this study suggest that at the ploughed forest sites, a substantial part of Norway spruce nutrient and water uptake occured in the tilt during the first 20 or 33 years after plantation.
  • Tanskanen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: niina.tanskanen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Ilvesniemi, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
article id 318, category Research article
Sofia Backéus, Peder Wikström, Tomas Lämås. (2006). Modeling carbon sequestration and timber production in a regional case study. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 318. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.318
Keywords: boreal forest; carbon sequestration; optimization; forest biofuel; forest management planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forests make up large ecosystems and by the uptake of carbon dioxide can play an important role in mitigating the greenhouse effect. In this study, mitigation of carbon emissions through carbon uptake and storage in forest biomass and the use of forest biofuel for fossil fuel substitution were considered. The analysis was performed for a 3.2 million hectare region in northern Sweden. The objective was to maximize net present value for harvested timber, biofuel production and carbon sequestration. A carbon price for build-up of carbon storage and for emissions from harvested forest products was introduced to achieve an economic value for carbon sequestration. Forest development was simulated using an optimizing stand-level planning model, and the solution for the whole region was found using linear programming. A range of carbon prices was used to study the effect on harvest levels and carbon sequestration. At a zero carbon price, the mean annual harvest level was 5.4 million m3, the mean annual carbon sequestration in forest biomass was 1.48 million tonnes and the mean annual replacement of carbon from fossil fuel with forest biofuel was 61 000 tonnes. Increasing the carbon price led to decreasing harvest levels of timber and decreasing harvest levels of forest biofuel. Also, thinning activities decreased more than clear-cut activities when the carbon prices increased. The level of carbon sequestration was governed by the harvest level and the site productivity. This led to varying results for different parts of the region.
  • Backéus, SLU, Dept. of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: sofia.backeus@resgeom.slu.se (email)
  • Wikström, SLU, Dept. of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: pw@nn.se
  • Lämås, SLU, Dept. of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tl@nn.se
article id 315, category Research article
Lauri Korhonen, Kari T. Korhonen, Miina Rautiainen, Pauline Stenberg. (2006). Estimation of forest canopy cover: a comparison of field measurement techniques. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 315. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.315
Keywords: canopy cover; forest canopy; canopy closure; Cajanus tube; line intersect sampling; spherical densiometer; digital photographs
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Estimation of forest canopy cover has recently been included in many forest inventory programmes. In this study, after discussing how canopy cover is defined, different ground-based canopy cover estimation techniques are compared to determine which would be the most feasible for a large scale forest inventory. Canopy cover was estimated in 19 Scots pine or Norway spruce dominated plots using the Cajanus tube, line intersect sampling, modified spherical densiometer, digital photographs, and ocular estimation. The comparisons were based on the differences in values acquired with selected techniques and control values acquired with the Cajanus tube. The statistical significance of the differences between the techniques was tested with the nonparametric Kruskall-Wallis analysis of variance and multiple comparisons. The results indicate that different techniques yield considerably different canopy cover estimates. In general, labour intensive techniques (the Cajanus tube, line intersect sampling) provide unbiased and more precise estimates, whereas the estimates provided by fast techniques (digital photographs, ocular estimation) have larger variances and may also be seriously biased.
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: lauri.korhonen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Rautiainen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
  • Stenberg, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 68, FI-68101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ps@nn.fi
article id 335, category Research article
Markus Holopainen, Mervi Talvitie. (2006). Effect of data acquisition accuracy on timing of stand harvests and expected net present value. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 3 article id 335. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.335
Keywords: forest inventory; laser scanning; digital aerial photographs; digital photogrammetry; net present value; expected net present value loss
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Modern remote sensing provides cost-efficient spatial digital data that are more accurate than before. However, the influence of increased accuracy and cost-efficiency on simulations of forest management planning has not been evaluated. The aim of the present study was to analyse the effect of data acquisition accuracy on standwise forest inventory by comparing the accuracy and cost of traditional compartmentwise inventory methods with 2D and 3D measurements of digital aerial photographs and airborne laser scanning. Comparison was based on the expected net present value (NPV), i.e. economic losses that consisted of the inventory costs and incorrect timings of treatments. The reference data, totalling 700 ha, were measured from Central Park in the city of Helsinki, Finland. The data were simulated to final cut with a MOTTI simulator, which is a stand-level analysis tool that can be used to assess the effects of alternative forest management practices on growth and timber yield. The results showed that when inventory costs were not considered there were no significant differences between the expected NPV losses in 3D measurements of digital aerial photographs, laser scanning and the compartmentwise method. When inventory costs were taken into account, the compartmentwise method was still the most efficient inventory method in the study area. Forest inventories, however, are usually directed to larger areas when the costs per hectare of remote-sensing methods decrease. As a result of better accuracies, 3D and compartmentwise methods always produce better results than the 2D method when NPV losses are accounted. Simulations of this type are based on the accuracies and costs of the 3D data available today, assuming that the data can be used in tree-level measurements.
  • Holopainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markus.holopainen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Talvitie, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mt@nn.fi
article id 327, category Research article
Gong Zhang, Guang-ming Zeng, Yi-min Jiang, Chun-yan Du, Guo-he Huang, Jia-mei Yao, Mei Zeng, Xi-lin Zhang, Wei Tan. (2006). Seasonal dry deposition and canopy leaching of base cations in a subtropical evergreen mixed forest, China. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 3 article id 327. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.327
Keywords: throughfall; bulk precipitation; dry deposition; canopy exchange; base cations; evergreen forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We evaluated the dry deposition and canopy leaching fluxes of base cations in the growing and the dormant seasons using the Na-ratio method based on the 4-year (2000–2003) monitoring data in Shaoshan subtropical evergreen mixed forest, China. The dry deposition of base cations in the growing seasons was lower than that in the dormant seasons, while the canopy leaching of base cations was higher in the growing seasons than that in the dormant seasons. The precipitation quantity and H+ significantly impacted the canopy leaching processes. The annual canopy leaching of K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ accounted for 88, 46 and 38% of net throughfall flux, respectively. The canopy retention of proton (H+ and NH4+) is close to the canopy leaching of base cations calibrated by weak acids, indicating that the canopy cations leaching is neutralizing acid precipitation.
  • Zhang, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China; Hunan Environmental Protection Bureau, Hunan Province, Changsha, 410076, P.R. China E-mail: gz@nn.cn
  • Zeng, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: zgming@hnu.cn (email)
  • Jiang, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China; Hunan Environmental Protection Bureau, Hunan Province, Changsha, 410076, P.R. China E-mail: ymj@nn.cn
  • Du, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: cyd@nn.cn
  • Huang, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: ghh@nn.cn
  • Yao, Xiangya Hospital, Central-south University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410008, P.R. China E-mail: jmy@nn.cn
  • Zeng, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: mz@nn.cn
  • Zhang, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: xlz@nn.cn
  • Tan, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Hunan Province, Changsha 410082, P.R. China E-mail: wt@nn.cn
article id 477, category Research article
Pete Bettinger, Jianping Zhu. (2006). A new heuristic method for solving spatially constrained forest planning problems based on mitigation of infeasibilities radiating outward from a forced choice. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 477. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.477
Keywords: forest management; integer decision variables; integer programming
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A new heuristic method to mitigate infeasibilities when a choice is forced into a solution was developed to solve spatially constrained forest planning problems. One unique aspect of the heuristic is the introduction of unchosen decision choices into a solution regardless of the resulting infeasibilities, which are then mitigated by selecting next-best choices for those spatial units that are affected, but in a radiating manner away from the initial choice. As subsequent changes are made to correct the affected spatial units, more infeasibilities may occur, and these are corrected as well in an outward manner from the initial choice. A single iteration of the model may involve a number of changes to the status of the decision variables, making this an n-opt heuristic process. The second unique aspect of the search process is the periodic reversion of the search to a saved (in computer memory) best solution. Tests have shown that the reversion is needed to ensure better solutions are located. This new heuristic produced solutions to spatial problems that are of equal or comparable in quality to traditional integer programming solutions, and solutions that are better than those produced by two other basic heuristics. Three small hypothetical forest examples illustrate the performance of the heuristic against standard versions of threshold accepting and tabu search. In each of the three examples, the variation in solutions generated from random starting points is smaller with the new heuristic, and the difference in solution values between the new heuristic and the other two heuristics is significant (p<0.05) when using an analysis of variance. However, what remains to be seen is whether the new method can be applied successfully to the broader range of operations research problems in forestry and other fields.
  • Bettinger, Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: pbettinger@forestry.uga.edu (email)
  • Zhu, Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: jz@nn.us
article id 347, category Research article
Gordon M. Hickey, John L. Innes. (2006). Monitoring and information reporting through regulation: an inter-jurisdictional comparison of forestry-related hard laws. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 347. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.347
Keywords: forest legislation; grounded theory; constant comparison; Europe; North America
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In most jurisdictions, the rule of law has been the core instrument used to implement rules, regulations and restrictions relating to forests. The results of this approach have relied on the effectiveness of the system for regulating through monitoring and reporting. Despite the obvious differences in the wider operating environment of forestry internationally, issues related to globalization have increased the need for comparison. The potential impact of certain social, economic and environmental differences on the nature of monitoring and information reporting is, therefore, important to forest policy and management. The analysis presented here considered data associated with forestry-related monitoring and information reporting to provide a comparative description of certain hard-law requirements in a sample of jurisdictions. This was done to shed light on the potential for coordinated monitoring and information reporting objectives to be mandated through inter-jurisdictional hard law. Our research suggests that further comparative analysis of hard law monitoring and information reporting requirements could form a central theme in defining the ‘ground rules’ of a global forest law.
  • Hickey, University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Resources Management, 2045, 2424 Main Mall, UBC, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: ghickey@interchange.ubc.ca (email)
  • Innes, University of British Columbia, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Resources Management, 2045, 2424 Main Mall, UBC, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: jli@nn.ca
article id 346, category Research article
Tuomo Nurminen, Heikki Korpunen, Jori Uusitalo. (2006). Time consumption analysis of the mechanized cut-to-length harvesting system. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 346. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.346
Keywords: cutting; time study; forest haulage; single-grip harvester; forwarder; work phase
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The time consumption and productivity of harvesting are dependent on stand conditions, the operators’ skills, working techniques and the characteristics of the forestry machinery. Even if the basic methods and machine types of the cut-to-length harvesting system have not changed significantly in 10 to 15 years, improvements in the operators’ competence, technical solutions in forest machinery and changes in the working environment have undoubtedly taken place. In this study, the objective was to discover the special characteristics in the time consumption of mechanized cutting and forest haulage in Finnish conditions. The empirical time study was conducted with professional operators and medium-sized single-grip harvesters and forwarders in final fellings and thinnings in easy terrain in central Finland. The models for effective time consumption in the work phases and total productivity were formed. Stem size, tree species and bucking affected the cutting, whereas timber density on the strip road, the average driving distance, load capacity, wood assortment and the bunching result of the harvester operator had an effect on the forest haulage performance. The results may be used in simulations, cost calculations and education.
  • Nurminen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tuomo.nurminen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Korpunen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hk@nn.fi
  • Uusitalo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Unit, Kaironiementie 54, FI-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ju@nn.fi
article id 345, category Research article
Pekka Hyvönen, Perttu Anttila. (2006). Change detection in boreal forests using bi-temporal aerial photographs. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 345. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.345
Keywords: forest inventory; discriminant analysis; change detection; aerial photography; continuous updating
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Increased need for timely forest information is leading to continuous updating of stand databases. In continuous updating, stand attributes are estimated in the field after an operation and stored in databases. To find the changes caused by operations and forest damage, a semi-automatic method based on bi-temporal aerial photographs was developed. The test data were classified into three classes: No-change (952 stands), Moderate-change (163 stands) and Considerable-change (44 stands). The aerial photographs were acquired in years 2001 and 2004 with almost the same image specifications. Altogether 110 features at stand level were extracted and used in change detection analysis. The test data were classified with stepwise discriminant analysis. The overall accuracy of classification varied between 75.3 and 84.7%. The considerable changes were found without error, whereas the Moderate-change and No-change classes were often confused. However, 84.2% of thinned stands were classified correctly. The best accuracy in classification was obtained by using the histogram and textural features extracted from the original, uncorrected images. Radiometric correction did not improve the accuracy of classification. Soil type, characteristics of the growing stock and the location of a stand in an image were found to affect the change detection. Before the method can be applied operationally, issues related to, e.g., confusion between No-change and Moderate-change must be solved.
  • Hyvönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pekka.hyvonen@metla.fi (email)
  • Anttila, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pa@nn.fi
article id 343, category Research article
Karin Vestlund, Tomas Nordfjell, Lars Eliasson, Anders Karlsson. (2006). A decision support system for selective cleaning. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 343. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.343
Keywords: forestry; pre-commercial thinning; automation; practical cleaning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Cleaning (pre-commercial thinning) costs have increased relative to logging and regeneration costs, creating a desire for rationalisation. Cleaning with robots may be a solution, but automating stem selections requires a decision support system (DSS) capable of rendering acceptable results. The aims were to develop a DSS for automation of individual stem selections in practical cleaning, and to test, using simulations, if it renders acceptable results. Data on 17 young forest stands were used to develop a DSS that selects stems by species, position (including distance and density parameters), diameter, and damage. Six simulations were run, following the DSS, with different target settings for density, percentage of deciduous stems and minimum distance between stems. The results depend on the initial state of the stands, but generally met the requested targets in an acceptable way. On average, the density results deviated by –20% to +6% from the target values, the amount of deciduous stems shifted towards the target values, and the proportion of stems with defined damaged decreased from initially 14–90% to 4–13%. The mean diameter at breast height increased and the minimum allowed distance between stems was never violated. The simulation results indicate that the DSS is operational. However, for implementation in robotics a crucial problem is to automatically perceive the selected attributes, so additional simulations with erroneous data were run. Correct measurements of diameters are less crucial than to find the majority of the trees and the majority of trees with damages.
  • Vestlund, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: karin.vestlund@ssko.slu.se (email)
  • Nordfjell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tn@nn.se
  • Eliasson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: le@nn.se
  • Karlsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ak@nn.se
article id 339, category Research article
John W. McCarthy, Gordon Weetman. (2006). Age and size structure of gap-dynamic, old-growth boreal forest stands in Newfoundland. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 339. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.339
Keywords: boreal forests; old-growth forests; gap dynamics; age and size structure; rotated sigmoid; Newfoundland
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The age and size structure of trees in old Abies-Picea-Betula forests on Newfoundland’s Great Northern Peninsula were examined. It was hypothesized that the size and age structure of both the tree and regeneration “strata” of these stands display the complex structural heterogeneity characteristic of classic, self-regenerating, uneven-aged old-growth stands, and that the development and dynamics of such structures occur over long periods of time. With all tree species combined, dbh (diameter at breast height) and height distributions exhibited a strong reverse-J character, with well-defined, semi-logarithmic rotated sigmoid height and size frequencies. Seedling height and basal diameter frequency distributions were reverse-J in character. Live tree ages for all species, except white birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh), ranged from 25 to 269 years, and were characterized by all-age frequency distributions. Tree age and size were poorly correlated. On average, balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) required 62 years to reach breast height (1.3 m), with black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) and white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) requiring 40 and 48 years, respectively. Total age of dead standing trees ranged from 45 to 232 years. Reverse-J age frequencies characterized the seedling bank, with balsam fir seedlings present in nearly all age classes up to 110, 120 and 85 years in three sample stands. Seedling size (height and basal diameter)-age relationships were characteristic of decades-long suppression. The combination of tree and seedling bank size and age structure provide strong evidence of quasi-equilibrium, small-scale, gap dynamic old-growth boreal forest stands.
  • McCarthy, University of British Columbia, Forest Sciences Department, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: jmccarthy@jesuits.ca (email)
  • Weetman, University of British Columbia, Forest Sciences Department, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z4 E-mail: gw@n.ca
article id 338, category Research article
Andrea Vajda, Ari Venäläinen, Pekka Hänninen, Raimo Sutinen. (2006). Effect of vegetation on snow cover at the northern timberline: a case study in Finnish Lapland. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 2 article id 338. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.338
Keywords: climate; snow; forest-tundra; Lapland; radar; tree-line; wind modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The presence of permanent snow cover for 200–220 days of the year has a determining role in the energy, hydrological and ecological processes at the climate-driven spruce (Picea abies) timberline in Lapland. Disturbances, such as forest fires or forest harvesting change the vegetation pattern and influence the spatial variation of snow cover. This variability in altered snow conditions (in subarctic Fennoscandia) is still poorly understood. We studied the influence of vegetation on the small-scale spatial variation of snow cover and wind climate in the Tuntsa area that was disturbed by a widespread forest fire in 1960. Radar was applied to measure snow thickness over two vegetation types, the spruce-dominant fire refuge and post-fire treeless tundra. Wind modelling was used to estimate the spatial variation of wind speed and direction. Due to the altered surface roughness and the increased wind velocity, snow drifting was more vigorous on the open tundra, resulting in a 30-cm thinner snow cover and almost half the water equivalent compared to the forest values. The changes in local climate after the fire, particularly in snow cover, may have played an important role in the poor recovery of vegetation: a substantial area is still unforested 40 years after the fire.
  • Vajda, Finnish Meteorogical Institute, Climate and Global Change, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: andrea.vajda@fmi.fi (email)
  • Venäläinen, Finnish Meteorogical Institute, Climate and Global Change, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: av@nn.fi
  • Hänninen, Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland E-mail: ph@nn.fi
  • Sutinen, Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
article id 359, category Research article
Paula Horne. (2006). Forest owners’ acceptance of incentive based policy instruments in forest biodiversity conservation – a choice experiment based approach. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 1 article id 359. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.359
Keywords: forest owners; heterogeneity; incentive based policy mechanism; choice experiment method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Finland has launched a new policy programme (METSO) to enhance conservation of forest biodiversity. In non-industrial private forests, the policy is based on economic incentives and voluntarism on the part of forest owners. While biodiversity conservation is the main target of the policy, social acceptability is considered to be of great importance. This study examined the factors that affect the acceptability of biodiversity conservation contracts among private forest owners, and the amount of compensation needed to keep the forest owners at least as well off as before the contract. Choice experiment method was used to analyse the data that were collected by surveying 3000 Finnish private forest owners. Analysing separately those respondents who were willing to enter into a conservation contract allowed an assessment of the impact of forest owners’ heterogeneity on compensation amount. The results show how the welfare of forest owners shifts when the contract terms are changed. In a base scenario the forest owner was assumed to be the initiator of the contract that would require only small patches of forest to be protected, and would also bind new forest owners over its duration of ten years. For all respondents, the average demand for compensation would be around 224 euros annually. When those always choosing the “no additional conservation” alternative were excluded, the average welfare impact of the base scenario was positive.
  • Horne, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: paula.horne@metla.fi (email)
article id 353, category Research article
Jaakko Repola, Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (2006). Thinning intensity and growth of mixed spruce-birch stands on drained peatlands in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 1 article id 353. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.353
Keywords: Picea abies; Betula pubescens; thinning; forest drainage; growth; spruce swamps
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The impacts of thinning at various intensities on the growth and mortality of mixed spruce-birch stands were investigated in thinning experiments on spruce swamps in northern and south-eastern Finland. At the time of establishment, three of the stands had recently reached the first commercial thinning stage and four were more advanced. The monitoring period was mainly 15 years, and the thinning intensity varied from heavy thinning (ca. 46 per cent of the basal area removed) to no thinning. Basal area removals of light and moderate thinning were ca. 22% and 39%, respectively. Unthinned plots had the highest volume increment. Light and moderate thinning slightly decreased the 15-year volume increment by, on an average, 1% and 8%, respectively. Heavy thinning led to a greater reduction (22%) in volume increment. The growth response to thinning intensity was evident as a higher relative volume and mean diameter increment of the living trees with decreasing stand density. Part of the volume increment on the unthinned plots was lost through natural mortality. Even light thinning significantly decreased natural mortality.
  • Repola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: jaakko.repola@metla.fi (email)
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Unit, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 351, category Research article
Jiaojun Zhu, Xiufen Li, Zugen Liu, Wei Cao, Yutaka Gonda, Takeshi Matsuzaki. (2006). Factors affecting the snow and wind induced damage of a montane secondary forest in northeastern China. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 1 article id 351. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.351
Keywords: stem breakage; uprooting; stand structure; snow and wind damages; secondary forests; mixed forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In order to understand the processes of snow and wind induced damage in a natural montane, secondary forest in northeastern China, we examined the impacts of site conditions on the snow and wind damage; analyzed if the dominant tree species differed in their susceptibilities to the damage; and established the relationships between the characteristics of tree and stand and the damage. The results indicated that in regard to the topography factors, slope steepness and soil depth played a relatively important role for the damage. Damage ratios of all types combined were positively related with the composition of dominant tree species. The stand density was also important in determining resistance to the damage, i.e., the densely populated stand exhibited less overall damage ratios; however, the dominant tree species were commonly damaged easily by the snow and wind. Four damage modes found (uprooting, stem breakage, canopy damage and bending) were closely related to the stem taper (p < 0.05), and they could be ranked in following order: bending (92.0 ) > uprooting (85.3) > stem breakage (80.1) > canopy damage (65.0). In regard to differences in tree species’ susceptibilities to the damage, Betula costata exhibited the most uprooting, bending and overall damage ratios; while Quercus mongolica showed the highest breakage (both stem breakage and canopy damage) ratio, and Fraxinus mandshurica exhibited the least damage ratio (overall). The major six tree species could also be divided into two groups according to the overall damage ratios, i.e., more susceptible ones (B. costata, Ulmus laciniata and Q. mongolica), and less susceptible ones (F. mandshurica, Acer mono and Juglans mandshurica) to the snow and wind damage.
  • Zhu, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenhua Road 72, Shenyang 110016, China E-mail: zrms29@yahoo.com (email)
  • Li, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenhua Road 72, Shenyang 110016, China; Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yuquan Road 19-A, Beijing, 100039, China E-mail: xfl@nn.cn
  • Liu, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenhua Road 72, Shenyang 110016, China; Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yuquan Road 19-A, Beijing, 100039, China E-mail: zgl@nn.cn
  • Cao, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenhua Road 72, Shenyang 110016, China E-mail: wc@nn.cn
  • Gonda, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Ikarashi 2-8050, Niigata, 950-2181, Japan E-mail: yg@nn.jp
  • Matsuzaki, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Ikarashi 2-8050, Niigata, 950-2181, Japan E-mail: tm@nn.jp
article id 368, category Research article
Eero Muinonen. (2005). Generating a raster map presentation of a forest resource by solving a transportation problem. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 4 article id 368. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.368
Keywords: forest inventory; calibration estimator; transportation problem; nonparametric estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Necessary tools for raster map generation, for the approach based on the calibration estimator, were developed and implemented. The allocation of the area weight of each pixel to sample plots was formulated as a transportation problem, using a spectral distance measure as a transportation cost, and solved using the transportation simplex algorithm. Pixel level accuracy was calculated for the methods based on the calibration estimator so that the results could be compared with the results of the nearest neighbour estimation, the reference sample plot method (RSP) at pixel level. Local averaging in a 3 x 3 window was performed for each generated raster map as a postprocessing phase to smooth the map. Test plot results were calculated both for the unfiltered raster map and the filtered raster map. RSP produced the smallest RMSE in the pooled test data. Local averaging with a 3 x 3 filter decreased the pixel level error – and the bias – and the differences between the methods are smaller. Without local averaging, the pixel level errors of the methods based on solving the transportation problem were high. Raster map generation using the methods of this study forms an optional part – followed possibly by the classification of the pixel level results – of the whole computation task, when the area weight computation is based on the calibration estimation. For larger areas than in the present study, such as municipalities, the efficiency of the method based on the transportation model must be improved before it is a usable tool, in practice, for raster map generation. For nearest neighbour methods, the area size is not such a problem, because the inventory area is processed pixel by pixel.
  • Muinonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Unit, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eero.muinonen@metla.fi (email)
article id 367, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Markus Haakana. (2005). Landsat TM imagery and high altitude aerial photographs in estimation of forest characteristics. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 4 article id 367. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.367
Keywords: multi-source forest inventory; satellite imagery; high-altitude aerial photographs; image texture
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Satellite sensor data have traditionally been used in multi-source forest inventory for estimating forest characteristics. Their advantages generally are large geographic coverage and large spectral range. Another remote sensing data source for forest inventories offering a large geographic coverage is high altitude aerial photography. In high altitude aerial photographs the spectral range is very narrow but the spatial resolution is high. This allows the extraction of texture features for forest inventory purposes. In this study we utilized a Landsat 7 ETM satellite image, a photo mosaic composed of high altitude panchromatic aerial photographs, and a combination of the aforementioned in estimating forest attributes for an area covering approximately 281 000 ha in Forestry Centre Häme-Uusimaa in Southern Finland. Sample plots of 9th National Forest Inventory (NFI9) were used as field data. In the estimation, 6 Landsat 7 ETM image channels were used. For aerial photographs, 4 image channels were composed from the spectral averages and texture features. In combining both data sources, 6 Landsat channels and 3 aerial image texture channels were selected for the analysis. The accuracy of forest estimates based on the Landsat image was better than that of estimates based on high altitude aerial photographs. On the other hand, using the combination of Landsat ETM spectral features and textural features on high altitude aerial photographs improved the estimation accuracy of most forest attributes.
  • Tuominen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@metla.fi (email)
  • Haakana, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mh@nn.fi
article id 363, category Research article
Karin Vestlund, Tomas Nordfjell, Lars Eliasson. (2005). Comparison of human and computer-based selective cleaning. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 4 article id 363. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.363
Keywords: forestry; decision support; pre-commercial thinning; automation; practical cleaning; training-tool
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In silvicultural tending operations like cleaning (pre-commercial thinning), the results are irreversible, so it is important for the decisions to be consistent with the aims for the stand. To enable operational automatic stem selections, a decision support system (DSS) is needed. A previously presented DSS seems to render acceptable cleaning results, but needs further analysis. The aims of the study were to compare the cleaning results of experienced cleaners and DSS simulations when “similar” instructions were given, and to assess the usefulness and robustness of the DSS. Twelve experienced cleaners were engaged to “clean” (mark main stems) six areas; each cleaner “cleaned” two areas. The DSS was used to generate two computer-based cleanings (simulations) of these areas. Four laymen also “cleaned” one of the areas following the DSS. The density results were significantly affected by the areas’ location, whereas the proportions of deciduous stems and damaged stems were significantly affected by both the areas’ location and method, i.e. manual “cleaning” and general or adjusted simulation. The study showed that the DSS can be adjusted so that the results are comparable with the cleaners’ results. Thus, the DSS seems to be useful and flexible. The laymen’s results were close to the results of the “general” simulation, implying that the DSS is robust and could be used as a training tool for inexperienced cleaners. The DSS was also acceptable on a single-tree level, as more than 80% of the main-stems selected in the simulations were also selected by at least one cleaner.
  • Vestlund, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: karin.vestlund@ssko.slu.se (email)
  • Nordfjell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tm@nn.se
  • Eliasson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: le@nn.se
article id 479, category Research article
Ken Olaf Storaunet, Jørund Rolstad, Ivar Gjerde, Vegard S. Gundersen. (2005). Historical logging, productivity, and structural characteristics of boreal coniferous forests in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 3 article id 479. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.479
Keywords: boreal forest; stand structure; decaying wood; forest history; naturalness; selective logging; dead trees
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Conservation of forest biodiversity has brought about an interest in evaluating the naturalness of forests, and to locate and protect semi-natural and old-growth forests in the Fennoscandian countries. However, it is not always clear how natural these forests really are, and how the past management history has affected their present structural composition. We studied the relationships between cut stumps from historical logging activity (50–100 years ago) and forest structural characteristics of today in a total of 385 0.25 ha plots in three boreal coniferous forests which are parts of National Nature Reserves in Norway. We also studied how forest productivity influenced these relationships. In plots with negligible logging impact we found the amount of living trees, dead wood, and size of the oldest trees mainly to increase with increasing productivity, whereas the age of the oldest trees decreased. The amount of deciduous trees was generally low irrespective of productivity. The intensity of logging did not consistently influence most of these forest structural variables, neither at low- nor at high-productive sites. The only consistent relationship in all study areas was a decreasing amount of dead wood with increasing logging intensity at high-productive sites. Also, the decay class distribution of dead wood was more right-skewed (indicating on-going accumulation of dead wood) the more logging had occurred at high-productive sites. Except from the effects on dead wood, previous logging does not show up as a major determinant of other stand structures of today.
  • Storaunet, Norwegian Forest Research Institute, Høgskolevegen 8, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: ken.storaunet@skogforsk.no (email)
  • Rolstad, Norwegian Forest Research Institute, Høgskolevegen 8, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: jr@nn.no
  • Gjerde, Norwegian Forest Research Institute, Fanaflaten 4, NO-5244 Fana, Norway E-mail: ig@nn.no
  • Gundersen, Norwegian Forest Research Institute, Fanaflaten 4, NO-5244 Fana, Norway E-mail: vsg@nn.no
article id 377, category Research article
Saara Lilja, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2005). Structure of old Pinus sylvestris dominated forest stands along a geographic and human impact gradient in mid-boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 3 article id 377. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.377
Keywords: disturbances; restoration; stand structure; managed forest; old growth forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stand structural characteristics were examined in old Pinus sylvestris dominated sites in three regions along a broad geographic and human impact gradient in mid-boreal Fennoscandia. The study regions were: 1) Häme in south-western Finland, with a long history of forest utilization, 2) Kuhmo in north-eastern Finland, with a more recent history of intensive forest utilization, and 3) Vienansalo in Russian Karelia, still characterized by a large near-natural forest landscape. Within each region the sampled sites were divided into three human impact classes: 1) near-natural stands, 2) stands selectively logged in the past, and 3) managed stands treated with thinnings. The near-natural and selectively logged stands in Häme and Kuhmo had a significantly higher Picea proportion compared to stands in Vienansalo. In comparison, the proportions of deciduous tree volumes were higher in near-natural stands in Vienansalo compared to near-natural stands in Häme. The pooled tree diameter distributions, both in near-natural and selectively logged stands, were descending whereas managed stands had a bimodal diameter distribution. Structural diversity characteristics such as broken trunks were most common in near-natural stands and in stands selectively logged in the past. The results demonstrate the higher structural complexity of near-natural stands and stands selectively logged in the past compared to managed stands, and highlight that old near-natural stands and stands selectively logged in the past vary widely in their structures. This obviously reflects both their natural variability but also various combinations of pre-industrial land use and human impact on fire disturbance. These factors need to be acknowledged when using “natural” forest structures as a reference in developing strategies for forest management, restoration and nature conservation.
  • Lilja, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: saara.lilja@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
article id 376, category Research article
Nils Lexerød, Trond Eid. (2005). Recruitment models for Norway spruce, Scots pine, birch and other broadleaves in young growth forests in Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 3 article id 376. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.376
Keywords: regeneration; national forest inventories; growth simulators; probability models; conditional models; Norway
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The objective of the present study was to develop recruitment models for Norway spruce, Scots pine, birch and other broadleaves in young growth forests in Norway. The models were developed from permanent sample plots established by the National Forest Inventory, and they will be included in a growth simulator that is part of a large-scale forestry scenario model. The modelling was therefore restricted to independent variables directly or indirectly available from inventories for practical forest management planning. A two-stage modelling approach that suited the stochastic nature of recruitment in boreal forests was used. Models predicting the probability of recruitment were estimated in a first stage, and conditional models for the number of recruits were developed in a second. The probability models as well as the conditional models were biologically realistic and logical. The goodness of fit tests revealed that the probability models fitted the data well, while the coefficients of determination for the conditional models were relatively low. No independent test data were available, but comparisons of predicted and observed number of recruits in different sub-groups of the data revealed few large deviations. The high level of large random errors was probably due to the great variability observed in number of recruits rather than inappropriate specifications of the models. Provided the generally high level of uncertainty connected to analysis performed with large-scale forestry scenario models and the stochastic nature of recruitment, the presented models seem to give satisfactory levels of accuracy.
  • Lexerød, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: nils.lexerod@umb.no (email)
  • Eid, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 Ås, Norway. E-mail nils.lexerod@umb.no E-mail: te@nn.no
article id 386, category Research article
Jouni Kalliovirta, Timo Tokola. (2005). Functions for estimating stem diameter and tree age using tree height, crown width and existing stand database information. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 2 article id 386. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.386
Keywords: forest inventory; modeling; crown diameter; stem diameter
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim was to investigate the relations between diameter at breast height and maximum crown diameter, tree height and other possible independent variables available in stand databases. Altogether 76 models for estimating stem diameter at breast height and 60 models for tree age were formulated using height and maximum crown diameter as independent variables. These types of models can be utilized in modern remote sensing applications where tree crown dimensions and tree height are measured automatically. Data from Finnish national forest inventory sample plots located throughout the country were used to develop the models, and a separate test site was used to evaluate them. The RMSEs of the diameter models for the entire country varied between 7.3% and 14.9% from the mean diameter depending on the combination of independent variables and species. The RMSEs of the age models for entire country ranged from 9.2% to 12.8% from the mean age. The regional models were formulated from a data set in which the country was divided into four geographical areas. These regional models reduced local error and gave better results than the general models. The standard deviation of the dbh estimate for the separate test site was almost 5 cm when maximum crown width alone was the independent variable. The deviation was smallest for birch. When tree height was the only independent variable, the standard deviation was about 3 cm, and when both height and maximum crown width were included it was under 3 cm. In the latter case, the deviation was equally small (11%) for birch and Norway spruce and greatest (13%) for Scots pine.
  • Kalliovirta, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi (email)
  • Tokola, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.tokola@helsinki.fi
article id 383, category Research article
Lena Gustafsson, Leif Appelgren, Anders Nordin. (2005). Biodiversity value of potential forest fertilisation stands, as assessed by red-listed and ‘signal’ bryophytes and lichens. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 2 article id 383. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.383
Keywords: biodiversity; conservation; hemi-boreal forest; Sweden; threatened species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Sweden ca. 20 000 ha forestland is fertilised each year. By using red-listed and ‘signal’ bryophytes and lichens as indicators, we investigated whether forest stands planned for fertilisation have a biodiversity value, and thus if restrictions due to conservation aspects are motivated. Species occurrences were registered in detailed line-transect analysis, with a record size of 10 x 10 m, in 74 coniferous forest stands with a mean age of 57 years in East-Central Sweden. On the 230 ha totally surveyed, 10 red-listed and 37 signal species were found. The mean number of records ha–1 of red-listed bryophytes and lichens was 0.26 ha–1, which is considerably less than previously found in mature production stands and woodland key habitats. Red-listed species were found in 31% of the stands and signal species in 95%. More than 70% of all records of red-listed species and 30% of the records of the signal species were found in moist micro-sites. If rare bryophytes and lichens are to be preserved in fertilisation stands, improved instructions regarding avoidance of important micro-sites are needed.
  • Gustafsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Conservation Biology, Box 7002, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: lena.gustafsson@nvb.slu.se (email)
  • Appelgren, Belfragegatan 34H, SE-462 37 Vänersborg, Sweden E-mail: la@nn.se
  • Nordin, Museum of Evolution, Botany, Norbyvägen 16, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: an@nn.se
article id 400, category Research article
Antti Mutanen, Anne Toppinen. (2005). Finnish sawlog market under forest taxation reform. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 1 article id 400. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.400
Keywords: forest taxation; reforms; roundwood supply; simultaneous equations
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The stepwise transition in forest taxation from site productivity tax to taxation of profits from timber sales was one of the major institutional changes to impact Finnish non-industrial private forest owners in the 1990s. In this study the effect of the forest taxation reform on the aggregate supply of sawlogs was investigated using time series analysis and quarterly data. In particular, we estimated two simultaneous equations systems for the pine and the spruce sawlog markets. According to the results, the forest taxation reform strengthened the supply of spruce and pine sawlogs in the anticipatory stage of the taxation reform in 1992. Also during the fiscal transition period, which started in 1993, the supply effect of the taxation reform has clearly been positive. The strong own-price elasticity of sawlog supply found in this study indicates high sensitivity to actual and expected wood price changes in the determination of sawlog supply in Finland. Furthermore, the results indicate that the theoretical assumption of a competitive market is suitable for the Finnish sawlog market, but that separate analysis of pine and spruce sawlogs provides additional insights into market behaviour.
  • Mutanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: antti.mutanen@metla.fi (email)
  • Toppinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: at@nn.fi
article id 397, category Research article
Nuutti Kiljunen. (2005). Pricing the risk of the quality-guarantee in a stand establishment service. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 1 article id 397. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.397
Keywords: quality; forest regeneration; risk; guarantee
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A stand-establishment service concept with quality guarantee was analysed. Here, the quality of stand establishment was assessed as the density of good quality seedlings evenly distributed on the plantation three years after planting. The amount of adequate premiums for the guarantee service and the risks accumulating to the service provider were studied. Monte Carlo simulation was used as a tool for analyzing the risks accumulating to the service provider of the stand-establishment in operational environments of different sizes. The premiums calculated to cover the expected amount of claims caused by the plantations not meeting the pre-set criteria were about 4–8% in addition to the approximated costs of stand establishment. The criteria used for determining the success or failure in a stand have a marked effect on the amount of premiums with a reasonable risk of ruin.
  • Kiljunen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, Juntintie 154, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: nuutti.kiljunen@metla.fi (email)
article id 393, category Research article
Seppo Rouvinen, Anne Rautiainen, Jari Kouki. (2005). A relation between historical forest use and current dead woody material in a boreal protected old-growth forest in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 1 article id 393. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.393
Keywords: Populus tremula; Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; coarse woody debris; forest utilization; historical ecology; land-use history; nature conservation; spatial pattern analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Assessing the human impact on the naturalness and vegetation characteristics of protected areas is one of the key issues when designing forest conservation networks in Fennoscandia. We studied the small-scale, detailed relationship between forest utilization history and the current availability of dead woody material in a protected old-growth forest area in North Karelia, eastern Finland. From the study area of 32.4 ha, all the stumps (diameter ≥ 5 cm and height < 1.3 m, classified as natural, man-made and of undetermined origin) were measured using 25 x 25 m sub-plots. Standing and fallen dead trees (dbh ≥ 5 cm) were measured on 50 x 50 m plots in an area of 7.8 ha. The average number of stumps was 130 per ha, and over half of the stumps were classified as man-made. However, the historical documents since the 1910s showed no logging in the area: some of the largest man-made stumps probably originated from an earlier time, but most of those stumps were made considerably later. The variation in the total number of stumps (per ha) was great (range 0–560/ha, 0–16 m2/ha), with no clear clustering in space. However, clustering of man-made stumps was detected. The average volume of pooled standing and fallen trees was 84 m3/ha, with a range of 37–146 m3/ha. The other noticeable man-made disturbance besides logging was notching of aspens, which has a scatteredly significant influence on the amount of dead trees. In conclusion, the protected old-growth forest was not as a whole in a natural state but showed different degrees of human impact from virtually untouched patches to quite heavily managed patches. The results suggest that the number of man-made stumps may be a relatively quick and easy method of assessing the naturalness of woody biomass structure in the Fennoscandian boreal forests.
  • Rouvinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.rouvinen@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Rautiainen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ar@nn.fi
  • Kouki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
article id 392, category Research article
Veikko Huhta, Mika Räty. (2005). Soil animal communities of planted birch stands in central Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 1 article id 392. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.392
Keywords: forest management; birch; plantations; soil fauna
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of this study was to compare soil animal communities in planted birch (Betula pendula) stands of different origin with each other and with natural forests. Six 30-year-old birch stands were investigated, three planted after clear-cutting of spruce stands, and three planted on cultivated soil. The faunal communities were markedly different in plantations established on spruce forest soil and on arable soil. “Birch after Spruce” communities were relatively similar to those of coniferous forests, though the population densities were generally lower. “Birch after Field” communities were sparse and could be characterised as “impoverished forest communities”, except in Lumbricidae and Enchytraeidae that have affinities with deciduous forests and cultural landscapes. Soil conditions are not sufficient to explain the differences between the forests. Colonisation and transport by man may determine the presence of certain species, especially earthworms. These in turn affect soil properties, and compete with or otherwise have negative effects on other soil fauna. Thus the community differences between different forests are an outcome of several factors: soil characteristics, site history, colonisation ability and interspecific interactions.
  • Huhta, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä University, Finland E-mail: v.huhta@pp.inet.fi (email)
  • Räty, Ojalanlenkki 4, FI-80140 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
article id 409, category Research article
Hubert Sterba. (2004). Equilibrium curves and growth models to deal with forests in transition to uneven-aged structure – application in two sample stands. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 409. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.409
Keywords: uneven-aged forests; growth models; stem number distribution; transformation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Stem number distributions in uneven-aged forests are assumed to be stable, if they follow special functions, e.g. de Liocourt’s reverse J-shaped breast height diameter distribution. These distributions therefore are frequently regarded as a target in all-aged forests. Intending to convert an even-aged forest or any other forest, not yet exhibiting this sort of equilibrium, towards a steady state forest, the question rises, how to choose an appropriate equilibrium curve and how to achieve this stem number distribution by an appropriate thinning and harvesting schedule. Two stands are investigated: One dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies), having developed from a 120 year old even-aged stand 25 years ago, after several “target diameter thinnings”. The other one is a mixed species stand of Norway spruce, white fir (Abies alba), larch (Larix europea), common beech (Fagus silvatica), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), having lost its typical uneven-aged structure 20 years ago. These stands were used, together with the distance independent individual tree growth model PrognAus, to reveal that 1) there are more than only one equilibrium curve per stand, 2) not every hypothesised equilibrium can be reached with any stand, 3) an equilibrium in stem number does not necessarily mean a stable species distribution, and 4) growth models provide an excellent help to decide between several equilibrium curves and harvesting schedules to reach them.
  • Sterba, BOKU – University of Natural Resources an Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Peter Jordanstrasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: hubert.sterba@boku.ac.at (email)
article id 407, category Research article
Soili Kojola, Timo Penttilä, Raija Laiho. (2004). Impacts of different thinning regimes on the yield of uneven-structured Scots pine stands on drained peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 407. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.407
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; stand structure; silviculture; growth and yield; peatland forestry; intermediate cuttings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Drained peatlands in northern Europe comprise more than 10 million ha of forestland and thus constitute a considerable production potential in forestry. Much of this area consists of stands dominated by Scots pine and close to maturity regarding commercial thinning. The trees within these stands typically vary in terms of age, size, and growth rate. The impacts of silvicultural cuttings on these uneven-structured stands are inadequately known. We simulated the impacts of a control regime with no thinnings, and three different thinning regimes, involving different thinning intensities, on the development of fifteen pine-dominated stands in Finland. The simulations started from the first thinnings and were continued until regeneration maturity. The predicted total yields ranged from 244 to 595 m3 ha–1, depending on site and thinning regime. The highest total yields were observed for the control regime in which 18–38% of the yield was, however, predicted to self-thin by the end of the simulation. Thus, the differences in the yields of merchantable wood were fairly small among the compared regimes. However, the regimes involving thinnings generally needed less time than the control regime to reach regeneration maturity. The mean annual increment of total stem volume was at its highest in the control regime. The highest mean annual increment of merchantable wood was obtained in the regime involving two moderate thinnings, but excluding the most low-productive sites where thinnings did not increase the yield of merchantable wood.
  • Kojola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: soili.kojola@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
  • Laiho, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: rl@nn.fi
article id 406, category Research article
Bernt-Håvard Øyen, Petter Nilsen. (2004). Growth and recruitment after mountain forest selective cutting in irregular spruce forest. A case study in Northern Norway. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 406. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.406
Keywords: Norway spruce; mountain forests; selective cutting; North-Norway
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
During the last thirty years the interest for the use of selective cutting in the sub-alpine spruce forests of Norway has increased. However, there have been very few investigations on the post harvesting development after such cuttings. Four plots in irregular Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karsten) dominated forests on semi-fertile sites in Northern Norway have been the subjects of a case study. We performed a reconstruction of the stand development by means of biometric assessments and ring widths measurements of all standing trees. Tree ages, stand structure, growth and recruitment were examined. Even though a hypothetical reverse J-curve for the present diameter distribution was identified, the four plots were even-aged. Growth reactions indicate that most of the present sawtimber trees were established after heavy dimension cuttings in the late 19th century. The recruitment situation is characterized as satisfying in one of four plots. The post harvesting mean volume increment on the plots have been about two thirds of the potential yield estimated from site indices and maximum mean annual increment in regular stands. Managing strategies for irregular spruce forest stands are briefly discussed.
  • Øyen, Norwegian Forest Research Institute-Bergen, Fanaflaten 4, N-5244 Fana, Bergen, Norway E-mail: bernt-havard.oyen@skogforsk.no (email)
  • Nilsen, Norwegian Forest Research Institute-Bergen, Fanaflaten 4, N-5244 Fana, Bergen, Norway E-mail: pn@nn.no
article id 405, category Research article
Timo Saksa. (2004). Regeneration process from seed crop to saplings – a case study in uneven-aged Norway spruce-dominated stands in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 405. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.405
Keywords: boreal forest; Picea abies; regeneration; uneven-aged
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The dynamics of spruce regeneration, from seed crop to saplings, was studied based on five permanent plots in uneven-aged, spruce-dominated, boreal forest stands, cut with single-tree selection in the beginning of the 1990’s. The annual fluctuation of the spruce seed crop was very similar in uneven-aged and even-aged stands. The correlation between seed crop and number of germinants was significant; but stem number, basal area or volume of the stand did not influence on seedling emergence. The effects of good seed crops were seen as peaks or an increase in the number of germinants and smallest seedlings. The mean number of ‘stabilised’ spruce seedlings (height 11 cm to 130 cm) varied from 6000 ha–1 to over 25 000 spruce seedlings ha–1 from one monitoring plot to another. On a monitoring plot the number of ‘stabilised’ spruce seedlings was stable over time. Neither stand basal area nor stand volume influenced the number of ‘stabilised’ spruce seedlings, but the height of these seedlings was higher on subplots with lower stand volume and smaller basal area. In this study the monitoring period, 5–10 years, was too short to obtain reliable figures for ingrowth, i.e. the transition of seedlings to the sapling stage (h > 130 cm). The adjusted mean ingrowth was 26 stems ha–1 year–1.
  • Saksa, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FI-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: timo.saksa@metla.fi (email)
article id 418, category Research article
Tron Eid. (2004). Testing a large-scale forestry scenario model by means of successive inventories on a forest property. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 418. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.418
Keywords: forest planning; growth; validation; large-scale scenario analyses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Modellers of large-scale forestry scenario models face numerous challenges. Information and sub-models from different disciplines within forestry, along with statistical and mathematical methodology, have to be considered. The individual biological sub-models (i.e. models for recruitment, growth and mortality) applied in large-scale forestry scenario models are in general well documented and extensively evaluated. However, evaluations by means of full-scale comparisons of observed and predicted values for continuous forest areas, where the totality of the large-scale forestry scenario model including interactions between sub-models and other parts of the model, are considered, have rarely been seen. The aim of the present work was to test the totality of the Norwegian large-scale forestry scenario model AVVIRK-2000, and thereby evaluate the applicability of the model for use in management planning. The test was done by means of successive inventories and accurate recordings of treatments over a period of 30 years for a property comprising 78.5 ha forest-land. Seen in the perspective of management planning, the differences between observed and predicted values for potential harvest level, growing stock and growth were small, e.g. a difference between observed growing stock in year 2000 and growing stock in the same year predicted from 1970 of 2.6%. The model may therefore be applied for practical purposes without any fundamental changes or calibrations of the biological model basis. However, the present test should be seen as an example that failed to falsify the model, rather than a final validation. As long as the model is in practical use, further evaluations should continue and subsequent possible calibrations should be performed.
  • Eid, Agricultural University of Norway, Dept of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003 NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: tron.eid@ina.nlh.no (email)
article id 414, category Research article
Markku Larjavaara, Timo Kuuluvainen, Heidi Tanskanen, Ari Venäläinen. (2004). Variation in forest fire ignition probability in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 414. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.414
Keywords: ignition; forest fuel moisture; forest fire; fire regime
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We examined climate-caused spatio-temporal variation of forest fire ignition probability in Finland based on empirical ignition experiments and 37 years of meteorological data from 26 meteorological stations scattered across Finland. First, meteorological data was used in order to estimate the variation in forest fuel moisture content with the model of the Finnish forest fire risk index. Second, based on data from empirical ignition experiments, fuel moisture content was linked with forest fire ignition probability. In southern Finland average forest fire ignition probability typically peaks in late May and early June, whereas in the northern part of the country the peak occurs at the end of June. There was a three-fold difference in the average annual ignition probability between the north-eastern part (3%) and south-western part of the country (9%). The observed differences in fire ignition probability suggest that the characteristics of the natural fire regime also vary considerably in the southern versus the northern part of the country.
  • Larjavaara, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markku.larjavaara@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Tanskanen, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ht@nn.fi
  • Venäläinen, University of Helsinki, Dept of Forest Ecology, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: av@nn.fi
article id 413, category Research article
Mika Nieminen, Timo Penttilä. (2004). Inorganic and organic phosphorus fractions in peat from drained mires in northern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 3 article id 413. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.413
Keywords: tree growth; drained peatland forests; phosphorus availability; sequential fractionation; site type classification
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Soil samples from 15 eutrophic, 26 herb-rich, 15 tall-sedge, and 11 low-sedge drained peatland sites were analysed for easily soluble and aluminum, iron, and calcium bound phosphorus (P) using the Chang and Jackson sequential fractionation method. Compared to earlier investigations, where only total and easily soluble P contents (e.g. NH4OAc or dilute H2SO4 extractable P) in peat have been analysed, significantly higher differences between sites were observed. The eutrophic sites were characterized by four to six-fold greater Ca-bound organic P and two to three-fold greater Ca-bound inorganic P contents than on the other three site type groups, whereas the average Al-bound inorganic P content of the eutrophic sites was only one-third of that at the other site types. Substantial differences between sites were also observed for Fe-bound inorganic P, i.e. two to four-fold greater Fe-P contents were measured at the herb-rich sites compared with the other three site type groups. The stand volume growth in the 67 studied drained peatland sites correlated significantly with Al-bound organic P and Fe-bound inorganic and organic P. The study showed that a detailed fractionation and discrimination of different forms of soil P is important in increasing the understanding of the relationship between P availability and vegetation community types and stand growth on drained peatlands.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 430, category Research article
Mårten Hugosson, Fredrik Ingemarson. (2004). Objectives and motivations of small-scale forest owners; theoretical modelling and qualitative assessment. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 2 article id 430. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.430
Keywords: forest management; small-scale forest owners; professional foresters; forest owners’ objectives; forest owners’ motivations; forest owners’ values
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest management changes with societal change, and it has been debated if economic development in society places material objectives in a less preferable position: it is assumed this is also the case as regards forest management. The aims of this study were to propose a theoretical model for empirical studies of objectives and motivations within this field and to depict motivations and objectives of small-scale forest owners in Sweden. Comparative literature studies were undertaken and qualitative methodology was used for the empirical studies. Firstly, to depict general trends among forest owners, interviews with professional foresters were conducted. Secondly, forest owners throughout Sweden were interviewed to compare the results of the interviews with the professional foresters on the motivations and objectives of small-scale forest owners. Within the literature, there were no consistent views on the subjective grounds for owning and managing small-scale forest estates. The proposed theoretical model originated from the cultural concept. Sets of interpretive and normative qualities were seen as underlying people’s actions, and such sets were related to basic values. The ‘objectives’ were clustered into groups creating four clusters i.e. ‘motivations’. The four motivations depicted were: Conservation; Utilities; Amenities and Economic Efficiency. The empirical results highlighted that the objectives and motivations of forest-owners covered a broad field and a move towards conservation interests was indicated. The theoretical model presented here is suggested a suitable tool for both depicting the motivations and objectives of forest owners and for making future comparisons.
  • Hugosson, Department of Forest Products and Markets, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mh@nn.se
  • Ingemarson, Department of Forest Products and Markets, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: fredrik.ingemarson@spm.slu.se (email)
article id 426, category Research article
Uwe Schmitt, Risto Jalkanen, Dieter Eckstein. (2004). Cambium dynamics of Pinus sylvestris and Betula spp. in the northern boreal forest in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 2 article id 426. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.426
Keywords: birch; boreal forest; Scots pine; cambium dynamics; wood formation; pinning technique; light microscopy
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Wood formation dynamics of pine and birch along a south-north transect in Finnish Lapland were determined by the pinning technique. For all trees at all sites a more or less sigmoid shape of the wood formation intensity is characteristic with a slow beginning, a faster growth in the middle and a decreasing activity towards the end of the vegetation period. Wood formation of pine started at sites 1–3 (southern sites) in the second week of June and at sites 4 and 5 (northern sites) only in the last week of June, whereas wood formation ended within the first half of August. Wood formation of birch started in the second half of June and ended around the beginning of August. First cells were laid down by pine and birch when the temperature sum had reached the level of 85 to 90 degree days and 110 to 120 degree days, respectively. The intensity of wood formation in pine was highest in July, in birch within two weeks in the middle of July. Wood formation in pine lasted for about seven weeks at the southernmost and about six weeks at the northernmost site. In birch, the duration of wood formation was about five weeks at the southernmost site and around three weeks at the other sites.
  • Schmitt, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute for Wood Biology and Wood Protection, and University of Hamburg, Chair for Wood Biology, Leuschnerstr. 91, P. O. Box 800209, D-21002 Hamburg, Germany E-mail: u.schmitt@holz.uni-hamburg.de (email)
  • Jalkanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: rj@nn.fi
  • Eckstein, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Institute for Wood Biology and Wood Protection, and University of Hamburg, Chair for Wood Biology, Leuschnerstr. 91, P. O. Box 800209, D-21002 Hamburg, Germany E-mail: de@nn.de
article id 422, category Research article
Mika Nieminen. (2004). Export of dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus following clear-cutting of three Norway spruce forests growing on drained peatlands in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 2 article id 422. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.422
Keywords: hydrochemistry; forest regeneration; peatland forestry; leaching; nutrient losses
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effect of clear-cutting on the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), organic nitrogen (DON), NH4+, NO3–, and P in outflow water from three productive, Norway spruce dominated drained peatlands (RCC, VCC-1, VCC-2) were studied. Changes in runoff and transport loads (concentration x runoff) at two of the catchments during the frost-free period are also presented. Approximately 40% of the area was cut at RCC and VCC-2, and 72% at VCC-1. The volume removed was 250 m3 ha–1 at RCC, 259 m3 ha–1 at VCC-1, and for VCC-2, 317 m3 ha–1. The mean annual increase in outflow concentrations of DOC during the first four years after clear-cutting was 9.0 mg l–1 at RCC, 22.8 mg l–1 at VCC-1 and 8.4 mg l–1 at VCC-2. Corresponding increases in the forms of nitrogen were: 0.23, 0.51 and 0.16 mg DON l–1; 0.06, 0.31 and 0.04 mg NH4+-N l–1; and 0.05, 0.12 and 0.22 mg NO3–-N l–1. Clear-cutting did not significantly (p > 0.05) increase P concentrations. The increase in non-frost season runoff over the first three years after clear-cutting was 107 mm at RCC and 207 mm at VCC-1. The export loads of DOC during the non-frost season increased by 80 kg ha–1 at RCC and by 184 kg ha–1 at VCC-1 over the first three years. Corresponding increases for the other studied solutes were: 1.78 and 3.98 kg DON ha–1; 0.39 and 1.49 kg NH4+-N ha–1; 0.45 and 0.48 kg NO3–-N ha–1, and 0.09 and 0.06 kg P ha–1. The study demonstrated that clear-cutting may significantly increase the export of DOC and different forms of nitrogen from drained productive peatlands while only small increases in phosphorus export may occur.
  • Nieminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: mika.nieminen@metla.fi (email)
article id 431, category Research article
Pauline Stenberg, Miina Rautiainen, Terhikki Manninen, Pekka Voipio, Heikki Smolander. (2004). Reduced simple ratio better than NDVI for estimating LAI in Finnish pine and spruce stands. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 1 article id 431. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.431
Keywords: Landsat ETM ; Leaf Area Index; spectral vegetation indices; boreal coniferous forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Estimation of leaf area index (LAI) using spectral vegetation indices (SVIs) was studied based on data from 683 plots on two Scots pine and Norway spruce dominated sites in Finland. The SVIs studied included the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), the simple ratio (SR), and the reduced simple ratio (RSR), and were calculated from Landsat ETM images of the two sites. Regular grids of size 1 km2 with gridpoints placed at 50 m intervals were established at the sites and measurements of LAI using the LAI-2000 instrument were taken at the gridpoints. SVI-LAI relationships were examined at plot scale, where the plots were defined as circular areas of radius 70 m around each gridpoint. Plotwise mean LAI was computed as a weighted average of LAI readings taken around the gridpoints belonging to the plot. Mean LAI for the plots ranged from 0.36 to 3.72 (hemisurface area). All of the studied SVIs showed fair positive correlation with LAI but RSR responded more dynamically to LAI than did SR or NDVI. Especially NDVI showed poor sensitivity to changes in LAI. RSR explained 63% of the variation in LAI when all plots were included (n = 683) and the coefficient of determination rose to 75% when data was restricted to homogeneous plots (n = 381). Maps of estimated LAI using RSR showed good agreement with maps of measured LAI for the two sites.
  • Stenberg, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pauline.stenberg@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Rautiainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mr@nn.fi
  • Manninen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Meteorological research, Ozone and UV radiation research, P.O. Box 503, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
  • Voipio, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: pv@nn.fi
  • Smolander, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi
article id 485, category Research article
Helen Uliczka. (2003). Nature conservation efforts by forest owners – intentions and practice in a Swedish case study. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 485. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.485
Keywords: forest policy; boreal forest; indicators; biodiversity assessment; forest conservation; policy implementation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Before a forest operation Swedish forest owners need to fill in a registration form. Since 1994, when a new Swedish Forestry Act came into force, intended nature conservation measures can also be noted on the form. I evaluate 1) if the self-reported nature conservation intentions displayed any trends from 1995 to 2000, and 2) if the intentions were implemented. All forms from these years, in one municipality, were analysed and the stand structure retention was measured on 40 clear-cuts. The intentions, noted as check-marks on the form, showed an increasing trend during these years. However, the increase may be an artefact of changes the form during the time period. The number of check-marks on the forms and the stand structure items actually present on the 40 clear-cuts showed a positive relation. The clear-cuts with ≤ 3 check-marks on the form had lower amounts of the three most common items, than those with ≥ 4 check-marks. To conclude 1) a true increase in the self-reported intentions of the forest owners could not be established; 2) the intentions were generally followed by associated practices on the clear-cuts; 3) the amounts of stand structures retained were probably not enough to reach the biodiversity goal of the Forestry Act. The registration form could be improved to become less open for interpretation and contain quantified recommendations. Self-reported intentions of the forest owners could then possibly be used as indicators of real structural retention, which could facilitate planning and allow for making predictions about the future forests.
  • Uliczka, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Forest Faculty, Department of Conservation Biology, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, SE-730 91 Riddarhyttan, Sweden E-mail: helen.uliczka@nvb.slu.se (email)
article id 484, category Research article
Pekka E. Kauppi. (2003). New, low estimate for carbon stock in global forest vegetation based on inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 484. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.484
Keywords: carbon stock; global forest; vegetation biomass
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Several reports by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have referred to published estimates ranging from 352 to 536 x 109 tons for the global pool of carbon in forest vegetation. However, a rounded estimate of 300 x 109 tons can be derived from the recent Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 of the FAO, as shown in this paper. By comparing with independent empirical evidence as published in recent scientific literature and by considering sampling principles and the disturbance cycles of large forest regions, it is argued that the new lower estimate is more realistic. A downward correction of the estimate would make an important contribution to balancing the global carbon budget.
  • Kauppi, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria. Present address: Environmental Science and Policy, Department of Limnology and Environmental Protection, PO Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pekka.kauppi@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 496, category Research article
Hampus Holmström, Hans Kallur, Göran Ståhl. (2003). Cost-plus-loss analyses of forest inventory strategies based on kNN-assigned reference sample plot data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 496. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.496
Keywords: uncertainty; data acquisition; imputation; forestry planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The usefulness of kNN (k Nearest Neighbour)-assigned reference sample plot data as a basis for forest management planning was studied. Cost-plus-loss analysis was applied, whereby the inventory cost for a specific method is added to the expected loss due to non-optimal forestry activities caused by erroneous descriptions of the forest state. Four different strategies for data acquisition were evaluated: 1) kNN imputation of sample plots based on traditional stand record information, 2) imputation based on plot-wise aerial photograph interpretation in combination with stand record information, 3) sample plot inventory in the field with 5 plots per stand, and 4) sample plot inventory with 10 plots per stand. Expected losses were derived as mean values of differences between the maximum net present value and the corresponding value obtained when the treatment schedule believed to be optimal (based on data simulated according to method 1–4) was selected. The optimal choice of method was found to depend on factors such as stand maturity, stand area, and time to next treatment (thinning or clearcutting). In general, the field sample plot methods were competitive in large mature stands, especially when the time to the next (optimal) treatment was short. By in each stand (within an estate) employing the method with the lowest cost-plus-loss rather than choosing the method that performed best on average for the entire estate, the total cost for inventory at the estate level could be decreased by 15–50%. However, it was found difficult to identify what method should optimally be employed in a stand based on general stand descriptions.
  • Holmström, Regional Board of Forestry of Västra Götaland, P.O. Box 20008, SE-50420 Borås, Sweden E-mail: hampus.holmstrom@svsvg.svo.se (email)
  • Kallur, ÖKA Skogsplan, Kopparvägen 45 O, SE-90750 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: hk@nn.se
  • Ståhl, Swedish Univ. of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: gs@nn.se
article id 495, category Research article
Christopher Dean. (2003). Calculation of wood volume and stem taper using terrestrial single-image close-range photogrammetry and contemporary software tools. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 495. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.495
Keywords: biomass; branches; terrestrial; photography; rectification; volume; taper
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A method of estimating trunk and branch volumes of single trees is presented that uses a combination of elementary field measurements, terrestrial photography, image rectification and on-screen digitising using commercial software packages and automated volume calculation. The method is applicable to a variety of different sized trees in situations where the trunks are clearly visible. Results for taper measurement and wood volume calculation are presented for Eucalyptus regnans F. von Muell., Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindley) Buchholz and Quercus robur L. Branch allometrics are provided for E. regnans. The largest errors arose from field observations. If the trees are asymmetrical in cross-section (e.g. due to irregular buttressing or forked stems), or if there is no vantage point perpendicular to the direction of lean, then photographs from more than one side are recommended. Accuracy and precision of geometric reproduction by the image rectification process, and the volume calculation, were tested using mathematically generated tree components. The errors in the branch volumes of the virtual tree showed complex trends due to interacting factors. Volumes were underestimated by an average 0.5% for stems and 4% for branches. Due to the area deficit resulting from non-circular cross-sections of the buttress, overestimation of stem volumes could be as high as 10% on average for mature trees. However, the area deficit was known for E. regnans and incorporated into the volume calculation. The underestimation of volumes would help counteract over-estimation due to the area deficit. The application of this method to carbon accounting in forests and woodlands is explained.
  • Dean, CRC for Greenhouse Accounting, The Australian National University, GPO Box 475, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia E-mail: cdean@rsbs.anu.edu.au (email)
article id 507, category Research article
Tysk Staffan Ericsson, Lars Östlund, Rikard Andersson. (2003). Destroying a path to the past – the loss of culturally scarred trees and change in forest structure along Allmunvägen, in mid-west boreal Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 507. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.507
Keywords: forest history; dendroecology; blazed trees; culturally modified trees; forest trails; tree age structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The tradition to blaze trees to mark trails and boundaries is very old in northern Scandinavia. The disappearance of culturally modified trees (i.e. trees with trail blazes) and changes in forest structure along a section of an old bridle trail in boreal Sweden was analyzed using historical maps and forest surveys from the period 1876 to the year 2000. Remaining blazed trees were located during a field study and selected scars were dated. In total 104 scarred living and dead trees were found. The scars originated from the early 1500s to the early 1900s. Analysis of the forest surveys showed that the forest along the trail was dominated by older trees, and that the majority of the scarred trees probably were present, throughout the 19th century. By the mid 20th century logging had begun to affect the tree age along the trail and in 1974 no stands older than 180 years were present. A conservative estimate shows that around 90% of the original blazed trees have vanished. The trail was interpreted as have being lined for centuries with scarred trees which gradually have been destroyed during the 20th century. Culturally modified trees constitute an unique source of information for understanding pattern of old trails as well as of past human land use and movement in the landscape prior to the 20th century. This biological archive have to a large extent been destroyed by forestry activities and it is therefore very important to survey, recount and protect the trees that are still present.
  • Ericsson, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: staffan@delta.se (email)
  • Östlund, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: lo@nn.se
  • Andersson, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ra@nn.se
article id 506, category Research article
Teijo Palander, Katja Turunen, Sanna Laukkanen. (2003). Attitude of Finnish timber buyers towards implementation of a forest computer visualisation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 506. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.506
Keywords: change resistance; competence; forest computer visualisation; timber trade
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Timber buyers’ opinions as regards forest computer visualisation are studied. The results indicated that timber buyers are still rather conventional in their computer use since they mainly use only the information system of their own company. The majority of the buyers perceived computer visualisation to be slightly useful for their work, or they had no opinion concerning the usefulness of it. One third of the buyers considered computer visualisation to be a quality factor for timber trade, and the majority were willing to use it if a program is going to adopt by their company. In analysis, different personal characteristics were found for three timber buyer groups: qualified, neutral and reluctant. Qualified buyers were the largest one, about half of the buyers belonging to this group. The greatest barriers to adopting a positive attitude to computer visualisation turned out to be weak computer skills and a general lack of interest in computer use. On the other side, it was found that organisational factors did not influence the buyers’ computer skills or attitudes towards visualisation. The results of this study can be utilised by timber buying organisation in ensuring the successful adoption of a new computer system.
  • Palander, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: teijo.palander@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Turunen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kt@nn.fi
  • Laukkanen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sl@nn.fi
article id 505, category Research article
Jari Kärnä, Eric Hansen, Heikki Juslin. (2003). Environmental activity and forest certification in marketing of forest products – a case study in Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 505. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.505
Keywords: environmental marketing; green marketing; European forest industry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest industries and their industrial customers from four European countries were surveyed by interviews to study the environmental emphasis and the role of timber certification in their marketing planning. Most of the Finnish, Swedish, German and British companies have begun to integrate environmental issues in their strategic, structural and functional level marketing decisions. They see forest certification as a necessary tool for marketing forest products. The level of environmental activity (greenness) of the companies was studied by creating a one dimensional factor score rating. The logic of marketing planning was tested by using one functional level marketing tool – forest certification – as an example to examine how well the level of greenness explains the importance of forest certification for the company. The results show that in the surveyed companies the level of greenness has more explanatory power than background factors such as country or industry sector. The integration of environmental issues into marketing planning and the interest in forest certification by these companies can provide meaningful insights for the forest industries worldwide as they confront similar issues.
  • Kärnä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jari.karna@metla.fi (email)
  • Hansen, Oregon State University, Department of Wood Science and Engineering, Richardson Hall 108, 97331-5751 Corvallis, OR, USA E-mail: eh@nn.us
  • Juslin, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hj@nn.fi
article id 503, category Research article
Jyrki Hytönen. (2003). Effects of wood, peat and coal ash fertilization on Scots pine foliar nutrient concentrations and growth on afforested former agricultural peat soils. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 503. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.503
Keywords: wood ash; afforestation; Scots pine; vegetation control; herbicides; coal ash; peat ash; peat soils
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of ash and commercial fertilizers on the foliar nutrient concentrations and stand growth of Scots pine were studied in four field experiments established on former cultivated peat soils. The aims were to compare ash types (wood, peat and coal ash), study the effects of ash treatment (pelletization), compare ash fertilization with commercial fertilizers, and to study the interaction between ash fertilization and weed control. Foliar samples were collected 1–3 years and 7–8 years after fertilization. In the unfertilized plots, the foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were fairly high, while those of potassium were low in all the experiments. The boron levels were low in three out of the four experiments. Application of either loose or pelletized wood ash, as well as of commercial fertilizers, increased foliar potassium and boron concentrations, and thus successfully remedied the existing nutrient imbalances and deficiencies. Since phosphorus deficiencies are rarely encountered on field afforestation sites, poor-quality wood ash with low phosphorus concentration could be used. Peat ash containing phosphorus, but only small amounts of potassium and boron, was not found to be very suitable for soil amelioration in connection with field afforestation. Coal ash, containing only small amounts of potassium, was a good source of boron for pine even when used in small amounts, and thus it can be used in cases where boron deficiencies alone are encountered. Wood ash significantly increased the height growth of Scots pines in two of the experiments, but peat ash and coal ash had no statistically significant effect. Wood ash increased the number of healthy seedlings. Vegetation control decreased seedling mortality by 24%, increased the growth of pine and decreased the proportion of trees damaged by elk and by deciduous trees.
  • Hytönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@metla.fi (email)
article id 501, category Research article
Jiaojun Zhu, Yutaka Gonda, Takeshi Matsuzaki, Masashi Yamamoto. (2003). Modeling relative wind speed by optical stratification porosity within the canopy of a coastal protective forest at different stem densities. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 501. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.501
Keywords: coastal protective forest; optical porosity; Pinus thunbergii; vertical forest structure; wind speed
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Wind speed and optical stratification porosity (OSP) were measured at various heights inside a coastal protective forest thinned to different stem densities to assess whether any characteristics of the wind profile in the coastal protective forest could be predicted from OSP. OSP was defined as vertical distribution of the proportion of sky hemisphere not obscured by tree elements inside a forest stand, and was determined for various heights using hemispherical photographic silhouettes on a computer processing system. The distribution of OSP in the coastal forest follows the Lambert-Beer’s law with an extinction coefficient (v). The relative wind speed within the canopy can be described using an exponential form with an attenuation coefficient (a). Variation in relative wind speed was very closely correlated with the distribution of OSP within the canopy. While below the canopy, i.e., in the trunk space, relative wind speed was little correlated with the distribution of OSP because the distribution of OSP was relatively constant there. Therefore, the linear relationships between relative wind speed and OSP and between the two coefficients v and a were established within the canopy. The results suggest that OSP can be used to predict the wind profile in case of the application within the canopy of the coastal forest.
  • Zhu, Qingyuan Station of Forest Ecology, Institute of Applied Ecology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China; Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: jiaojunzhu@iae.ac.cn (email)
  • Gonda, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: yg@nn.jp
  • Matsuzaki, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: tm@nn.jp
  • Yamamoto, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: my@nn.jp
article id 516, category Research article
Celeste Lacuna-Richman. (2003). Ethnicity and the utilization of non-wood forest products: findings from three Philippine villages. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 516. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.516
Keywords: non-wood forest products (NWFPs); indigenous people; migrants; subsistence; market; Philippines
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The utilization and trade of non-wood forest products in three villages in the Philippines were compared in this study. Two villages were situated close to each other on the Island of Palawan. The Tagbanua, an indigenous people, inhabited one village; migrants from the Visayas Region of the Philippines populated the other. The third village is located on the Island of Leyte, in the Visayas Region, populated by native Visayan settlers. There was no significant difference in the number of NWFPs utilized by the indigenous people and the migrants. However, there was a wide disparity in income between the two groups, with migrants earning more, partly due to the marketing of commercial NWFPs. This gap could be decreased by fairer trading practices that are dependent in part on better educational opportunities, land rights, legal assistance and access to markets for the Tagbanua. Specific socioeconomic characteristics, such as the presence of a hunter within the household and size of the family were found to have a positive correlation with the use of NWFPs in some study villages. Income and the food expenditure of the household were inversely related with the use of NWFPs in the native Visayan village.
  • Lacuna-Richman, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: celeste.lacuna-richman@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
article id 510, category Research article
Helge Dzierzon, Risto Sievänen, Winfried Kurth, Jari Perttunen, Branislav Sloboda. (2003). Enhanced possibilities for analyzing tree structure as provided by an interface between different modelling systems. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 510. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.510
Keywords: tree growth; mathematical models; simulation systems; forest growth; analysis tools
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In recent years, many different advanced mathematical models and simulation systems for tree and forest growth have been developed. We show a possibility to extend analysis tools for measured and simulated plants using a data interface between the simulation model LIGNUM and the multifunctional software system GROGRA. Both systems were developed by different teams. To demonstrate the enhanced possibilities for analyzing a LIGNUM tree, several examples are given. In these examples three different approaches for analysis are applied to measured and simulated trees: Fractal dimension, deduction of tapering laws, and water potential patterns obtained from simulation of waterflow by the specialized software HYDRA. Conclusions for the interfacing and comparison of different modelling tools are drawn.
  • Dzierzon, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: hdzierz@gwdg.de (email)
  • Sievänen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
  • Kurth, Institut für Informatik, Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, P.O. Box 101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany E-mail: wk@nn.de
  • Perttunen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
  • Sloboda, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: bs@nn.de
article id 508, category Research article
Kai Vellak, Jaanus Paal, Jaan Liira. (2003). Diversity and distribution pattern of bryophytes and vascular plants in a boreal spruce forest. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 508. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.508
Keywords: boreal forests; correlation; general linear models; Estonia; field layer; ground layer; spatial patterns
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Small scale pattern of bryophyte communities is one of the remarkable sources of diversity in species-poor boreal forests. By means of correlation and general linear model approaches, the relationships between bryophyte vegetation and upper layers, as well as the response of ground and field layer species to several environmental factors, was analyzed in a boreal spruce forest in South-East Estonia. Of the studied factors, the strongest influence on the diversity and spatial distribution of ground and field layer species was found for ‘distance from nearest tree’. Species from different layers react differently to the proximity of trees. Species richness of bryophytes is higher further from trees, whereas more vascular plant species prefer to grow in the vicinity of tree trunks. For bryophyte species richness, the pH of the decay horizon is also important; fewer bryophyte species occur in more acid conditions.
  • Vellak, Institute of Zoology and Botany, Estonian Agricultural University, 181 Riia str., 51014 Tartu, Estonia; Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kvellak@zbi.ee (email)
  • Paal, Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jp@nn.ee
  • Liira, Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jl@nn.ee
article id 519, category Research article
Magnus Lindén, Gudmund Vollbrecht. (2002). Sensitivity of Picea abies to butt rot in pure stands and in mixed stands with Pinus sylvestris in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 519. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.519
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; logistic regression; Heterobasidion annosum; Butt rot; mixed forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Repeatedly sampled data from permanent experimental plots in southern Sweden were used to model butt rot development in Norway spruce growing in pure stands and in mixed stands with Scots pine. The data come from 29 sites with pure spruce, altogether 100 plots, and from 15 sites of mixed spruce and pine, altogether 22 plots. A logistic model provided the best fit to the data. The study material revealed that in mixed stands the proportion of spruce trees with butt rot is lower than in pure Norway spruce stands. The difference in the incidence of butt rot cannot be explained by silviculture or windthrow since both factors are accounted for in the study. The most significant effect on butt rot development in Norway spruce by an admixture of Scots pine, was found when the Scots pine admixture was 50%. In order to reduce the incidence of butt rot in Norway spruce, the study material indicate that there is little to be gained by increasing the Scots pine admixture to much more than 50%.
  • Lindén, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre c/o Asa Experimental Forest, SLU, S-360 30 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: magnus.linden@ess.slu.se (email)
  • Vollbrecht, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre c/o Asa Experimental Forest, SLU, S-360 30 Lammhult, Sweden E-mail: gv@nn.se
article id 545, category Research article
Pete Bettinger, David Graetz, Kevin Boston, John Sessions, Woodam Chung. (2002). Eight heuristic planning techniques applied to three increasingly difficult wildlife planning problems. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 2 article id 545. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.545
Keywords: forest planning; spatial harvest scheduling; adjacency constraints
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
As both spatial and temporal characteristics of desired future conditions are becoming important measures of forest plan success, forest plans and forest planning goals are becoming complex. Heuristic techniques are becoming popular for developing alternative forest plans that include spatial constraints. Eight types of heuristic planning techniques were applied to three increasingly difficult forest planning problems where the objective function sought to maximize the amount of land in certain types of wildlife habitat. The goal of this research was to understand the relative challenges and opportunities each technique presents when more complex difficult goals are desired. The eight heuristic techniques were random search, simulated annealing, great deluge, threshold accepting, tabu search with 1-opt moves, tabu search with 1-opt and 2-opt moves, genetic algorithm, and a hybrid tabu search / genetic algorithm search process. While our results should not be viewed as universal truths, we determined that for the problems we examined, there were three classes of techniques: very good (simulated annealing, threshold accepting, great deluge, tabu search with 1-opt and 2-opt moves, and tabu search / genetic algorithm), adequate (tabu search with 1-opt moves, genetic algorithm), and less than adequate (random search). The relative advantages in terms of solution time and complexity of programming code are discussed and should provide planners and researchers a guide to help match the appropriate technique to their planning problem. The hypothetical landscape model used to evaluate the techniques can also be used by others to further compare their techniques to the ones described here.
  • Bettinger, Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 E-mail: pete.bettinger@orst.edu (email)
  • Graetz, Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 E-mail: dgw@nn.us
  • Boston, Carter Holt Harvey Forest Fibre Solutions, Tokoroa, New Zealand E-mail: kb@nn.nz
  • Sessions, Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 E-mail: js@nn.us
  • Chung, Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 E-mail: wc@nn.us
article id 538, category Research article
Seppo Nevalainen. (2002). The incidence of Gremmeniella abietina in relation to topography in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 2 article id 538. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.538
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; forest inventory; Gremmeniella abietina; topography; digital elevation models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Field data of the 8th National Forest Inventory (NFI) from southern Finland and digital elevation models (DEMs) were used in this study. Damage due to Gremmeniella abietina increased slightly with an increase in absolute elevation in mineral soils. Severe damage increased almost linearly with an increase in elevation in mineral soil plots. The mean elevation in the tract area (the 7 km x 8 km area surrounding the plot) was more strongly correlated with the disease than the elevation of individual plots. The relative altitude of the plot was important: the disease was most severe in the plots situated lower than the mean elevation of the tract area, especially in the peatland plots. In this group, the damage increased linearly with an increase in absolute elevation. According to detailed DEMs in the most diseased areas, steepness of the slope was negatively correlated with the disease. The aspect of the slope had a weak influence. On mineral soils, the disease was most common in south-facing slopes. The microtopography was not as important for the disease occurrence as the relative elevation of the plot. The disease frequencies were very similarly related to the three most common types of surface features (channels, ridges and planar regions) within the 50-m scale. At the cell size of 100 metres, the disease was more common in channels than in ridges, except in mineral soil plots. Topographic variables only partly explained the regional patterns in the occurrence of this disease. The disease was frequent on upland areas, but, on the other hand, it was also common on lowland areas. The most diseased areas studied in detail differed very much from each other with respect to topography and the disease incidence.
  • Nevalainen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.nevalainen@metla.fi (email)
article id 564, category Research article
Brett G. Purdy, S. Ellen Macdonald, Mark R. T. Dale. (2002). The regeneration niche of white spruce following fire in the mixedwood boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 564. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.564
Keywords: boreal forest; regeneration; natural disturbance; white spruce; mycorrhizae
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Early establishment of white spruce (Picea glauca) in mixedwood boreal forest stands following fire was examined at several times-since-fire (1-, 2-, 4-, 6-, 14-years). Abiotic and biotic conditions in the stands were assessed at two scales, tree plot (5 m x 5 m) and microsite (1 m x 1 m), along with presence, density and height of white spruce seedlings. Germination and survival of seed sown 1- and 4-years post fire were quantified. Survival and growth of nursery-grown seedlings, and mycorrhizal colonization, survival and growth of sterile seedlings, planted 1-year post-fire were assessed. At the tree plot scale, presence of white spruce seedlings 1-year post-fire could be reliably predicted by organic layer depth and distance to and strength of seed source. In contrast, none of the biotic or abiotic factors measured was strongly correlated with occurrence or density of white spruce seedlings 6- and 14- years post-fire. At the microsite scale, seedling recruitment immediately post-fire was limited to a distinct subset of available microsites (greater % cover of downed wood and moss, lower % cover of litter and herbaceous vegetation). Likewise, seedling occurrence in older burns was associated with distinct microsite conditions; although this was more likely an effect of white spruce presence, rather than the cause. Less than 3% of seed sown 1 yr post-fire survived to become 1yr old germinants, survival was 41% over the next three years. Availability of suitable regeneration microsites declines rapidly with time-since-fire; less than 0.3% of seed sown 4 yrs post-fire survived one year. High rates of mycorrhizal colonization were found on white spruce seedlings planted 1-year post-fire, including early and late stage fungal species. Microsite characteristics were only weakly correlated with mycorrhizal fungal communities. We propose that immediate post-fire recruitment of white spruce is a key process in mixedwood boreal succession.
  • Purdy, Dept. of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E3 E-mail: bgp@nn.ca
  • Macdonald, Dept. of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E3 E-mail: ellen.macdonald@ualberta.ca (email)
  • Dale, Dale, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2E9 E-mail: mrtd@nn.ca
article id 563, category Research article
Timo Pakkala, Ilkka Hanski, Erkki Tomppo. (2002). Spatial ecology of the three-toed woodpecker in managed forest landscapes. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 563. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.563
Keywords: three-toed woodpecker; territory quality; landscape quality; critical threshold value; metapopulation theory; metapopulation capacity; Finnish National Forest Inventory
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The effects of landscape structure and forestry on the abundance and dynamics of boreal forest bird species have been studied widely, but there are relatively few studies in which the spatial structure and quality of the landscape have been related to the spatial ecology of bird species. In this paper, we present methods to measure territory and landscape quality for the three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) and similar territorial forest bird species based on data from the Finnish multi-source national forest inventory and metapopulation theory. The three-toed woodpecker was studied with territory mapping within an area of 340 square km in southern Finland in 1987–2000. Altogether 195 breeding territory sites were observed. The spatial occurrence of the territories was aggregated, and the highest densities were observed in spruce-dominated old-growth forest areas. Both territory and landscape quality had significant consequences for the occurrence of the three-toed woodpecker. The spatial patterning and permanence of breeding and non-breeding territories were influenced by a combination of spatial dynamics of the species and the quality of the landscape, the latter being much influenced by forestry. The landscape-level spatial occurrence of the three-toed woodpecker in the study area may represent source-sink dynamics. The results of this paper suggest the presence of threshold values at different spatial scales, which may determine the occurrence of the three-toed woodpecker and similar species in managed forest landscapes.
  • Pakkala, Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 17, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.pakkala@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Hanski, Department of Ecology and Systematics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 47, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ih@nn.fi
  • Tomppo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: et@nn.fi
article id 561, category Research article
Karen A. Harper, Yves Bergeron, Sylvie Gauthier, Pierre Drapeau. (2002). Post-fire development of canopy structure and composition in black spruce forests of Abitibi, Québec: a landscape scale study. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 561. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.561
Keywords: boreal forest; Picea mariana; windthrow; canopy structural development; spruce budworm outbreaks; stand-level structure
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fire reconstruction and forest inventory maps provided an opportunity to study changes in stand-level characteristics following fire using a data set comprised of all forest stands of fire origin in an area of over 10 000 km2. We assigned the date of the most recent fire occurrence to over 31 000 forest stands in an ecoforestry database. We categorized stands on different substrates into age classes to investigate differences in canopy composition, cover and height, and incidence of secondary disturbance. Stands with over 75% Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP dominated all age classes on organic sites. On other substrates, there was a change in canopy composition from deciduous stands and stands dominated by Pinus banksiana Lamb. to Picea mariana stands after about 100 yr. This transition was later for xeric sites. After a peak in canopy cover and height at about 100 yr, there was a decrease in the area occupied by stands with dense, tall canopies. Structural development was slower on less productive sites. There was little incidence of spruce budworm outbreaks. Partial disturbance by windthrow coincided with canopy break-up at 100 yr, but appeared to have little effect on overall canopy structure in later stages. Structural diversity was independent of compositional diversity; on organic sites, stands with similar composition had different canopy structure. Diversity of stands with different composition and structure was greatest in the first 150 yr following fire. Maintaining stands in different stages of structural development on the landscape would serve to maintain regional biodiversity.
  • Harper, Université de Québec à Montréal, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, CP 8888, succ. A, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: c1444@er.uqam.ca (email)
  • Bergeron, NSERC-UQAT-UQAM, Industrial Chair in sustainable forest management, CP 8888, succ. Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: yb@nn.ca
  • Gauthier, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, P.O. Box 3800, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 4C7 E-mail: sg@nn.ca
  • Drapeau, Université de Québec à Montréal, Groupe de recherche en écologie forestière interuniversitaire, CP 8888, succ. A, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8 E-mail: pd@nn.ca
article id 560, category Research article
Christopher P. Quine, Jonathan W. Humphrey, Karen Purdy, Duncan Ray. (2002). An approach to predicting the potential forest composition and disturbance regime for a highly modified landscape: a pilot study of Strathdon in the Scottish Highlands. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 560. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.560
Keywords: restoration; wind disturbance; site suitability; catchment planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The existing native forests of Scotland are fragmented and highly modified and none are ‘natural’. There is considerable interest in expanding the area of this oceanic boreal forest and restoring forest habitat networks to benefit biodiversity. However, unlike regions with substantial remaining natural forest, it is difficult to provide reference values for forest composition and structure using methods related to historical variability. An alternative approach is to combine models that predict woodland type from knowledge of site conditions, and disturbance regime from knowledge of the disturbance agents (particularly abiotic agents). The applicability of this approach was examined as part of a public participatory planning exercise in a highly managed landscape in Eastern Scotland. Models of site suitability (Ecological Site Classification) and wind disturbance (ForestGALES) were combined to determine potential woodland composition and structure, and derive options for native woodland expansion. The land use of the upper Strathdon catchment is currently dominated by agriculture and planted forests of non-native species, and only small fragments of semi-natural woodland remain (< 0.5% of the land area). Model results indicated that a very substantial proportion of the land area could support woodland (> 90%) but of a restricted range of native woodland types, with Scots pine communities predominant. Structural types likely to be present included wind-induced krummholz (treeline) forest, forest with frequent stand replacement by wind, and also a large area where gap phase (or some other disturbance) would predominate. The merits of the approach are discussed, together with the difficulties of validation, and the implications for the management of existing forests.
  • Quine, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: chris.quine@forestry.gsi.gov.uk (email)
  • Humphrey, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: jwh@nn.uk
  • Purdy, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: kp@nn.uk
  • Ray, Forestry Commission, Northern Research Station, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, United Kingdom E-mail: dr@nn.uk
article id 559, category Research article
Juho Pennanen. (2002). Forest age distribution under mixed-severity fire regimes – a simulation-based analysis for middle boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 559. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.559
Keywords: modeling; disturbance; age structure; forest fire; landscape
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A simulation model was used to study the age structure of unmanaged forest landscapes under different fire regimes. Stand age was defined as the age of the oldest tree cohort in a stand. When most fires are not stand-replacing, the theoretical equilibrium stand age distribution is either bell-shaped or bimodal and dominated by old age-classes. Old-growth forests (oldest cohort > 150 y) dominate the landscape unless fires are both frequent and severe. Simulation results and analytical calculations show that if a regime of frequent fires (about every 50 y) maintains landscapes dominated by old-growth forests, then old-growth dominance persists when the number of fires is decreased, despite the associated increase in fire severity. Simulation results were applied to Pinus sylvestris-dominated landscapes of middle boreal Fennoscandia, which according to empirical results were dominated by old-growth forests when fires were frequent during the 19th century. Since the changes in the fire regime can be plausibly explained by changes in the number of human-caused ignitions, old-growth forests have evidently also dominated the landscapes earlier when fires were less frequent. The simulation model is used to produce plausible age distributions of middle boreal Fennoscandian forest landscapes under different historical fire regimes. In summary, the frequency of large-scale disturbance alone predicts forest landscape dynamics poorly, and the roles played by fire severity and residual stands need to be considered carefully. Maintaining and restoring old-growth structures is essential to regaining the natural variability of Fennoscandian forest landscapes.
  • Pennanen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: juho.pennanen@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 558, category Research article
Tuomo Wallenius. (2002). Forest age distribution and traces of past fires in a natural boreal landscape dominated by Picea abies. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 558. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.558
Keywords: boreal forest; disturbance dynamics; fire refugia; tree age
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forest age distribution and occurrence of traces of past fires was studied in a natural Picea abies -dominated landscape in the Onega peninsula in north-west Russia. Forest age (maximum tree age) was determined and charcoal and fire scars were searched for in 43 randomly located study plots. In 70% of the study plots (30/43) trees older than 200 years existed. The largest 50-year age class consisted of plots with 251–300 year old forests. Traces of fires were found in all types of study plots, in forests on mineral soil as well as on peatlands. However, fire has been a rare disturbance factor, as traces of fires could not be found in 35% of the study plots (15/43). Estimated from the forest age class distribution, the fire rotation time for the whole area has been at least 300 years, but possibly considerably longer. This fire rotation time is much longer than fire history studies (largely based on examination of fire scars) commonly have reported for the average time between successive fires in Fennoscandia and Northwest Russia. The results suggest that the often stated generalisations about the importance and natural frequency of fire disturbance in boreal forests do not apply in landscapes dominated by Picea abies.
  • Wallenius, Department of Ecology and Systematics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tuomo.wallenius@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 556, category Research article
Timo Kuuluvainen, Juha Mäki, Leena Karjalainen, Hannu Lehtonen. (2002). Tree age distributions in old-growth forest sites in Vienansalo wilderness, eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 556. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.556
Keywords: forest dynamics; boreal forest; regeneration; age structure; fire disturbance
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The age and size of trees was sampled and measured on eight sample plots (0.2 ha each) within a Pinus sylvestris -dominated boreal forest landscape in Vienansalo wilderness, Russian Karelia. The fire history of these plots was obtained from a previous dendrochronological study. All the studied sample plots showed a wide and uneven distribution of tree ages, but the shape of the age distributions of trees as well as tree species composition varied substantially. Trees over 250 years of age occurred in every studied plot, despite its small size. This suggests that old Pinus were common and rather evenly distributed in the landscape matrix. The oldest Pinus tree was 525 years of age. The correlations between tree age and size were often weak or even nil. In Pinus the correlation between age and diameter was stronger than that between age and height. In the dominant tree species Pinus and Picea, the largest trees were not the oldest trees. The tree age distributions together with the fire history data indicated that the past fires have not been stand replacing, as many of the older Pinus had survived even several fires. Tree age classes that had regenerated after the last fire were most abundant and dominated by Picea and/or deciduous trees, while the trees established before the last fire were almost exclusively Pinus. The results suggest that periodic occurrence of fire is important for the maintenance of the Pinus-dominated landscape. This is because fire kills most Picea and deciduous trees and at the same time enhances conditions for Pinus regeneration, facilitated by available seed from the continuous presence of old fire-tolerant Pinus trees.
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Mäki, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
  • Karjalainen, Department of Forest Ecology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: lk@nn.fi
  • Lehtonen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 24, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hl@nn.fi
article id 555, category Research article
Leena Karjalainen, Timo Kuuluvainen. (2002). Amount and diversity of coarse woody debris within a boreal forest landscape dominated by Pinus sylvestris in Vienansalo wilderness, eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 555. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.555
Keywords: forest dynamics; disturbances; dead wood; Scots pine; tree death
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The amount, variability, quality and spatial pattern of coarse woody debris (CWD) on mineral soil sites was studied within a natural Pinus sylvestris L. dominated boreal forest landscape in Russian Viena Karelia. Data on the total CWD was collected on 27 sample plots (20 m x 100 m) and data on large CWD was surveyed along four transects (40 m wide and up to 1000 m long). The mean volume of CWD (standing and down combined) was 69.5 m3 ha–1, ranging from 22.2 m3 ha–1 to 158.7 m3 ha–1 from plot to plot. On average, 26.9 m3 ha–1 (39%) of CWD was standing dead wood and 42.7 m3 ha–1 (61%) down dead wood. The CWD displayed a wide range of variation in tree species, tree size, stage of decay, dead tree type and structural characteristics, creating a high diversity of CWD habitats for saproxylic organisms. Large CWD was almost continuously present throughout the landscape and its overall spatial distribution was close to random, although a weak autocorrelation pattern was found at distances less than about 50 m. On small spatial scales total CWD showed wide variation up to a sample area of about 0.1 ha, beyond which the variation stabilized. The fire history variables of the sample plots were not related to the amount of CWD. This and the spatial pattern of CWD suggest that the CWD dynamics in this landscape was not driven by fire, but by more or less random mortality of trees due to autogenic causes of death.
  • Karjalainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: lk@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 554, category Research article
Seppo Rouvinen, Timo Kuuluvainen, Juha Siitonen. (2002). Tree mortality in a Pinus sylvestris dominated boreal forest landscape in Vienansalo wilderness, eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 554. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.554
Keywords: dead wood; disturbance dynamics; spatial pattern analysis; mortality agent; forest structure; temporal variation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Tree mortality and its causes and spatial pattern were examined along four transects (width 40 m, length 2550–3960 m), with a total length of 12 190 m and area of 48.8 ha, in a Pinus sylvestris L. dominated, boreal forest landscape. Tree mortality was determined within a time window of 3 years by identifying those trees (dbh ≥ 10 cm) along the transects that fitted into one of the three categories: 1) current mortality: trees that had died during the year of survey (1998), 2) recent mortality: trees that had died during the year (1997) before the survey year, and 3) predicted mortality: trees that were expected to die during the year (1999) following the survey year. Long-term tree mortality was studied on 10 plots (20 m x 100 m) by dating 87 dead trees using dendrochronological methods. The mean current mortality was 1.4 m3 ha–1 (3.7 trees ha–1). Both the recent and predicted mortalities were also 1.4 m3 ha–1. Mortality was, on the average, higher on peatlands than on mineral soils. The highest mortality was found within an area recently flooded by beavers. Over half of the examined trees (52%) were judged to die without any visible signs of an external abiotic cause. At the landscape scale, tree mortality was continuous although somewhat aggregated in space. Of the 66 dated standing dead Pinus trees, 23 (35%) had died during the 19th century and two during the 18th century, demonstrating that dead Pinus can remain standing for long periods of time before falling. Our results show that autogenic mortality of individual trees or small groups of trees was the predominant mode of disturbance in this Pinus dominated landscape.
  • Rouvinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: seppo.rouvinen@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Siitonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: juha.siitonen@metla.fi
article id 582, category Research article
Kari Kangas, Pasi Markkanen. (2001). Factors affecting participation in wild berry picking by rural and urban dwellers. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 4 article id 582. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.582
Keywords: non-wood forest products; wild berries; participation; household behaviour
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The purpose of this study was to examine the participation of urban and rural dwellers in the activity of berry-picking. The respondents in the study lived in the city of Joensuu and in the municipality of Ilomantsi, in eastern Finland. 68% of Joensuu households compared with 82% of those in Ilomantsi participated in berry-picking. These evident differences in the participation rates may be largely due to the higher costs incurred by urban dwellers in picking, since the probability of participation was not significantly higher for Ilomantsi households compared with those in Joensuu who had access to a summer-cottage which was likely to be located near the berry resources. In both municipalities, the participants were divided into two groups according to the nature of their participation in the activity. The larger group – termed ordinary pickers – were characteristically younger families with children, while the other group, termed active pickers, were distinctly more advanced in age. The quantities picked for home consumption by the groups of pickers in Ilomantsi were twice as large as those picked by the corresponding groups in Joensuu. In Joensuu, households were not significantly involved in commercial picking.
  • Kangas, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.kangas@joensuu.fi (email)
  • Markkanen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pm@nn.fi
article id 579, category Research article
Matti Maltamo, Kalle Eerikäinen. (2001). The Most Similar Neighbour reference in the yield prediction of Pinus kesiya stands in Zambia. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 4 article id 579. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.579
Keywords: stand development; difference equations; non-parametric regression; plantation forests
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of the study was to develop a yield prediction model using the non-parametric Most Similar Neighbour (MSN) reference method. The model is constructed on stand level but it contains information also on tree level. A 10-year projection period was used for the analysis of stand growth. First, the canonical correlation matrix was calculated for the whole study material using stand volumes at the beginning and at the end of the growth period as independent variables and stand characteristics as dependent variable. Secondly, similar neighbour estimates were searched from the data categories reclassified according to thinnings. Due to this, it was possible to search for growth and yield series which is as accurate as possible both at the beginning and at the end of the growth period. The reliability of the MSN volume predictions was compared to the volumes predicted with the simultaneous yield model. The MSN approach was observed to be more reliable volume predictor than the traditional stand level yield prediction model both in thinned and unthinned stands.
  • Maltamo, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: matti.maltamo@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Eerikäinen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ke@nn.fi
article id 578, category Research article
Kevin Boston, Pete Bettinger. (2001). Development of spatially feasible forest plans: a comparison of two modeling approaches. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 4 article id 578. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.578
Keywords: forest planning; heuristics; linear programming; wildlife goals
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Spatial goals are becoming more frequent aspects of forest management plans as regulatory and organizational policies change in response to fisheries and wildlife concerns. The combination of green-up constraints (harvesting restrictions that prevent the cutting of adjacent units for a specified period of time) and habitat requirements for red-cockaded woodpeckers (RCW) in the southeastern U.S. suggests that spatially feasible forest plans be developed to guide management activities. We examined two modeling approaches aimed at developing management plans that had both harvest volume goals, RCW habitat, and green-up constraints. The first was a two-stage method that in one stage used linear programming to assign volume goals, and in a second stage used a tabu search – genetic algorithm heuristic technique to minimize the deviations from the volume goals while maximizing the present net revenue and addressing the RCW and green-up constraints. The second approach was a one-stage procedure where the entire management plan was developed with the tabu search – genetic algorithm heuristic technique, thus it did not use the guidance for timber volume levels provided by the LP solution. The goal was to test two modeling approaches to solving a realistic spatial harvest scheduling problem. One is where to volume goals are calculated prior to developing the spatially feasible forest plan, while the other approach simultaneously addresses the volume goals while developing the spatially feasible forest plan. The resulting forest plan from the two-stage approach was superior to that produced from the one-stage approach in terms of net present value. The main point from this analysis is that heuristic techniques may benefit from guidance provided by relaxed LP solutions in their effort to develop efficient forest management plans, particularly when both commodity production and complex spatial wildlife habitat goals are considered. Differences in the production of forest products were apparent between the two modeling approaches, which could have a significant effect on the selection of wood processing equipment and facilities.
  • Boston, Forest Fibre Solutions, Carter Holt Harvey, Tokoroa, New Zealand E-mail: kevin.boston@chh.co.nz (email)
  • Bettinger, Department of Forest Resources, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331 E-mail: pb@nn.us
article id 575, category Research article
Sylvie Mussche, Roeland Samson, Lieven Nachtergale, An De Schrijver, Raoul Lemeur, Noël Lust. (2001). A comparison of optical and direct methods for monitoring the seasonal dynamics of leaf area index in deciduous forests. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 4 article id 575. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.575
Keywords: Leaf Area Index; mixed deciduous forest; LAI-2000 plant canopy analyser; hemispherical photography; litter trap
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
During the 1996 growing season the seasonal dynamics of the Leaf Area Index (LAI) were determined by 3 different methods in two forest types: a mixed oak (Quercus robur L.) – beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stand and an ash dominated (Fraxinus excelsior L.) stand. The results obtained from the two indirect methods, i.e. hemispherical photography and LAI-2000 Plant Canopy Analyser (Li-COR), were compared with the results of the direct measurement of litter fall collected in litter trap systems. In this study the direct method is considered to be the reference, giving the most accurate LAI-values. Both the hemispherical photography and the LAI-2000 PCA introduced an underestimation of LAI when the actual canopy leaf distribution in the crown layer deviates from a random distribution of leaf area in space as is found in the mixed oak/beech stand. However, when the condition of random leaf distribution is nearly fulfilled (ash stand), the LAI-2000 PCA gave LAI-values which were close to the results obtained from the direct method. Regression curves with R2 > 0.93 could be calculated for both indirect methods.
  • Mussche, Laboratory of Forestry, Ghent University, Geraardsbergse Steenweg 267, B-9090 Melle, Belgium E-mail: sm@nn.be
  • Samson, Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium E-mail: rs@nn.be
  • Nachtergale, Laboratory of Forestry, Ghent University, Geraardsbergse Steenweg 267, B-9090 Melle, Belgium E-mail: ln@nn.be
  • De Schrijver, Laboratory of Forestry, Ghent University, Geraardsbergse Steenweg 267, B-9090 Melle, Belgium E-mail: An.Deschrijver@rug.ac.be (email)
  • Lemeur, Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium E-mail: rl@nn.be
  • Lust, Laboratory of Forestry, Ghent University, Geraardsbergse Steenweg 267, B-9090 Melle, Belgium E-mail: nl@nn.be
article id 588, category Research article
Marjut Ihalainen, Timo Pukkala. (2001). Modelling cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) yields from mineral soils and peatlands on the basis of visual field estimates. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 588. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.588
Keywords: Vaccinium myrtillus; Vaccinium vitis-idaea; non-wood forest products
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study presents new models for predicting bilberry and cowberry yields from site and stand characteristics. These models enable one to evaluate the future states of forests in terms of berry yields. The modelling data consisted of visual field estimates of site and tree stand characteristics, as well as berry yields from 627 forest stands. Berry yields were estimated using a scale from 0 to 10. Using these data, models were prepared which predict the berry yield scores from those site and stand characteristics which are usually known in forest planning calculations. The model predictions correlated positively and often quite strongly with earlier models. The results were in line with previous studies on the effects of site and tree cover on berry production. According to the models, sites of medium and rather poor fertility produce the highest bilberry yields. Increasing tree height increases, and the basal area of spruce and proportion of deciduous trees decrease, bilberry yield. With mineral soils, cowberry yields are best on poor sites. A high proportion of pine improves cowberry yields. The yields are the highest in open areas and very young stands, on the one hand, and in sparsely populated stands of large and old trees, on the other hand. In pine swamps, the yields are best on rather poor sites. Increasing basal area of deciduous trees decreases cowberry yields.
  • Ihalainen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: marjut.ihalainen@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 587, category Research article
Erkki Tomppo, Kari T. Korhonen, Juha Heikkinen, Hannu Yli-Kojola. (2001). Multi-source inventory of the forests of the Hebei Forestry Bureau, Heilongjiang, China. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 587. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.587
Keywords: models; forest inventory; satellite images; k-nearest neighbour method; China
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A multi-source forest inventory method is applied to the estimation of forest resources in the area of the Hebei Forest Bureau in Heilongjiang province in North-East China. A stratified systematic cluster sampling design was utilised in field measurements. The design was constructed on the basis of information from earlier stand-level inventories, aerial orthophotographs, experiences from other sampling inventories and the available budget. Sample tree volumes were estimated by means of existing models. New models were constructed and their parameters estimated for tallied tree volumes and volume increments. The estimates for the area of the Bureau were computed from field measurements, and for the areas of the forest farms estimated from field measurements and satellite images. A k-nearest neighbour method was utilised. This method employing satellite image data makes it possible to estimate all variables, particularly for smaller areas than that possible using field measurements only. The methods presented, or their modifications, could also be applied to the planning and realisation of forest inventories elsewhere in Temperate or Boreal zones. The inventory in question gave an estimate of 114 m3/ha (the multi-source inventory 119 m3/ha) instead of 72 m3/ha as previously estimated from available information. Totally nineteen tree species, genera of species or tree species groups were identified (Appendix 1). The forests were relatively young, 60% of them younger than 40 years and 85% younger than 60 years.
  • Tomppo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: erkki.tomppo@metla.fi (email)
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Heikkinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Yli-Kojola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hyk@nn.fi
article id 586, category Research article
Tuula Nuutinen, Seppo Kellomäki. (2001). A comparison of three modelling approaches for large-scale forest scenario analysis in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 586. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.586
Keywords: MELA; carbon budget; forestry model; scenario modelling; EFISCEN; SIMA
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Forests play an important role in the sequestration of carbon dioxide and the storage of carbon. The potential and efficiency of mitigation options in forestry have been studied using large-scale forestry scenario models. In Finland, three models have been applied in attempts to estimate timber production and related carbon budgets. In this study, these models are compared. The oldest, MELA, was designed in the 1970s for the regional and national analysis of timber production. The European Forest Information Scenario Model, EFISCEN, originally a Swedish area matrix model, was developed in the early 1980s. SIMA, a gap-type ecosystem model, was utilised in the 1990s for regional predictions on how the changing climate may affect forest growth and timber yield in Finland. In EFISCEN, only the development of growing stock is endogeneous because the assumptions on growth, and the removal and rules for felling are given exogeneously. In the SIMA model, the rules for felling are exogeneous but the growth is modelled based on individual trees reacting to their environment. In the MELA model, the management of forests is endogeneous, i.e. the growth, felling regimes and the development of growing stock are the results of the analysis. The MELA approach integrated with a process-based ecosystem model seems most applicable in the analyses of effective mitigation measures compatible with sustainable forestry under a changing climate. When using the scenarios for the estimation of carbon budget, the policy makers should check that the analyses cover the whole area of interest, and that the assumptions on growth and management together with the definitions applied correspond with the forestry conditions in question.
  • Nuutinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tuula.nuutinen@metla.fi (email)
  • Kellomäki, University of Joensuu, Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
article id 585, category Research article
Meinrad Rohner, Klaus Böswald. (2001). Forestry development scenarios: timber production, carbon dynamics in tree biomass and forest values in Germany. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 585. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.585
Keywords: carbon balance; forestry scenario modeling; forest valuation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The dynamics of the age class structure stands at the center of modeling long-run forestry scenarios. This insight has been applied to the construction of the Forest Development and Carbon Budget Simulation Model (ForCaBSiM), a model which is used for the study of several interrelated questions: the development of timber stocks and the potential level of sustainable harvests, the stocks and fluxes of tree carbon in managed forests, the economy-wide effects of management practices on the value of forest lands and timber stocks. The combined study of these issues allows to assess development scenarios with regard to the productive potential of forestry, the carbon cycle, and forest values. At present, the model is adapted to German data, but it is designed for use with other data sets as well. This paper provides a description of core mechanisms in ForCaBSiM. On this background, the choice and impact of crucial assumptions is examined. Illustrative results are used to demonstrate the use of the model. The paper focuses on the impact of varying rotation ages and the tree species composition. Particular attention is given to the concept of steady states.
  • Rohner, Renewable Resource Modeling, D-63477 Maintal, Germany E-mail: rohner@rrmodeling.de (email)
  • Böswald, Factor Consulting + Management AG, CH-8045 Zurich, Switzerland E-mail: kb@nn.ch
article id 584, category Research article
Ralph Alig, Darius Adams, John Mills, Richard Haynes, Peter Ince, Robert Moulton. (2001). Alternative projections of the impacts of private investment on southern forests: a comparison of two large-scale forest sector models of the United States. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 584. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.584
Keywords: forest sector; timber supply; forest resource assessment; plantation area
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The TAMM/NAPAP/ATLAS/AREACHANGE (TNAA) system and the Forest and Agriculture Sector Optimization Model (FASOM) are two large-scale forestry sector modeling systems that have been employed to analyze the U.S. forest resource situation. The TNAA system of static, spatial equilibrium models has been applied to make 50-year projections of the U.S. forest sector for more than 20 years. Much of its input on forest management behavior and decisions about use of forestland derives from expert-based systems external to the TNAA system. FASOM, a spatial intertemporal optimization model, directly incorporates decisions on management investment and land use options relative to agricultural alternatives as endogenous model elements. The paper contrasts projections of private forest investment from the TNAA and FASOM models, focusing on the southern United States. Comparison of the TNAA base case and an investment-restricted scenario from FASOM, both of which reflect a continuation of recent behavioral tendencies by nonindustrial private owners, suggests that Southern private timberlands have considerable biological and economic potential for intensified forest management. Unrestricted FASOM projections confirm that added investment could lead to substantially larger timber harvest volumes and lower prices than those projected in the base/restricted cases. But even under the more intensive investment scenarios, naturally regenerated forests would cover three-quarters of the future private timberland base and hardwoods would continue to dominate the inventory structure.
  • Alig, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: ralig@fs.fed.us (email)
  • Adams, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: da@nn.us
  • Mills, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab, 1221 SW Yamhill, Portland, Oregon 97205, USA E-mail: jm@nn.us
  • Haynes, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab, 1221 SW Yamhill, Portland, Oregon 97205, USA E-mail: rh@nn.us
  • Ince, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Lab, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA E-mail: pi@nn.us
  • Moulton, USDA Forest Service (retired), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA E-mail: rm@nn.us
article id 583, category Research article
Hans Fredrik Hoen, Tron Eid, Petter Økseter. (2001). Timber production possibilities and capital yields from the Norwegian forest area. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 3 article id 583. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.583
Keywords: forest management; timber production possibilities; rate of return; capital yield
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
How intensely should a forest be grown? This is a fundamental question in the process of formulating policy guidelines for the management of a forest area, both at the individual property level as well as at the national level. The question is related to a number of factors; the objective(s) of the forest owner, the productivity of the forestland, the initial growing stock, the accessibility within the forest, assumptions regarding future prices and costs and the required real rate of return. This paper presents an applied analysis with the objective of mapping possible future paths for the growing stock on, and timber harvest from the productive forest area in Norway. The analysis is deterministic. The regeneration strategy is a key factor for the long run development of a forest and is thus given particular attention. The analysis is restricted to deal with timber production only and maximisation of the net present value of the forest area is used as the objective function. The required real rate of return is varied and used as the driving force to find the best (optimal) level of intensity in silvicultural management and thus optimal paths for harvesting and growing stocks.
  • Hoen, Agricultural University of Norway, Dept. of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: hans.hoen@isf.nlh.no (email)
  • Eid, Agricultural University of Norway, Dept. of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: te@nn.no
  • Økseter, Agricultural University of Norway, Dept. of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: po@nn.no
article id 598, category Research article
A. Maarit I. Kallio. (2001). Interdependence of the sawlog, pulpwood and sawmill chip markets: an oligopsony model with an application to Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 598. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.598
Keywords: wood market; oligopsony; forest industry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The interdependence of the markets for pulpwood, sawlogs and sawmill chips is analysed using a short-run model, which accommodates the alternative competition structures of wood buyers. We propose that imperfect competition in the pulpwood market tends to make the sawmills owned by the pulp and paper companies larger than the independent ones, even in the absence of transactional economies of integration. The impact of the wood market competition pattern on the profits of the forest owners and forest industry firms depends upon a firm-capacity structure, wood supply elasticities, and business cycles in the output markets. The numerical application of the model to the Finnish softwood market suggests that inflexibility of production capacities tends to make the wood demand rather insensitive with respect to price. Only the large firms, which all produce both pulp and sawnwood, may have oligopsony power under some conditions. Integrated production can increase competition in the sawlog market via the wood chip market.
  • Kallio, Helsinki School of Economics, Department of Economics and Management Science, P.O. Box 1210, FIN-00101 Helsinki E-mail: maarit.kallio@hkkk.fi (email)
article id 596, category Research article
Sakari Tuominen, Simo Poso. (2001). Improving multi-source forest inventory by weighting auxiliary data sources. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 596. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.596
Keywords: forest inventory; remote sensing; two-phase sampling; weighting
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
A two-phase sampling design has been applied to forest inventory. First, a large number of first phase sample plots were defined with a square grid in a geographic coordinate system for two study areas of about 1800 and 4500 ha. The first phase sample plots were supplied by auxiliary data of Landsat TM and IRS-1C with principal component transformation for stratification and drawing the second phase sample (field sample). Proportional allocation was used to draw the second phase sample. The number of field sample plots in the two study areas was 300 and 380. The local estimates of five continuous forest stand variables, mean diameter, mean height, age, basal area, and stem volume, were calculated for each of the first phase sample plots. This was done separately by using one auxiliary data source at a time together with the field sample information. However, if the first phase sample plot for which the stand variables were to be estimated was also a field sample plot, the information of that field sample plot was eliminated according to the cross validation principle. This was because it was then possible to calculate mean square errors of estimates related to a specific auxiliary data source. The procedure produced as many estimates for each first phase sample plot and forest stand variable as was the number of auxiliary data sources, i.e. seven estimates: These were based on Landsat TM, IRS-1C, digitized aerial photos, ocular stereoscopic interpretation from aerial photographs, data from old forest inventory made by compartments, Landsat TM95–TM89 difference image and IRS96–TM95 difference image. The final estimates were calculated as weighted averages where the weights were inversely proportional to mean square errors. The alternative estimates were calculated by applying simple rules based on knowledge and the outliers were defined. The study shows that this kind of system for finding outliers for elimination and a weighting procedure improves the accuracy of stand variable estimation.
  • Tuominen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@metla.fi (email)
  • Poso, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
article id 594, category Research article
Walter Zucchini, Matthias Schmidt, Klaus von Gadow. (2001). A model for the diameter-height distribution in an uneven-aged beech forest and a method to assess the fit of such models. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 594. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.594
Keywords: diameter-height distribution; mixture models; bivariate normal distribution; SBB distribution; goodness-of-fit; pseudo-residuals; beech forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper illustrates the application of a mixture model to describe the bivariate diameter-height distribution of trees growing in a pure, uneven-aged beech forest. A mixture of two bivariate normal distributions is considered but the methodology is applicable to mixtures of other distributions. The model was fitted to diameter-height observations for 1242 beech trees in the protected forest Dreyberg (Solling, Germany). A considerable advantage of the model, apart from the fact that it happens to fit this large data set unusually well, is that the individual parameters all have familiar interpretations. The bivariate Johnson SBB distribution was also fitted to the data for the purpose of comparing the fits. A second issue discussed in this paper is concerned with the general question of assessing the fit of models for bivariate data. We show how a device called ‘pseudo-residual’ enables one to investigate the fit of a bivariate model in new ways and in considerable detail. Attractive features of pseudo-residuals include the fact that they are not difficult to interpret; they can be computed using generally available statistical software and, most important of all, they enable one to examine the fit of a model by means of simple graphs.
  • Zucchini, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Statistics and Econometrics E-mail: zucchini@wi-wiss.uni-goettingen.de (email)
  • Schmidt, Forest Research Station of Lower Saxony E-mail: ms@nn.de
  • Gadow, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institute for Forest Management and Yield Sciences E-mail: kvg@nn.de
article id 593, category Research article
Anneli Jalkanen. (2001). The probability of moose damage at the stand level in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 2 article id 593. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.593
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; Alces alces; multilevel logistic regression; risk management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The probability of moose damage was studied in sapling stands and young thinning stands in southern Finland. Data from the eighth National Forest Inventory in 1986–92 were used for modelling. The frequency of damage was highest at the height of two to five meters and at the age of ten to twenty years (at the time of measurement). Moose preferred aspen stands the most and least preferred Norway spruce stands. Scots pine and silver birch were also susceptible to damage. Logistic regression models were developed for predicting the probability that moose damage is the most important damaging agent in a forest stand. The best predictive variables were the age and dominant species of the stand. Variables describing the site were significant as cluster averages, possibly characterizing the area as a food source (fertility and organic soil), as well as the lack of shelter (wall stand). When sample plot, cluster and municipality levels were compared, it was found that most of the unexplained variance was at the cluster level. To improve the model, more information should be obtained from that level. The regression coefficients for aspen as supplementary species, and for pine as dominant species, had significant variance from cluster to cluster (area to area). It was also shown that the occurrence of aspen is closely connected to the occurrence of moose damage in pine sapling stands.
  • Jalkanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anneli.jalkanen@metla.fi (email)
article id 606, category Research article
Pekka Leskinen, Jyrki Kangas. (2001). Modelling future timber price development by using expert judgments and time series analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 606. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.606
Keywords: forest planning; uncertainty; expert knowledge; forecasting; price peaks; price trend; price variation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Timber prices belong to the most important variables affecting the optimality of forest management. On the other hand, forecasting of timber prices is very uncertain. One difficulty when using past time series data in forecasting future timber price development is the possibility of changes in the markets and in the society at large. Expert knowledge can be applied in forecasting of timber prices as information additional to that provided by time series modelling. This paper presents an approach utilising both time series data and expert judgments in modelling future timber prices. A time series model is used as the basis for the approach. Parameters describing future timber price trends, variation in future timber prices, and the probabilities of price peaks taking place in the future are estimated with expert judgments as the basis. A case study involving 12 experts was carried out in Finland, and models were estimated for all the six major timber assortments in the country. The model produced can be utilised in the optimisation calculations of forest planning.
  • Leskinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: pekka.leskinen@metla.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
article id 604, category Research article
Dan Glöde, Ulf Sikström. (2001). Two felling methods in final cutting of shelterwood, single-grip harvester productivity and damage to the regeneration. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 604. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.604
Keywords: silviculture; time study; cost; forest operations; felling technique; logging-damage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In order to find an efficient and careful way of final-cutting shelterwoods, two felling methods, in a single-grip harvester system, were compared with respect to productivity and damage caused to the regeneration. The shelterwood (140–165 m3/ha) consisted of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and the natural regeneration (9530–11 780 seedlings/ha) mostly of Norway spruce. Treatments were: (i) conventional felling on both sides of the harvester striproad, preferably in blanks of the regeneration; (ii) felling of the trees top-end first into the striproad using a method named “tossing the caber”. Both treatments included forwarding after felling. Conventional felling had a non-significantly higher productivity (27.4 m3/E15–h) and lower cost (25.9 SEK/m3) than tossing the caber (26.1 m3/E15–h and 27.2 SEK/m3). However, tossing the caber was significantly more efficient in the felling and processing of pine trees compared with conventional felling. The mean proportions of the disappeared and damaged seedlings were approximately 40% after both treatments. The logging-related damage to the regeneration decreased with increased distance to the striproad in the tossing the caber treatment but not in conventional felling. The conclusions were that there were no differences between the treatments regarding productivity, cost and total damage to the regeneration in mixed conifer shelterwoods but that tossing the caber could be a more productive method than conventional felling in pine dominated stands. Tossing the caber could also be beneficial at a regeneration height of 2–3 m since at this height the damage to the regeneration seems less than at conventional felling.
  • Glöde, SkogForsk, Uppsala Science Park, S-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: dan.glode@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Sikström, SkogForsk, Uppsala Science Park, S-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: us@nn.se
article id 599, category Research article
Chun-Jiang Liu, Carl J. Westman, Hannu Ilvesniemi. (2001). Matter and nutrient dynamics of pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) and oak (Quercus variabilis) litter in North China. Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 599. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.599
Keywords: Pinus; Quercus; decomposition; nutrients; fall; forest floor; litter; North China
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the mountainous area of North China, a distinguishing feature of climate is the serious drought of spring and the humidity and high temperature of summer by which the litter production and decomposition of forest litter were strongly characterized. We investigated the dynamic and nutrient characteristics of litter in a 30-year-old mixed stand of Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.) and deciduous orient oak (Quercus variabilis Bl.) and two comparable pure stands. Oak litterfall peaked in November and pine litterfall in December. The oak stand had the largest annual litterfall (347 g m–2) and the forest floor mass (950 g m–2), the mixed stand the second (236 g m–2 and 634 g m–2), and the pine stand the least (217 g m–2 and 615 g m–2). The nutrient return through litterfall and the storage in forest floor followed corresponding order between three stands. The weight loss of pine and oak foliage litter in first year was 25% and 20%. For senesced pine and oak leaves, the translocation rates of N, P and K were 56–83%. Nutrient concentrations were higher in oak leaf litter than pine needle litter, and the concentration of N and Ca appeared to rise while K concentration decreased in both decomposing litter.
  • Liu, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: cliu@silvia.helsinki.fi (email)
  • Westman, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: cjw@nn.fi
  • Ilvesniemi, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
article id 621, category Research article
Jyrki Kangas, Pekka Leskinen, Timo Pukkala. (2000). Integrating timber price scenario modeling with tactical management planning of private forestry at forest holding level. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 621. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.621
Keywords: decision support; optimization; adaptive behaviour; non-industrial private forestry; tactical planning; timber price modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In forest management planning, deterministic timber prices are typically assumed. However, real-life timber prices vary in the course of time, and also price peaks, i.e. exceptionally high timber prices, might occur. If land-owners can utilise the price variation by selling timber with the high prices, they are able to increase their net revenues correspondingly. In this study, an approach is presented to study the timber price variation and its significance in the optimization of forest management. The approach utilizes stochastic timber price scenario modelling, simulation of forest development, and optimization of forest management. The approach is presented and illustrated by means of a case study. It is shown how the degree of uncertainty due to variation in timber prices can be analyzed in tactical forest planning of private forestry, and how the potential benefits of adaptive timber-selling behaviour for a forest landowner can be computed by using the approach. The effects of stochastic timber prices on the choice of forest plan are studied at the forest holding level considering also the spacing and type of cuttings and the optimal cutting order. A forest plan prepared under the assumption of constant timber price very seldom results in optimal forest management. Through studying the effects of stochastic timber prices, forest landowners and other decision makers obtain valuable information about the significance of adaptive timber selling behaviour. The presented methodology can also be used in analysing the land-owners’ economic risks as a function of time-price structure.
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Leskinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: pl@nn.fi
  • Pukkala, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 620, category Research article
Annika Kangas, Matti Maltamo. (2000). Performance of percentile based diameter distribution prediction and Weibull method in independent data sets. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 620. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.620
Keywords: stand structure; calibration estimation; Weibull function; diameter distribution prediction; distribution-free method; nearest neighbour method
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Diameter distribution is used in most forest management planning packages for predicting stand volume, timber volume and stand growth. The prediction of diameter distribution can be based on parametric distribution functions, distribution-free parametric prediction methods or purely non-parametric methods. In the first case, the distribution is obtained by predicting the parameters of some probability density function. In a distribution-free percentile method, the diameters at certain percentiles of the distribution are predicted with models. In non-parametric methods, the predicted distribution is a linear combination of similar measured stands. In this study, the percentile based diameter distribution is compared to the results obtained with the Weibull method in four independent data sets. In the case of Scots pine, the other methods are also compared to k-nearest neighbour method. The comparison was made with respect to the accuracy of predicted stand volume, saw timber volume and number of stems. The predicted percentile and Weibull distributions were calibrated using number of stems measured from the stand. The information of minimum and maximum diameters were also used, for re-scaling the percentile based distribution or for parameter recovery of Weibull parameters. The accuracy of the predicted stand characteristics were also compared for calibrated distributions. The most reliable results were obtained using the percentile method with the model set including number of stems as a predictor. Calibration improved the results in most cases. However, using the minimum and maximum diameters for parameter recovery proved to be inefficient.
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Maltamo, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: mm@nn.fi
article id 616, category Research article
Markus Lindholm, Hannu Lehtonen, Taneli Kolström, Jouko Meriläinen, Matti Eronen, Mauri Timonen. (2000). Climatic signals extracted from ring-width chronologies of Scots pines from the northern, middle and southern parts of the boreal forest belt in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 4 article id 616. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.616
Keywords: boreal forest; Scots pine; tree-rings; ring-width chronologies; growth variability; growth responses; spectral analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Climatic signals were extracted from ring-width chronologies of Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) from natural stands of the northern, middle, and southern parts of the boreal forest belt in Finland. The strength of the common growth signals (forcing factors) were quantified as a function of time. This was achieved by mean inter-series correlations, calculated over a moving 30-year window, both within and between the regional chronologies. Strong regional signals and also evidence for common forcings were found, especially between northern and central, central and eastern, as well as central/eastern and southern chronologies. Response function analyses revealed that growing season temperatures govern the growth rates of northern pines, while towards south, pine growth becomes less affected by temperatures, and more affected by e.g. precipitation. During some periods, growing conditions seem to have been favorable in the south, while they have been unfavorable in the north (growth inversions). Going from the north to the south, the variability of radial growth clearly decreases, and the variance of ring-width series becomes smaller. Growth variability in the four regions was compared during the common interval of the chronologies, from 1806 to 1991. The spectral densities of the northern, central, eastern and southern chronologies were also compared as functions of frequency, viz. cycles per year. The variance is much greater and there is more periodic behavior in the north than in the south in high, medium, as well as lower frequencies.
  • Lindholm, Saima Centre for Environmental Sciences, University of Joensuu, Linnankatu 11, FIN-57130 Savonlinna, Finland E-mail: ml@nn.fi (email)
  • Lehtonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hl@nn.fi
  • Kolström, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Meriläinen, Saima Centre for Environmental Sciences, University of Joensuu, Linnankatu 11, FIN-57130 Savonlinna, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
  • Eronen, Department of Geology, Division of Geology and Palaeontology, Box 11, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: me@nn.fi
  • Timonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, Box 16, FIN-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: mt@nn.fi
article id 625, category Research article
Hans-Örjan Nohrstedt. (2000). Effects of soil scarification and previous N fertilisation on pools of inorganic N in soil after clear-felling of a Pinus sylvestris (L.) stand. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 3 article id 625. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.625
Keywords: boreal forest; mound; Sweden; furrow; nitrogen mineralisation; podsol
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Previous analyses of soil water beneath mounds resulting from scarification have implied that this forestry measure increases leaching of inorganic N. However, more recent soil-water studies have not confirmed this assumption. The soil study presented here examined the pools of inorganic N in different microsites emanating from a simulated disc trenching, i. e. the mound with underlying soil, the furrow bottom and the undisturbed soil. The study was made five years after scarification. The mound itself with underlying soil had a larger pool of inorganic N than the undisturbed soil. This was mainly because of an increase in the embedded humus layer, thus implying a larger net N mineralisation and/or lower losses. However, when pools of inorganic N per hectare were calculated, taking into consideration that a scarified area comprises 25% mounds, 25% furrows and 50% undisturbed soil, there was no increase in pools of inorganic N when compared with an area not subjected to scarification. This observation supports the finding of the more recent soil-water studies mentioned, i. e., that leaching seems not to be influenced by soil scarification. The scarification was made as a split-plot treatment on main-plots in an old experiment with different N doses. Thus, the effect of the previous N fertilisation could also be evaluated. Two N doses were tested beside the unfertilised control: 720N (3 x 240 kg N ha–1 yr–1) and 1800N (3 x 600 kg N ha–1 yr–1). The last fertiliser application was made six years before the clearcutting and 13 years before the soil sampling. The previously fertilised main-plots had larger pools of inorganic N than the control plots.
  • Nohrstedt, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: hans-orjan.nohrstedt@skogforsk.se (email)
article id 638, category Research article
Gert-Jan Nabuurs, Mart-Jan Schelhaas, Ari Pussinen. (2000). Validation of the European Forest Information Scenario Model (EFISCEN) and a projection of Finnish forests. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 638. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.638
Keywords: Finland; EFISCEN; European forests; historic forest inventory data
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Large-scale forest scenario models are intensively used to make projections of forest areas of up to hundreds of millions of hectares. Within Europe, such projections have been done for 11 countries at the individual national scale, most often to foresee the long-term implications of the ongoing forest management. However, the validity of the models has rarely been tested. The aim of this study was 1. to validate the European Forest Information SCENario model (EFISCEN) by running it on historic Finnish forest inventory data, 2. to improve the model based on the validation, and 3. to project the Finnish forest development till 2050 with the improved model under alternative scenarios. The results of the validation showed that EFISCEN is capable of making reliable large-scale projections of forest resources for periods up to 50–60 years. Based on the validation, the model was improved concerning simulation of age development, thinning regimes and regrowth after thinning. The projection of the Finnish forests till 2050 with the improved model presented a maximum sustainable felling level of around 70 million m3 per year. That provides an average growing stock of 106 m3 ha–1 in 2050 and a net annual increment of 3.6 m3 ha–1 y–1. If the current trend towards more nature oriented forest management continues and 1.39 million ha of forests have been set aside additionally for nature reserves by 2050, the felling level could meet a realistic demand of 57 million m3 per year in 2050. Under the latter regime the average growing stock will have grown to 160 m3 ha–1 in 2050.
  • Nabuurs, European Forest Institute (EFI), Torikatu 34, FIN-80100 Joensuu, Finland; Wageningen University and Research Center, ALTERRA, P.O. Box 47, NL 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands E-mail: g.j.nabuurs@alterra.wag-ur.nl (email)
  • Schelhaas, European Forest Institute (EFI), Torikatu 34, FIN-80100 Joensuu, Finland; Wageningen University and Research Center, ALTERRA, P.O. Box 47, NL 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands E-mail: mjs@nn.nl
  • Pussinen, European Forest Institute (EFI), Torikatu 34, FIN-80100 Joensuu, Finland; Wageningen University and Research Center, ALTERRA, P.O. Box 47, NL 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands E-mail: ap@nn.nl
article id 636, category Research article
Tuula Nuutinen, Hannu Hirvelä, Jari Hynynen, Kari Härkönen, Hannu Hökkä, Kari T. Korhonen, Olli Salminen. (2000). The role of peatlands in Finnish wood production – an analysis based on large-scale forest scenario modelling. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 636. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.636
Keywords: peatlands; MELA; wood production; forest scenario modelling
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Using the Finnish MELA model, a set of scenarios were produced and used to map the possibilities and risks surrounding the utilisation of peatlands in wood production in Finland. One of the scenarios was an estimate of allowable-cut calculated by maximising the net present value of the future revenues using a four per cent interest rate subject to non-decreasing flow of wood, saw logs and net income over a 50-year period, and net present value after the 50 year period greater or equal than in the beginning. The estimate for maximum regionally sustained removal in 1996–2005 was 68 million m3 per year – approaching 74 million m3 during the next decades. In this scenario, 14 per cent of all cuttings during the period 1996–2005 would be made on peatlands, which comprise ca. 31 per cent of the total area of forestry land. By the year 2025, the proportion of peatland cuttings would increase to over 20 per cent. The increase in future cutting possibilities on peatlands compensated for a temporary decrease in cuttings and growing stock on mineral soils. The allowable-cut effect was especially pronounced in northern Finland, where peatlands play an important role in wood production. In addition, the sensitivity of cutting possibilities for assumptions related to growth and price were analysed. The estimate of maximum sustainable yield as defined here seems to be fairly robust on the whole, except in northern Finland where the cutting scenarios were sensitive to the changes in the price of birch pulpwood. The proportion of peatland stands that are profitable for timber production depends on the interest rate: the higher the rate of interest the less peatland stands are thinned. The effect of cutting profile on future logging conditions and resulting costs were analysed in two forestry centres. If clear cuttings on mineral soils are to be cut first, an increase in future logging costs is inevitable.
  • Nuutinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tuula.nuutinen@metla.fi (email)
  • Hirvelä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Hynynen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jh@nn.fi
  • Härkönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kh@nn.fi
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: hh@nn.fi
  • Korhonen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ktk@nn.fi
  • Salminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: os@nn.fi
article id 635, category Research article
Manfred J. Lexer, Karl Hönninger, Helfried Scheifinger, Christoph Matulla, Nikolaus Groll, Helga Kromp-Kolb. (2000). The sensitivity of central European mountain forests to scenarios of climatic change: methodological frame for a large-scale risk assessment. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 635. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.635
Keywords: climate change; potential natural vegetation; alpine forests; risk assessment; patch model; multi-attribute decision making
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The methodological framework of a large-scale risk assessment for Austrian forests under scenarios of climatic change is presented. A recently developed 3D-patch model is initialized with ground-true soil and vegetation data from sample plots of the Austrian Forest Inventory (AFI). Temperature and precipitation data of the current climate are interpolated from a network of more than 600 weather stations to the sample plots of the AFI. Vegetation development is simulated under current climate (‘control run’) and under climate change scenarios starting from today's forest composition and structure. Similarity of species composition and accumulated biomass between these two runs at various points in time were used as assessment criteria. An additive preference function which is based on Saaty’s AHP is employed to synthesize these criteria to an overall index of the adaptation potential of current forests to a changing climate. The presented methodology is demonstrated for a small sample from the Austrian Forest Inventory. The forest model successfully simulated equilibrium species composition under current climatic conditions spatially explicit in a heterogenous landscape based on ground-true data. At none of the simulated sites an abrupt forest dieback did occur due to climate change impacts. However, substantial changes occured with regard to species composition of the potential natural vegetation (PNV).
  • Lexer, Institute of Silviculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Peter-Jordanstrasse 70, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: lexer@edv1.boku.ac.at (email)
  • Hönninger, Institute of Silviculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Peter-Jordanstrasse 70, A-1190 Vienna, Austria E-mail: kh@nn.at
  • Scheifinger, Institute of Meteorology and Physics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Türkenschanzstrasse 18, A-1180 Vienna, Austria E-mail: hs@nn.at
  • Matulla, Institute of Meteorology and Physics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Türkenschanzstrasse 18, A-1180 Vienna, Austria E-mail: cm@nn.at
  • Groll, Institute of Meteorology and Physics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Türkenschanzstrasse 18, A-1180 Vienna, Austria E-mail: ng@nn.at
  • Kromp-Kolb, Institute of Meteorology and Physics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Türkenschanzstrasse 18, A-1180 Vienna, Austria E-mail: hkk@nn.at
article id 634, category Research article
Marcus Lindner, Petra Lasch, Markus Erhard. (2000). Alternative forest management strategies under climatic change – prospects for gap model applications in risk analyses. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 634. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.634
Keywords: climate change; forest management; adaptation and mitigation strategies; forest succession model; FORSKA
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The projected global climate change will influence growth and productivity of natural and managed forests. Since the characteristics of the future regional climate are still uncertain and the response of our forests to changes in the atmospheric and climatic conditions may be both positive or negative, decision making in managed forests should consider the new risks and uncertainties arising from climatic change, especially if the rotation periods are long. An extended version of the forest gap model FORSKA was applied to simulate the forest development at 488 forest inventory plots in the federal state of Brandenburg, Germany, under two climate and three management scenarios. The transient growth dynamics from 1990 to 2100 were investigated at four sites in different parts of the state, representing the variability of environmental and forest conditions within Brandenburg. The alternative management strategies led to distinct differences in forest composition after 110 years of simulation. The projected climate change affected both forest productivity and species composition. The impacts of alternative management scenarios are discussed. It is concluded that the extended forest gap model can be a valuable tool to support decision making in forest management under global change.
  • Lindner, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, P.O. Box 60 12 03, D-14412 Potsdam, Germany E-mail: lindner@pik-potsdam.de (email)
  • Lasch, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, P.O. Box 60 12 03, D-14412 Potsdam, Germany E-mail: pl@nn.de
  • Erhard, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, P.O. Box 60 12 03, D-14412 Potsdam, Germany E-mail: me@nn.de
article id 633, category Research article
Tron Eid. (2000). Use of uncertain inventory data in forestry scenario models and consequential incorrect harvest decisions. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 633. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.633
Keywords: forest management; uncertain inventory data; final harvest decisions; expected net present value-losses; inventory planning
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Uncertainty in long-term timber production analyses usually focus success of regeneration, growth/mortality of trees and future fluctuations of timber prices/harvest costs, while uncertainty related to inventory data is paid less attention. At the same time, evaluations of inventory methods usually stop when the error level is stated, while the uncertainty accompanied by using the data is seldom considered. The present work addresses uncertain inventory data in long-term timber production analyses. Final harvest decisions, i.e. possible outcome intervals with respect to timing and expected net present value-losses due to incorrect timing, were considered. A case study was presented where inventory data errors according to different error levels were generated randomly. The selected error levels were based on observations from practical forest inventories in Norway. The analysis tool was GAYA-JLP. The impact of errors on decisions was derived through repeated computations of management strategies maximising net present value without harvest path constraints. A real rate of discount of 3% and an error level of 15% resulted in expected net present value-losses of 1 NOK ha–1 for basal area, 63 NOK ha–1 for mean height, 210 NOK ha–1 for site quality, 240 NOK ha–1 for stand age, and 499 NOK ha–1 when random errors occurred simultaneously for all these variables. The expected net present value-losses varied considerably. The largest losses appeared for stands with ages around optimal economical rotation ages. The losses were also relatively large for young stands, while they were relatively low for overmature stands. The experiences from the case study along with considerations related to other sources of uncertainty may help us to get a more realistic attitude to the reliability of long-term timber production analyses. The results of the study may also serve as a starting point in a decision oriented inventory planning concept, in which alternatives for inventory design and intensity are based on considerations with respect to inventory costs as well as net present value-losses.
  • Eid, Department of Forest Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: tron.eid@isf.nlh.no (email)
article id 645, category Research article
Veli-Pekka Heikkinen, Antti Kanto. (2000). Market model with long-term effects – empirical evidence from Finnish forestry returns. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 1 article id 645. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.645
Keywords: forest risk returns; market model; co-integration
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The aim of the study is to reformulate the conventional market model by considering also long-run characteristics of forestry returns. Finnish stumpage prices and the stock market index are found co-integrated. Co-integration relationship between timber and stock market indicates that there are factors in timber market like high transaction costs, illiquidity or temporal lack of information, and in the Finnish case, price recommendations that are priced by market. The presence of long-run effects may make the short-term market model mis-specified and it may give misleading and incomplete results concerning the expected risk and return of forestry. In our case, the market model risk beta was only slightly biased. This study indicates that an error-correction model is more appropriate model than the market model.
  • Heikkinen, Helsinki School of Economics, P.O. Box 1210, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: vheikkin@hkkk.fi (email)
  • Kanto, Helsinki School of Economics, P.O. Box 1210, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ak@nn.fi
article id 651, category Research article
Annika S. Kangas, Jyrki Kangas. (1999). Optimization bias in forest management planning solutions due to errors in forest variables. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 4 article id 651. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.651
Keywords: forest planning; uncertainty; prediction; decision analysis
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The yield of various forest variables is predicted by means of a simulation system to provide information for forest management planning. These predictions contain many kinds of uncertainty, for example, prediction and measurement errors. Inevitably, this has an effect on forest management planning. It is well known that uncertainty in the forest yields causes optimistic bias in the observed values of the objective function. This bias increases with the error variances. The amount of bias, however, also depends on the error structure and the relations between the objective variables. In this paper, the effect of uncertainty in forest yields on optimization is studied by simulation. The effect of two different sources of error, the correlation structure of these errors and relations among the objective variables are considered, as well as the effect of two different optimization approaches. The relations between the objective variables and the error structure had a notable effect on the optimization results.
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
article id 648, category Research article
Sauli Härkönen. (1999). Forest damage caused by the Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis) in South Savo, Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 4 article id 648. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.648
Keywords: Canadian beaver; Castor canadensis; forest damage; prevention of damage; type of damage
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The increasing Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis) population has caused forest damage in Finland. However, the occurrence, extent and importance of the damage have not been comprehensively studied. The field inspection was carried out in all of the beaver damage areas (n = 50) in the Anttola, Juva and Pieksämäki game management units in summer 1998. The characteristics of the damage areas, types of damage and the severity of the damage were examined. The size of the damage areas averaged 2.2 ha. The damage areas occurred on peatland forest more (p < 0.05) than expected. The dominant tree species were commercially valuable trees such as Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) (33%), Norway spruce (Picea abies) (18%) and birches (Betula spp.) (47%). Birch occurred as dominant tree species more (p < 0.05) than expected. The proportion of older forest development classes was considerable. The most important type of damage was flooding (50%) caused by the damming activity of beavers. The trees were dead or dying in 18% of the damage areas. It was estimated that the ecosystem engineering performed by beavers was of no importance in 28% of the damage areas. Prevention of beaver damage has been carried out in 80% of the damage areas. In the study area, beaver numbers have steadily increased, although the number of beavers taken by hunting and the allowed hunting harvest have sharply increased. It is suggested that the methods used to prevent beaver damage should be improved and a compensation system should be provided by the state for the most damaged areas. Beavers can cause damage to commercial forestry, and this should be taken into account more effectively in the management plans made by the game management districts.
  • Härkönen, South Savo Game Management District, P.O. Box 14, FIN-51901 Juva, Finland E-mail: sauli.harkonen@riistanhoitopiirico.inet.fi (email)
article id 658, category Research article
Muru Juurola, Pekka Ollonqvist, Heikki Pajuoja, Mikko Toropainen. (1999). Outcomes of forest improvement work in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 3 article id 658. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.658
Keywords: forest policy; forest improvement work; subsidies; input-output method; allowable cut
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper discusses public subsidies aimed at intensifying timber production as an initial part of an evaluation of the profitability of forest investment subsidies in Finland. In many countries there are very few proper ex post evaluations of the forest policy instruments in economic terms. The scarcity of timber among users and their attempts to construct new forest policy are discussed first. The increments in annual growth and growing stock as well as its valuation are then evaluated. The final gross utility increments due to forestry investments are measured through their importance in the forest industry products. The direct and indirect changes in GDP are calculated by using the input-output method.
  • Juurola, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mj@nn.fi
  • Ollonqvist, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: po@nn.fi
  • Pajuoja, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: heikki.pajuoja@metla.fi (email)
  • Toropainen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mt@nn.fi
article id 665, category Research article
Kari Kangas. (1999). Trade of main wild berries in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 2 article id 665. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.665
Keywords: imports; bilberry; non-wood forest products; trade; lingonberry; exports
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The price trends and markets of the main wild berries, bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.), were analysed in this study, which covered both domestic use of berries, imports and exports. The periods considered were for bilberries from 1988 to 1997 and for lingonberries from 1979 to 1994. The results indicated that both exports and imports have increased and domestic berries have lost their market share to imports in domestic use. One possible explanation for this trend was found in price development. Both export and import prices have decreased, but export price has still been higher than the import price. Simultaneously the domestic price has decreased the fastest. The formation of the price of lingonberries paid to the pickers in the organised domestic markets was studied with a regression model. The results indicated that domestic price was negatively dependent on the amounts of lingonberries demanded in the domestic markets and positively dependent on the export price. Correlation analysis gave evidence on the same kind of relations concerning bilberries.
  • Kangas, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kari.kangas@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
article id 671, category Research article
Jouni Vettenranta, Jari Miina. (1999). Optimizing thinnings and rotation of Scots pine and Norway spruce mixtures. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 671. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.671
Keywords: mixed forests; optimal treatments; simulation models; Hooke and Jeeves’ method; thinning types
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The study describes a simulation-optimization system which uses spatial models for diameter and height growth, crown ratio and tree mortality for Scots pine and Norway spruce mixtures. The optimal one- and two-thinning regimes of six initial stands with varing species composition were solved by using nonlinear optimization. The soil expectation value (SEV) at 3% interest rate was used as a management objective. The regimes are determined by taking into account the stand basal areas before the thinnings, the removal percentages for small, medium-sized and large pines and spruces, and the stand basal area before the final felling. The greatest SEV (8900 FIM ha–1) was attained with the initial stand where the proportion of pines was 65% of the number of the stems. In the two-thinning regime, the first thinning was conducted at the age of 39 years when the stand basal area was 37 m2 ha–1 and the dominant height was about 15 m. After the thinning, the basal area was 27 m2 ha–1. Spruces were thinned from below, but both small and large pines were removed. The second thinning was 8 years later and much heavier: the stand basal area was decreased from 35 m2 ha–1 to 18 m2 ha–1 by removing both small and large pines and spruces. When the optimal two-thinning regime was compared to the regime presented by Forest Centre Tapio, the loss of SEV was about 30% (6070 FIM ha–1) in the case of thinnings from below, and about 20% (7250 FIM ha–1) in the case of thinnings from above.
  • Vettenranta, Kivirinnanpolku 4, FIN-40950 Muurame, Finland E-mail: vettenr@cc.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Miina, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jm@nn.fi
article id 669, category Research article
Simo Poso, Guangxing Wang, Sakari Tuominen. (1999). Weighting alternative estimates when using multi-source auxiliary data for forest inventory. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 669. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.669
Keywords: remote sensing; two-phase sampling; forest inventory methods
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Five auxiliary data sources (Landsat TM, IRS-IC, digitized aerial photographs, visual photo-interpretation and old forest compartment information) applying three study areas and three estimators, two-phase sampling with stratification, the k nearest neighbors and regression estimator, were examined. Auxiliary data were given for a high number of sample plots, which are here called first phase sample plots. The plots were distributed using a systematic grid over the study areas. Some of the plots were then measured in the field for the necessary ground truth. Each auxiliary data source in combination with field sample information was applied to produce a specific estimator for five forest stand characteristics: mean diameter, mean height, age, basal area, and volume of the growing stock. When five auxiliary data sources were used, each stand characteristic and each first phase sample plot were supplied with five alternative estimates with three alternative estimators. Mean square errors were then calculated for each alternative estimator using the cross validation method. The final estimates were produced by weighting alternative estimates inversely according to the mean square errors related to the corresponding estimator. The result was better than the final estimate of any of the single estimators. The improvement over the best single estimate, as measured in mean square error, was 16.9% on average for all five forest stand characteristics. The improvement was fairly equal for all five forest stand characteristics. Only minor differences among the accuracies of the three alternative estimators were recorded.
  • Poso, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 24 (Unioninkatu 40 B), FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: simo.poso@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Wang, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 24 (Unioninkatu 40 B), FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: gw@nn.fi
  • Tuominen, Department of Forest Resource Management, P.O. Box 24 (Unioninkatu 40 B), FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: st@nn.fi
article id 668, category Research article
Hannu Hökkä, Timo Penttilä. (1999). Modelling the dynamics of wood productivity on drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 33 no. 1 article id 668. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.668
Keywords: forest drainage; stand development; autoregressive process; site productivity; structural equation models
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The dynamics of wood productivity on drained peatland sites was analyzed from the covariance structure generated by stand yield data of repeatedly measured permanent sample plots in 81 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) or Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst. (L.)) stands with admixtures of birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.). The site production potential, considered a latent variable, was assumed to follow an autoregressive process over time elapsed since drainage. As a measure of the latent variable, a relative growth rate (RGR) index was determined for all stands at the time of drainage and at four successive measurement time points following drainage (on average 16, 23, 30, and 41 years). The index was calculated as the site index of an upland conifer stand with the ratio of periodic volume growth and standing volume and adjusted by changes in stand stocking and thinning. The observed covariance structure was described by fitting a structural equation model to the data of RGR indices. When only the post-drainage measurement times were included, a quasi-simplex model with equal error variances and equal structural parameters at different measurement times fit the data well indicating a permanent covariance structure among the different measurements. Including the measurement at the time of drainage resulted in a non-permanent structure. The stand parameters at the time of drainage were poorly correlated with post-drainage growth. A considerable increase in the wood productivity of the sites was observed, being greatest during twenty years after drainage and continuing up to 40 years since drainage. This was concluded to be due to changes in site properties rather than stand structure although the effects of the single factors could not be analytically separated from one another. Our modelling approach appeared to improve long-term site productivity estimates based merely on botanical site indices.
  • Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, PO Box 16, 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi (email)
  • Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, PO Box 16, 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi
article id 677, category Research article
Pekka Leskinen, Jyrki Kangas. (1998). Analysing uncertainties of interval judgment data in multiple-criteria evaluation of forest plans. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 4 article id 677. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.677
Keywords: forest planning; uncertainty; decision analysis; expert judgment; pairwise comparisons
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The use of interval judgments instead of accurate pairwise comparisons has been proposed as a solution to facilitate the analysis of uncertainties in the widely applied pairwise comparisons technique. A method is presented for deriving probability distributions for the pairwise comparisons and for utilizing the distributions in the analysis of uncertainties in the evaluation process. The first step is that the expert or the decision-maker is queried as to the best guess of the priority ratio of the attributes compared. This is followed by an adjusting query concerning the uncertainty in the comparison: what is the probability of the priority ratio being between the best guess ± 1 unit of the pairwise comparison scale? An application of the method is presented in the form of multiple-criteria evaluation of alternative management plans for a forest area.
  • Leskinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: pekka.leskinen@metla.fi (email)
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jk@nn.fi
article id 676, category Research article
Erik Sundström. (1998). Afforestation of low-productive peatlands in Sweden – a tree species comparison. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 4 article id 676. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.676
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; fertilization; Picea abies; afforestation; drainage; tree species; climate; Pinus contorta; broadcast fertilization; spot fertilization
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In 1970, five low-productive treeless peatlands in Sweden, ranging from latitudes 56°N to 67°N, were drained and fertilized for afforestation. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of four ditch spacings, varying from 7.5 to 60 m, and five NPK-fertilizer combinations, on the survival and growth of planted Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), Norway spruce (Picea abies), and silver birch (Betula pendula) seedlings. The assessments were carried out 18–22 years after planting. Neither silver birch, nor Norway spruce was regarded suitable for the site type. The mortality of silver birch was almost complete, and Norway spruce did not grow well in any of the study areas, however, better than Scots pine in the north. Lodgepole pine had better height and diameter growth but also higher mortality rates than Scots pine. In the two northernmost experimental areas no response to fertilization was found. In the other three areas, the response to fertilization did not differ between species. Phosphorus was the most effective of the added fertilizer elements, whereas nitrogen showed no positive effect. Broadcast fertilizer application, with three times higher amount of fertilizer per ha gave the same growth response as spot application.
  • Sundström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: erik.sundstrom@ssko.slu.se (email)
article id 675, category Research article
Per Linder, Peter Jonsson, Mats Niklasson. (1998). Tree mortality after prescribed burning in an old-growth Scots pine forest in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 4 article id 675. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.675
Keywords: forest management; coarse woody debris; tree mortality; nature conservation; forest fire; dead trees
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Tree mortality and input of dead trees were studied after a prescribed burning in a forest reserve in northern Sweden. The stand was a multi-layered old-growth forest. The overstorey was dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and the understorey consisted of mixed Scots pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.). Ground vegetation was dominated by ericaceous dwarf-shrubs and feathermosses. The stand has been affected by six forest fires during the last 500 years. The prescribed burning was a low intensity surface fire that scorched almost 90% of the ground. Tree mortality for smaller pines and spruces (DBH < 10 cm) was over 80% in the burned parts of the reserve. For larger pines, 10–50 cm DBH, mortality showed a decreasing trend with increasing diameter, from 14% in class 10–20 cm DBH to 1.4% in class 40–50 cm DBH. However, pines with DBH ≥ 50 cm had a significantly higher mortality, 20%, since a high proportion of them had open fire scars containing cavities, caused by fungi and insects, which enabled the fire to burn inside the trunks and hollow them out. The fire-induced mortality resulted in a 21 m3 ha–1 input of dead trees, of which 12 m3 ha–1 consisted of trees with DBH ≥ 30 cm. An increased mortality among larger trees after low-intensity fires has not previously been described in Fennoscandian boreal forests, probably owing to a lack of recent fires in old-growth stands. However, since large pines with open fire scars were once a common feature in the natural boreal forest, we suggest that this type of tree mortality should be mimicked in forestry practices aiming to maintain and restore natural forest biodiversity.
  • Linder, Department of Forest Vegetation Ecology, SLU, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: pl@nn.se (email)
  • Jonsson, Department of Forest Vegetation Ecology, SLU, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: pj@nn.se
  • Niklasson, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, SLU, Box 49, S-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: mn@nn.se
article id 683, category Research article
Anders Karlsson, Arne Albrektson, Anders Forsgren, Lennart Svensson. (1998). An analysis of successful natural regeneration of downy and silver birch on abandoned farmland in Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 3 article id 683. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.683
Keywords: Betula pendula; site preparation; Betula pubescens; afforestation; arable land; site conditions
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
To improve our understanding of factors influencing the success of natural regeneration with downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) on abandoned farmlands, a survey was conducted to analyse the effects of site conditions and site preparation characteristics. The study was based on a sample plot inventory conducted in one northern and one southern district of Sweden, in which 29 successfully established, naturally regenerated stands, about to be cleaned or thinned, were assessed. Radical site preparation increased stand density and uniformity of established regeneration, and gave faster initial development, than establishment without site preparation on former leys or meadows. Large proportions of the total sample area were classified as moist, and soils consisting of sand–fine sand or peat were frequent. The frequency of birch stems was highest in mesic sites, and on soils consisting of sand, sand–fine sand or peat. Distances to seed-trees were generally shorter than 80 m, and downy birch was the dominant species in most stands.
  • Karlsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: anders.karlsson@ssko.slu.se (email)
  • Albrektson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: aa@nn.se
  • Forsgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: af@nn.se
  • Svensson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Silviculture, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ls@nn.se
article id 692, category Research article
Eero Mattila. (1998). Use of satellite and field information in a forest damage survey of eastern Finnish Lapland in 1993. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 2 article id 692. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.692
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; remote sensing; forest damage survey
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The study area consists of the Finnish part of a Landsat 5 TM image from 1990. Three independent field samples were measured during 1991–93 in the study area. The first sample was used to compile training areas for supervised maximum likelihood classification of the image. Classification accuracy was studied in the second sample. The spectral separability of the forest strata usable in practical forestry was poor. The extent of the damage area was estimated by the principle of stratified sampling. The estimate included considerable bias because the field sample had not been objectively selected from the image classes. The third field sample was measured as part of the National Forest Inventory of Finland. It is wholly objective, and about ten times larger than the two earlier field samples. The poor spectral separability of the forest strata was confirmed by the NFI sample. However, this sample could be used in stratified sampling with little or no bias in the estimation of the damage area estimate. 14 different damage types were separated according to specific damaging agent. A thematic map was produced which presents the spatial distribution of two damage-rich image classes. The study area comprises 18 300 sq.km, of which 38% were damaged. At first sight it would appear that the proportion of damaged forest has tripled in ten years. However, this is not the case because now special attention was paid to forest health in the field work. Despite this, it is possible that some damage caused by unfavourable climatic phenomena in the ’80s was still perceptible in 1993. No damage caused directly by air pollution has yet been verified in the study area.
  • Mattila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Station, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: eero.mattila@metla.fi (email)
article id 701, category Research article
Antrei Lausti, Markku Penttinen. (1998). The analysis of return and its components of non-industrial private forest ownership by forestry board districts in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 1 article id 701. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.701
Keywords: non-industrial private forests; risk; return; portfolio management; forestry board district; performance evaluation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Non-industrial private forest ownership returns and risks in Finland are both estimated and disaggregated to local Forestry Board Districts (FBD) level. Additionally, the FBD level return is divided into price change, felling and change in the growing stock components, which are compared with the inflation rate. The results are based on a complete count of the stumpage prices, silvicultural costs and state subsidies as well as the National Forest Inventory (NFI) data. The influence of taxation is discussed as well. Although this database is excellent for economic studies as well, the estimation methodology is vitiated by a host of problems, the resolution of which is the major contribution of this study. The study period is 1972–1996. The results show that there have been fairly large differences in forest ownership returns and prices depending on the Forestry Board District. Results show that the price change component has been larger in Northern Forestry Board Districts, as much as 0.9% above the inflation rate in Lapland FBD, than in Southern Forestry Board Districts, 1.5% less than the inflation rate in southern Helsinki FBD. The net increase, however, has been larger in Southern Forestry Board Districts than in Northern Forestry Board Districts. Using the average net increment in Finland as a comparison base, the net increment in South Karelia exceeded it by 0.6%, but fell below it by 1.8% in Northeastern Finland. Finally, the return over the whole period is compared to the return on private housing and inflation in the case of North Savo. In all, the estimation methodology developed also serves as spin-off product development for the Forest Statistics Information Service (FSIS).
  • Lausti, Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration, Centre for Doctoral Programme, Runeberginkatu 15 A, FIN-00100 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: al@nn.fi
  • Penttinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markku.penttinen@metla.fi (email)
article id 699, category Research article
Heimo Karppinen. (1998). Values and objectives of non-industrial private forest owners in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 1 article id 699. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.699
Keywords: non-industrial private forests; landowner objectives; forest values; owner characteristics; forestry behavior
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The purpose of the study was to create an empirical typology of non-industrial private forest owners based on forest values and long-term objectives of forest ownership, to identify these types by owner and holding characteristics, as well as to analyze silvicultural and harvesting behavior in these groups. The analysis was based on survey data on 245 forest owners in southeastern Finland. The results indicated that general forest values and long-term objectives of forest ownership are not strongly correlated. The results further suggested that the sole emphasis on economic benefits of forests does not lead to the most active silvicultural and harvesting behavior. Multiobjective owners, who underlined both monetary and amenity benefits of their forest property, were the most active in their silvicultural and cutting behavior. Non-timber objectives seemed not to exclude wood production: a group called recreationists harvested slightly less than other owners. Recreationists were willing to invest in forestry but were selective with respect to management practices. The results can be used in planning and implementation of public forest policy such as allocation of the resources of forestry extension services. Forest industries should also benefit from a knowledge of the objectives of roundwood sellers.
  • Karppinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: heimo.karppinen@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 698, category Research article
Kalle Kärhä, Sami Oinas. (1998). Satisfaction and company loyalty as expressed by non-industrial private forest owners towards timber procurement organizations in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 1 article id 698. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.698
Keywords: timber trade; company loyalty; decision support system (DSS); non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owner; satisfaction; timber procurement
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The satisfaction and company loyalty as expressed by non-industrial, private forest (NIPF) owners towards timber procurement organizations were clarified via a mail questionnaire. The results denoted that there is a positive correlation between the levels of forest owners’ expectations (EXP) and perceived performance (PERF). In addition, the lower EXP and the higher PERF were, the greater was the overall satisfaction index (SAT). About two thirds of forest owners were characterized by a negative SAT value or then they were dissatisfied with the performance of the procurement organization in their last timber-sales transaction. Furthermore, the results obtained indicated that the SAT index significantly influences the company loyalty expressed by NIPF owners – their willingness to give favourable reports of the company to the others, and their willingness to engage in future timber-sales transactions with the same company. Nonetheless, the SAT index did not affect the market share of a particular company, and this could be partly accounted for by the similar level of performance among the companies and the lack of competition in the timber trade. Finally, the results revealed several dimensions of timber procurement, and some seller segments to which companies could pay more attention to in order to be able to achieve better satisfaction levels and the loyalty of NIPF owners in the future. One approach to successfully addressing these challenges could be the adopting of a satisfaction decision support system (SatDSS).
  • Kärhä, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: karha@forest.joensuu.fi (email)
  • Oinas, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: so@nn.fi

Category : Climate resilient and sustainable forest management – Review article

article id 23057, category Climate resilient and sustainable forest management – Review article
Ane Christensen Tange, Hanne K. Sjølie, Gunnar Austrheim. (2024). Effectiveness of conservation measures to support biodiversity in boreal timber-production forests. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 2 article id 23057. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23057
Keywords: forestry; sustainable forest management; dead wood enhancement; forest certification; green tree retention; riparian buffer zone
Highlights: A systematic review of in-situ conservation measures displays that forest biodiversity levels are largely maintained upon harvest with conservation measures compared to unlogged forest; The type of control impacts the frequency of positive, not significant and negative observations; The relatively few significant results restrain distinct conclusions on the effectiveness of the assessed conservation measures to support biodiversity.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Large parts of the boreal forest ecosystems have been greatly affected by human use, and the current timber-oriented forest management practice that dominates boreal forests is proven to cause biodiversity and ecosystem services declines. These negative effects are mitigated in various ways, including in-situ measures implemented upon harvest. The measures comprise trade-offs between economic and ecological aims; thus, requiring solid knowledge of their effectiveness. However, comprehensive literature review of the effectiveness of such measures is scarce. We aim to fill part of this void by reviewing the scientific literature that have gauged effects of four in-situ conservation measures: green tree retention (GTR), patch retention (PR), dead wood retention (DW) and riparian buffer zones (RB). Two outcomes were considered, species richness and species abundance across taxa.

From a total of 3012 initial papers, 48 met our inclusion criteria that generated 238 unique results. Results were grouped according to control. 178 studies used mature, unlogged forest as control. Out of those, 68% of the findings were not significant, i.e., suggesting no significant impact of harvest with biodiversity measures on species richness and species abundance compared to no harvest. Eighteen percent of the observations showed negative effects and 14% of the observations showed positive effects compared to no harvest. Sixty studies used harvest with no measures as control, of which 45% showed significant positive effects, meaning that compared to harvest with no measures, harvest with conservation measures has positively effects on species richness and abundance. However, 43% of the studies found no significant effect of the implemented conservation measures compared to harvest with no measures taken.

The relatively few significant results reported restrain distinct conclusions on the effectiveness of the assessed conservation measures, but some degree of conservation measure is likely to have positive effects on biodiversity in timber-production forest. However, the scientific basis does not allow for pointing to threshold levels. Higher transparency of study design and statistical results would allow us to include more studies. There is a clear need for more research of effectiveness of common conservation measures in timber-production forests in order to strengthen the knowledge basis. In particular, there are few studies that employ harvest without any conservation measure as control. This is pivotal knowledge for forest managers as well as for policymakers for preserving biodiversity and the ecosystems in forest.

  • Tange, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Evenstad, Norway; Glommen Mjøsen Skog SA, Elverum, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3145-8159 E-mail: ane.tange@inn.no (email)
  • Sjølie, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Ecology, Agricultural Sciences and Biotechnology, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Evenstad, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8099-3521 E-mail: hanne.sjolie@inn.no
  • Austrheim, University Museum Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Natural History, Trondheim, Norway ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3909-6666 E-mail: gunnar.austrheim@ntnu.no

Category : Review article

article id 10609, category Review article
Jaakko Jussila, Emil Nagy, Katja Lähtinen, Elias Hurmekoski, Liina Häyrinen, Cecilia Mark-Herbert, Anders Roos, Ritva Toivonen, Anne Toppinen. (2022). Wooden multi-storey construction market development – systematic literature review within a global scope with insights on the Nordic region. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 1 article id 10609. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10609
Keywords: sustainability; construction industry; consumer; forest-wood value chain; municipality; urbanization
Highlights: Enabling factors for WMC market diffusion include benefits from cost-efficiency gains from prefabrication and industrialization and perceived sustainability benefits; Inexperience of using wood, and path dependencies to use concrete and steel in multi-storey building are the key barriers for mainstreaming WMC market development; More research is needed on the development in the wood construction value-chains to challenge the dominant concrete-based construction regime in the housing markets.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Climate change sets high pressures on the construction industry to decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Due to the carbon storage properties and potential to use renewable resources efficiently, wooden multi-storey construction (WMC) is an interesting alternative for the construction industry to enhance sustainable development combined with the aesthetic and well-being benefits of wood perceived among many consumers. For forest industry firms, industrial wood construction is a possibility to seek for business opportunities and bring socio-economic benefits for local economies. Despite positive drivers, WMC still remains a niche even in the forest-rich countries.The purpose of our study is to add understanding on the WMC market development by conducting a systematic literature analysis on international peer-reviewed studies from the past 20 years. Our special focus is on the role of WMC in the housing markets studied from the perspectives of the demand, supply and local governance factors. As specific aims, we 1) synthesize the key barriers and enabling factors for the WMC market growth; 2) identify the actors addressed in the existing studies connected to the WMC market development, and 3) summarize research methods and analytical approaches used in the previous studies. As a systematic method to make literature searches in Web of Science and Scopus for years 2000–2020, we employed PRISMA guidelines. By using pre-determined keywords, our searches resulted in a sample of 696 articles, of which 42 full articles were after selection procedure included in-depth content analysis. Our results showed cost-efficiency gains from industrialized prefabrication and perceived sustainability benefits by consumers and architects enabled a WMC market diffusion. The lack of experiences on the WMC, and path dependencies to use concrete and steel continue to be key barriers for increased WMC. Although our research scope was the global WMC market development, most of the literature concerned the Nordic region. The key actors covered in the literature were businesses (e.g., contractors, manufacturers and architects) involved in the wood construction value-chains, while residents and actors in the local governance were seldomly addressed. Currently, case studies, the use of qualitative data sets and focus on the Nordic region dominate the literature. This hinders the generalizability of findings in different regional contexts. In the future, more research is needed on how sustainability-driven wood construction value-chains are successfully shaping up in different geographical regions, and how they could challenge the dominant concrete-based construction regime.

  • Jussila, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 4, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jaakko@jussila.fi (email)
  • Nagy, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Economics, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: emil.nagy@slu.se
  • Lähtinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: katja.lahtinen@luke.fi
  • Hurmekoski, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 4, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: elias.hurmekoski@helsinki.fi
  • Häyrinen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, P.O. Box 2, FI-00791 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: liina.hayrinen@luke.fi
  • Mark-Herbert, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Economics, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: cecilia.mark-herbert@slu.se
  • Roos, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Economics, P.O. Box 7060, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: anders.roos@slu.se
  • Toivonen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 4, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ritva.toivonen@helsinki.fi
  • Toppinen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 4, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: anne.toppinen@helsinki.fi
article id 9984, category Review article
Christoph Kogler, Peter Rauch. (2018). Discrete event simulation of multimodal and unimodal transportation in the wood supply chain: a literature review. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 4 article id 9984. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9984
Keywords: logistics; supply chain management; forest products industry; decision support systems; validation and verification of simulation models; resilient risk management
Highlights: Focus on discrete event simulation, wood supply chain and multimodal transport; Analyses of 12 review articles and a core of 32 research papers, complemented by 48 related ones; Research focus from unimodal to multimodal transport to build efficient, resilient, green and socially sustainable supply chains; Development of robust risk management considering supply risks, demand risks and external risks is needed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

This review systematically analyses and classifies research and review papers focusing on discrete event simulation applied to wood transport, and therefore illustrates the development of the research area from 1997 until 2017. Discrete event simulation allows complex supply chain models to be mapped in a straightforward manner to study supply chain dynamics, test alternative strategies, communicate findings and facilitate understanding of various stakeholders. The presented analyses confirm that discrete event simulation is well-suited for analyzing interconnected wood supply chain transportation issues on an operational and tactical level. Transport is the connective link between interrelated system components of the forest products industry. Therefore, a survey on transport logistics allows to analyze the significance of entire supply chain management considerations to improve the overall performance and not only one part in isolation. Thus far, research focuses mainly on biomass, unimodal truck transport and terminal operations. Common shortcomings identified include rough explanations of simulation models and sparse details provided about the verification and validation processes. Research gaps exist concerning simulations of entire, resilient and multimodal wood supply chains as well as supply and demand risks. Further studies should expand upon the few initial attempts to combine various simulation methods with optimization.

  • Kogler, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8811-152X E-mail: christoph.kogler@boku.ac.at (email)
  • Rauch, Institute of Production and Logistics, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Feistmantelstrasse 4, A-1180 Vienna, Austria ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-4415 E-mail: peter.rauch@boku.ac.at
article id 1673, category Review article
Eshetu Yirdaw, Mulualem Tigabu, Adrian Monge. (2017). Rehabilitation of degraded dryland ecosystems – review. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1B article id 1673. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1673
Keywords: restoration; desertification; land degradation; rangelands; croplands; dry forests; landscapes
Highlights: The prospect of restoring degraded drylands is technically promising; The forest landscape restoration concept can be used as the overarching rehabilitation framework; Development of process-based models that forecast rehabilitation outcomes is needed; Rehabilitation methodologies developed for moist areas are not necessarily suitable for drylands; More data is needed on cost-benefit analysis of rehabilitation interventions.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Land degradation is widespread and a serious threat affecting the livelihoods of 1.5 billion people worldwide of which one sixth or 250 million people reside in drylands. Globally, it is estimated that 10–20% of drylands are already degraded and about 12 million ha are degraded each year. Driven by unsustainable land use practices, adverse climatic conditions and population increase, land degradation has led to decline in provision of ecosystem services, food insecurity, social and political instability and reduction in the ecosystem’s resilience to natural climate variability. Several global initiatives have been launched to combat land degradation, including rehabilitation of degraded drylands. This review aimed at collating the current state-of-knowledge about rehabilitation of degraded drylands. It was found that the prospect of restoring degraded drylands is technically promising using a suite of passive (e.g. area exclosure, assisted natural regeneration, rotational grazing) and active (e.g. mixed-species planting, framework species, maximum diversity, and use of nurse tree) rehabilitation measures. Advances in soil reclamation using biological, chemical and physical measures have been made. Despite technical advances, the scale of rehabilitation intervention is small and lacks holistic approach. Development of process-based models that forecast outcomes of the various rehabilitation activities will be useful tools for researchers and practitioners. The concept of forest landscape restoration approach, which operates at landscape-level, could also be adopted as the overarching framework for rehabilitation of degraded dryland ecosystems. The review identified a data gap in cost-benefit analysis of rehabilitation interventions. However, the cost of rehabilitation and sustainable management of drylands is opined to be lower than the losses that accrue from inaction, depending on the degree of degradation. Thus, local communities’ participation, incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge, clear division of tasks and benefits, strengthening local institutions are crucial not only for cost-sharing, but also for the long-term success of rehabilitation activities.

  • Yirdaw, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: eshetu.yirdaw@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Tigabu, Sveriges Lantbruks Universitet (SLU), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: Mulualem.Tigabu@slu.se
  • Monge, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: adrian.mongemonge@helsinki.fi
article id 1416, category Review article
Ulf Sikström, Hannu Hökkä. (2015). Interactions between soil water conditions and forest stands in boreal forests with implications for ditch network maintenance. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 1416. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1416
Keywords: peatland; forest drainage; conifers; tree growth; drainage intensity; ditch deterioration; forest water use; ground-water table; profitability
Highlights: Ditch network maintenance (DNM) may influence soil water conditions less than initial ditching due to reduced hydraulic conductivity of the peat; Stand stocking and management substantially influence soil-water conditions; DNM can lower the GWL and increase tree growth; DNM growth responses of 0.5–1.8 m3 ha–1 yr–1 during 15–20-years in Scots pine peatland stands reported; Greatest need for DNM in the early phase of a stand rotation; Need for better understanding of the link between soil water and tree growth.
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At sites with either peat or mineral soils in large areas of boreal forests, high soil-water contents hamper tree growth and drainage can significantly increase growth. Hence, areas covering about 15 × 106 ha of northern peatlands and wet mineral soils have been drained for forestry purposes. Usually ditches gradually deteriorate, thus reducing their functionality as drains, and ditch-network maintenance (DNM) might be needed to maintain stand growth rates enabled by the original ditching. This article reviews current knowledge on establishing the need for DNM in boreal forest stands, subsequent growth responses, and the financial outcome of the activity. The issues covered in the review are: (i) ditching, changes in ditches over time and the need for DNM; (ii) interactions between soil water and both stand properties and stand management; (iii) ground-water level (GWL) and tree growth responses to DNM; and (iv) financial viability of DNM. Conclusions about the current understanding of issues related to DNM are drawn and implications for DNM in practice are summarized. Finally, gaps in knowledge are identified and research needs are suggested.

  • Sikström, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ulf.sikstrom@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Hökkä, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Management and Production of Renewable Resources, P.O. Box 16, FI-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@luke.fi
article id 1095, category Review article
Jonas Fridman, Sören Holm, Mats Nilsson, Per Nilsson, Anna Hedström Ringvall, Göran Ståhl. (2014). Adapting National Forest Inventories to changing requirements – the case of the Swedish National Forest Inventory at the turn of the 20th century. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1095. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1095
Keywords: remote sensing; sampling; sample plot inventory; forest state; ENFIN; harmonization
Highlights: National Forest Inventories supply invaluable long term time series of forest state. Recent developments and international harmonization of modern NFIs widen the scope to even include ecosystem goods, e.g. biodiversity and carbon sequestration. The combination of NFI field data with remote sensing techniques can give good estimates for areas smaller than national and regional level.
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National Forest Inventories (NFIs) are becoming increasingly important worldwide in order to provide information about the multiple functions of forests, e.g. their provision of raw materials to industry, biodiversity and their capacity to store carbon for mitigating climate change. In several countries the history of NFIs is very long. For these countries a specific challenge is to keep the inventories up-to-date without sacrificing the advantages associated with long time series. At the turn of the 20th century European NFIs faced some major challenges. In this article we describe the history and the recent developments of the Swedish NFI as an example from which general observations are made and discussed. The Swedish NFI started in 1923 and has evolved from an inventory with a narrow focus on wood resources to an inventory today which aims to provide information about all major forest ecosystem services. It can be concluded that the traditional approaches of most European NFIs, e.g. to collect data through sample plot field inventories, has proved to be applicable even for a wide range of new information requirements. Specifically, detailed data about land use, trees, vegetation, and soils has found new important uses in connection with biodiversity assessments and the estimation of greenhouse gas emissions. Though time-consuming and difficult, making NFI information comparable across countries through harmonization appears to be a useful approach. The European National Forest Inventory Network (ENFIN) was formed in 2003 and has been successful in pan-European NFI harmonization.
  • Fridman, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: jonas.fridman@slu.se (email)
  • Holm, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: soren.holm@slu.se
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: mats.nilsson@slu.se
  • Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: per.nilsson@slu.se
  • Ringvall, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: Anna.Ringvall@slu.se
  • Ståhl, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: goran.stahl@slu.se
article id 446, category Review article
Guntis Brumelis, Bengt Gunnar Jonsson, Jari Kouki, Timo Kuuluvainen, Ekaterina Shorohova. (2011). Forest naturalness in northern Europe: perspectives on processes, structures and species diversity. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 446. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.446
Keywords: disturbances; dead wood; natural forest; biological diversity
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Saving the remaining natural forests in northern Europe has been one of the main goals to halt the ongoing decline of forest biodiversity. To facilitate the recognition, mapping and efficient conservation of natural forests, there is an urgent need for a general formulation, based on ecological patterns and processes, of the concept of “forest naturalness”. However, complexity, structural idiosyncracy and dynamical features of unmanaged forest ecosystems at various spatio-temporal scales pose major challenges for such a formulation. The definitions hitherto used for the concept of forest naturalness can be fruitfully grouped into three dimensions: 1) structure-based concepts of natural forest, 2) species-based concepts of natural forest and 3) process-based concepts of natural forest. We propose that explicit and simultaneous consideration of all these three dimensions of naturalness can better cope with the natural variability of forest states and also aid in developing strategies for forest conservation and management in different situations. To become operational, criteria and indicators of forest naturalness need to integrate the three dimensions by combining species (e.g. red-listed-, indicator- and umbrella species) with stand and landscape level structural features that are indicative of disturbance and succession processes.
  • Brumelis, Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia, Kronvalda bulv. 4, Riga, LV-1586, Latvia; E-mail: guntis.brumelis@lu.lv (email)
  • Jonsson, Department of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Mathematics, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: bgj@nn.se
  • Kouki, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Joensuu E-mail: jk@nn.fi
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Shorohova, Saint-Petersburg State Forest Academy, Saint-Petersburg, Russia & Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: es@nn.ru
article id 74, category Review article
Philip J. Burton, S. Ellen Macdonald. (2011). The restorative imperative: challenges, objectives and approaches to restoring naturalness in forests. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 74. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.74
Keywords: afforestation; disturbance regime; ecological restoration; forest rehabilitation; native species; reclamation
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Many of the world’s forests are not primeval; forest restoration aims to reverse alterations caused by human use. Forest restoration (including reforestation and forest rehabilitation) is widely researched and practiced around the globe. A review of recent literature reveals some common themes concerning forest restoration motivations and methods. In some parts of the world, forest restoration aims mainly to re-establish trees required for timber or fuelwood; such work emphasizes the propagation, establishment and growth of trees, and equates with the traditional discipline of silviculture. Elsewhere, a recent focus on biocentric values adopts the goal of supporting full complements of indigenous trees and other species. Such ecosystem-based restoration approaches consider natural templates and a wide array of attributes and processes, but there remains an emphasis on trees and plant species composition. Efforts to restore natural processes such as nutrient cycling, succession, and natural disturbances seem limited, except for the use of fire, which has seen widespread adoption in some regions. The inherent challenges in restoring “naturalness” include high temporal and spatial heterogeneity in forest conditions and natural disturbances, the long history of human influence on forests in many regions of the world, and uncertainty about future climate and disturbance regimes. Although fixed templates may be inappropriate, we still have a reasonably clear idea of the incremental steps required to make forests more natural. Because most locations can support many alternative configurations of natural vegetation, the restoration of forest naturalness necessarily involves the setting of priorities and strategic directions in the context of human values and objectives, as informed by our best understanding of ecosystem structure and function now and in the future.
  • Burton, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, 3333 University Way, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada V2N 4Z9 E-mail: Phil.Burton@NRCan-RNCan.gc.ca (email)
  • Macdonald, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada E-mail: sem@nn.ca
article id 72, category Review article
Ekaterina Shorohova, Daniel Kneeshaw, Timo Kuuluvainen, Sylvie Gauthier. (2011). Variability and dynamics of old-growth forests in the circumboreal zone: implications for conservation, restoration and management. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 72. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.72
Keywords: late-successional forest; disturbance regimes; stand dynamic types; cohort dynamics
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Due to the unprecedented loss of old-growth forests to harvesting throughout circumboreal regions an understanding of similarities and differences in old-growth dynamics is needed to design effective restoration, management and conservation efforts. This paper reviews concepts, prevalence and variability of old-growth forests across landscapes, and evaluates different stand scale dynamics at the old-growth stage across the circumboreal zone. Old-growth historically dominated many boreal forest landscapes in both Eurasia and North America. Throughout much of North America, and to some extent in western Siberia, the natural prevalence and development of old-growth forests are regulated by the occurrence of stand-replacing fires. In eastern North America and Siberia, insect outbreaks may, however, be more important. Insect outbreaks as well as recurrent non-stand replacing surface fires and windthrows, when occurring at the old-growth stage, often form stands characterized by several tree age-class cohorts. This multi age-class forest development type is common in Europe and eastern Siberia but its prevalence and importance in boreal North-America is not well documented. Similarities in successional dynamics across the circumboreal region are found in the development of mono-dominant even-aged stands, the replacement of shade intolerant tree species by shade tolerant species, as well as in all-aged stands driven by small-scale gap dynamics. The message to land managers is that the focus should not only be on setting aside remaining old-growth forests or in restoring static old-growth attributes, but also in emulating natural disturbances and successional dynamics at landscape and regional scales to maintain natural variability in old-growth attributes through time.
  • Shorohova, Saint-Petersburg State Forest University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia & Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Vantaa, Finland (ekaterina.shorohova@metla.fi) E-mail: shorohova@ES13334.spb.edu (email)
  • Kneeshaw, Université du Québec à Montréal, Centre d’étude de la forêt, Montreal, Canada E-mail: dk@nn.ca
  • Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Sciences, Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tk@nn.fi
  • Gauthier, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Québec, Canada E-mail: sg@nn.fi
article id 36, category Review article
Tuomo Wallenius. (2011). Major decline in fires in coniferous forests – reconstructing the phenomenon and seeking for the cause. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 1 article id 36. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.36
Keywords: human influence; fire-history; fire suppression; forest dynamics; Pinus
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Steep decline in forest fires about a century ago occurred in coniferous forests over large areas in North America and Fennoscandia. This poorly understood phenomenon has been explained by different factors in different regions. The objective of this study is to evaluate the validity of the four most commonly suggested causes of the decrease in forest fires: fire fighting, over-grazing, climate change and human influence. I compiled the available dendrochronological data and estimated the annually burned proportions of Pinus-dominated forests in four subcontinental regions during the past 500 years. These data were compared to the development of fire suppression, grazing pressure, climate and human livelihoods. The annually burned proportions declined over 90% in all studied regions. In three out of the four regions fires decreased decades before fire suppression began. Available drought data are annually well correlated with fires but could not explain the decrease of the level in annually burned areas. A rapid increase in the number of livestock occurred at the same time with the decrease in fires in the Western US but not in Fennoscandia. Hence, fire suppression in Central Fennoscandia and over-grazing in the Western US may have locally contributed to the reduction of burned areas. More general explanation is offered by human influence hypothesis: the majority of the past forest fires were probably caused by humans and the decrease in the annually burned areas was because of a decrease in human caused fires. This is in accordance with the old written records and forest fire statistics. The decrease in annually burned areas, both in Fennoscandia and the United States coincides with an economic and cultural transition from traditional livelihoods that are associated with high fire use to modern agriculture and forestry.
  • Wallenius, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, Vantaa, Finland E-mail: tuomo.wallenius@metla.fi (email)
article id 249, category Review article
Rimvydas Vasaitis, Jan Stenlid, Iben M. Thomsen, Pia Barklund, Anders Dahlberg. (2008). Stump removal to control root rot in forest stands. A literature study. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 3 article id 249. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.249
Keywords: biofuel; stand growth; Armillaria; forest disturbance; Heterobasidion; Phellinus weirii
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Tree stumps are expected to be increasingly used for energy production in Fennoscandia, thus environmental consequences of stump removal from forest land must be assessed. Aim of this work was to compile available data on the efficacy of stump removal in eradication of root rot fungi (Heterobasidion, Armillaria, and Phellinus), and to review its potential impacts on establishment and productivity of next forest generation. Site disturbance and some technical and economical aspects are discussed, and needs for future research outlined in northern European context. The review demonstrates that stump removal from clear-felled forest areas in most cases results in, a) reduction of root rot in the next forest generation, b) improved seedling establishment, and c) increased tree growth and stand productivity. Observed disturbances caused to a site by stumping operations are normally acceptable. The available data strongly suggests that possibly many (if achievable, all) rot-containing stumps must be removed during harvesting of stumps. Provided equal availability, the priority should be given for stump removal from root rot-infested forest areas, instead of healthy ones. As most studies were done in North America and Britain, several questions must be yet answered under Fennoscandian conditions: a) if and to which extent the conventional stump removal for biofuel on clear-felled sites could reduce the occurrence of Heterobasidion and Armillaria in the next forest generation, b) what impact is it likely to have on survival of replanted tree seedlings, and c) what consequences will there be for growth and productivity of next forest generation.
  • Vasaitis, Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: rimvys.vasaitis@mykopat.slu.se (email)
  • Stenlid, Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: js@nn.se
  • Thomsen, Forest & Landscape, University of Copenhagen, Hoersholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark E-mail: imt@nn.dk
  • Barklund, Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: pb@nn.se
  • Dahlberg, Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7007, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: ad@nn.se
article id 369, category Review article
Jaroslaw Zawadzki, Chris J. Cieszewski, Michal Zasada, Roger C. Lowe. (2005). Applying geostatistics for investigations of forest ecosystems using remote sensing imagery. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 4 article id 369. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.369
Keywords: remote sensing; spatial information; semivariance; semivariogram; forest classification
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Geostatistically based methods that utilize textural information are frequently used to analyze remote sensing (RS) images. The role of these methods in analyzing forested areas increased rapidly during the last several years following advancements in high-resolution RS technology. The results of numerous applications of geostatistical methods for processing RS forest images are encouraging. This paper summarizes such results. Three closely related topics are reviewed: 1) specific properties of geostatistical measures of spatial variability calculated from digital images of forested areas, 2) determination of biophysical forest parameters using semivariograms and characterization of forest ecosystem structure at the stand level, and 3) forest classification methods based on spatial information.
  • Zawadzki, Environmental Engineering Department, Warsaw Technical University, Ul. Nowowiejska 20, 00-653 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: jaroslaw.zawadzki@is.pw.edu.pl (email)
  • Cieszewski, D. B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: cjc@nn.us
  • Zasada, Department of Forest Productivity, Faculty of Forestry, Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland E-mail: mz@nn.pl
  • Lowe, D. B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA E-mail: rcl@nn.us
article id 378, category Review article
Yaoqi Zhang, Daowei Zhang, John Schelhas. (2005). Small-scale non-industrial private forest ownership in the United States: rationale and implications for forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 3 article id 378. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.378
Keywords: non-industrial private forest; forest land parcelization; timber supply; transaction costs; economic efficiency; land use change
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The transaction cost approach is used to explain why small non-industrial private forest (NIPF) ownerships are increasing in the U.S. We argue that the number of small NIPF owners have increased because: 1) a significant amount of forestland is no longer used economically if primarily for timber production, but rather for non-timber forest products and environmental services (particularly where population density is high), 2) when a person makes frequent use of non-timber products and services, owning forestland is more efficient for them because it saves the transaction costs involved in getting them from the market, 3) forestland parcelization takes place when non-timber value increases faster than timber value, and 4) marginal value for non-timber product is diminishing much faster than that for timber production. The paper also discusses implications of the parcelization of NIPF ownerships on forest management.
  • Zhang, School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL 36849-5418, USA E-mail: yaoqi.zhang@auburn.edu (email)
  • Zhang, School of Forestry & Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL 36849-5418, USA E-mail: dz@nn.us
  • Schelhas, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Tuskegee University, AL, USA E-mail: js@nn.us
article id 390, category Review article
Bengt Gunnar Jonsson, Nicholas Kruys, Thomas Ranius. (2005). Ecology of species living on dead wood – lessons for dead wood management. Silva Fennica vol. 39 no. 2 article id 390. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.390
Keywords: forest management; saproxylic species; coarse woody debris; woodland key habitats; landscape planning; Fennoscandian forests; epixylic species
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Dead wood has been identified as a crucial component for forest biodiversity. Recent research has improved our understanding of habitat relations for many species associated with dead wood. However, the consequences for forest management are yet to be explored. In this review we build upon the growing volume of studies on dead wood dependent species, the dynamics of dead wood and ecological theory in order to identify the challenges for forest management at the landscape level. The review has a Fennoscandian focus, but the problems and challenges are similar in many forest ecosystems. We argue that it is necessary to 1) counteract the current shortage in availability of dead wood, 2) concentrate planning at the landscape level in order to minimize isolation and reduce edge effects, 3) create a variety of dead wood types, and 4) utilise available quantitative analytical tools. This calls for new approaches to management that to a large extent includes available knowledge, and to find platforms for planning forested landscapes with diverse holdings.
  • Jonsson, Mid Sweden University, Dept of Natural Sciences, SE-851 70 Sundsvall, Sweden E-mail: bengt-gunnar.jonsson@miun.se (email)
  • Kruys, SLU, Dept of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: nk@nn.se
  • Ranius, SLU, Dept of Entomology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: tr@nn.se
article id 411, category Review article
Arthur Groot, Sylvie Gauthier, Yves Bergeron. (2004). Stand dynamics modelling approaches for multicohort management of eastern Canadian boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 38 no. 4 article id 411. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.411
Keywords: boreal forests; Canada; dynamic models; multi-cohort forest management
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The objective of this paper is to discuss approaches and issues related to modelling stand dynamics for multi-cohort forest management in eastern Canadian boreal forests. In these forests, the interval between wildfires can be rather long, and the development of natural forest stands may include the establishment, growth and mortality of several cohorts of trees. Later cohorts are characterised by increasing structural complexity, including spatial heterogeneity and irregular tree size distribution. A multi-cohort forest management framework has been proposed to maintain this complexity, and associated biodiversity, on the landscape. Multi-cohort forest management planning requires forecasts of the development of stands with complex structure in response to silvicultural treatment and to natural disturbance, but current stand dynamics models in the region are applicable mainly to even-aged mono-specific stands. Possible modelling approaches for complex stands include i) the adaptation of current whole-stand growth and yield models, ii) distance-independent, empirically-derived individual-tree models, such as the USDA Forest Service Forest Vegetation Simulator, and iii) distance-dependent, empirically-derived or process-oriented individual-tree models. We conclude that individual-tree models are needed because observational data for fitting whole-stand models are not available for the full array of silvicultural treatments and natural disturbances encompassed by multi-cohort forest management. Predictive accuracy is a concern with individual-tree models, and the incorporation of coarse-scale constraints into these models is a promising means to control error.
  • Groot, Great Lakes Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, 1219 Queen St. E., Sault Ste. Marie, ON, P6A 2E5, Canada E-mail: agroot@nrcan.gc.ca (email)
  • Gauthier, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service, 1055 du P.E.P.S., P.O. Box 3800, Sainte-Foy, QC, G1V 4C7, Canada E-mail: sg@nn.ca
  • Bergeron, University of Quebec at Abitibi-Temiscamingue, 445 Boul de l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, J9X 5E4, Canada E-mail: yb@nn.ca
article id 489, category Review article
Ralph J. Alig. (2003). U.S. landowner behavior, land use and land cover changes, and climate change mitigation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 489. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.489
Keywords: adaptation; carbon sequestration; forest sector; mitigation
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Landowner behavior is a major determinant of land use and land cover changes, an important consideration for policy analysts concerned with global change. Study of landowner behavior aids in designing more effective incentives for inducing land use and land cover changes to help mitigate climate change by reducing net greenhouse gas emissions. Afforestation, deforestation, reforestation, and timber harvest are the most frequent land management practices that influence forest carbon stocks and flux. Research studies provide estimates of how private landowners respond to market signals and government programs and how they alter land management. For example, landowners have tended to retain subsidized afforested stands well beyond program life in the United States, suggesting that similar programs for climate change mitigation could result in high rates of retention. At the same time, policy makers need to be aware that unintended consequences of policies can lead to significantly different outcomes than envisioned, including leakage possibilities.
  • Alig, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: ralig@fs.fed.us (email)
article id 497, category Review article
Oili Kiikkilä. (2003). Heavy-metal pollution and remediation of forest soil around the Harjavalta Cu-Ni smelter, in SW Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 497. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.497
Keywords: mulch; copper; forest; ecosystem; Harjavalta; nutrient cycle; remediation; liming
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Heavy metals and sulphur have been emitted from the Cu-Ni smelter at Harjavalta since 1945. This article reviews the work that has been published in scientific journals after 1975 concerning heavy metal deposition and the effects of pollution on forest ecosystem around Harjavalta. The pollution has had diverse effects on boreal forest ecosystem, e.g. vegetation, nutrient cycle mediated by microbiota and soil animals, herbivorous insects and pathogens, resistance mechanisms of vegetation, and birds. The deposition of heavy metals has increased up to 30 km distance from the smelter. At 8 km distance the ecosystem began to approximate an undisturbed ecosystem where only slight changes in the understorey vegetation were observed. At 4 km distance the species composition of different ecosystem components (vegetation, insects, birds, soil microbiota) had changed and the growth of trees was retarded. At 0.5–1 km distance, where the nutrient cycling was disturbed and only the most resistant organisms were surviving, the ecosystem had ceased to carry out its essential functions. Remediation through liming or mulching with organic matter, of forest soil has had some positive effects on the ecosystem.
  • Kiikkilä, Vantaa Research Centre, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: oili.kiikkila@metla.fi (email)
article id 552, category Review article
Timo Kuuluvainen. (2002). Natural variability of forests as a reference for restoring and managing biological diversity in boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 552. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.552
Keywords: biodiversity; ecosystem management; disturbance dynamics; succession; sustainable forestry; heterogeneity; hierarchy; scaling; spatiotemporal dynamics
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Fennoscandia, use of the natural forest as a reference for restoration and management of forest biodiversity has been widely accepted. However, limited understanding of the structure and dynamics of the natural forest has hampered the applications of the natural variability approach. This is especially the case in areas, where the natural forests have almost totally vanished. This review was motivated by the idea that despite these difficulties the essential features of the natural forest can be reconstructed based on biological archives, historical documents, research done in adjacent natural areas, and modeling. First, a conceptual framework for analyzing the relationship between forest structure, dynamics and biodiversity is presented. Second, the current understanding of the structure and dynamics of natural forests at different spatiotemporal scales in boreal Fennoscandia is reviewed. Third, the implications of this knowledge, and gaps in knowledge, on research and on practical restoration and management methods aimed at forest biodiversity conservation are discussed. In conclusion, naturally dynamic forest landscapes are complex, multiscaled hierarchical systems. Current forest management methods create disturbance and successional dynamics that are strongly scale-limited when compared with the natural forest. To restore some of the essential characteristics of the natural forest’s multiscale heterogeneity, diversification of silvicultural and harvesting treatments, as guided by natural disturbance dynamics, is needed to produce more variation in disturbance severity, quality, extent, and repeatability.
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 24, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi (email)
article id 551, category Review article
Anders Dahlberg. (2002). Effects of fire on ectomycorrhizal fungi in Fennoscandian boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 551. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.551
Keywords: boreal forests; ectomycorrhizal fungi; fire; population; community
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Fire, the primary natural disturbance factor in Fennoscandian boreal forests, is considered to have exerted major selection pressure on most boreal forest organisms. However, recent studies show that few ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi appear to have evolved post-fire adaptations, no succession of EM fungi following fire is apparent after low intensity fires, and only two EM fungal taxa exclusively fruit at post-fire conditions. In this paper I review the present knowledge of effects of forest fire on EM fungal communities in Fennscandian boreal forests, put into perspective by a comparison from other parts of the world. Characteristically, these boreal forests consist of less than a handful of tree species, e.g. Scots pine and Norway spruce, while the below ground communities of EM fungi is impressively species rich with presently more than 700 known taxa. Commonly, forest fires in Fennoscandia have been of low intensity, with a considerable portion of the trees surviving and the organic humus layer partly escaping combustion. Hence, EM fungi appear to largely have evolved under conditions characterised by a more or less continuous presence of their hosts. In fact, the composition of EM fungi within a forest appear be more variable due to spatial variation than due to wildfire. However, in areas with high intensity burns and high tree mortality, most EM fungi may locally be killed. Thus, the legacy of EM fungi following wildfire depends on the survival of trees, which determine the potential for mycorrhizal growth, and the combustion and heating of the organic soil, which directly correlate to mortality of mycorrhizas. The questions if and to what degree fires may be of significance for yet unidentified spatiotemporal dynamics of EM fungal populations and communities are discussed. Recent experiments indicate a few EM fungi are favoured by high intensity burn conditions whereas others disappear. The consequences of wildfires in temperate conifer forests differ considerably from those in boreal forests. Wildfires in temperate conifer forests are typically high intensity stand-replacing fires that cause a total combustion of organic layers. Subsequently, pre-fire EM fungal communities are largely eradicated and a succession of post-fire EM fungi is initiated.
  • Dahlberg, Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: anders.dahlberg@artdata.slu.se (email)
article id 550, category Review article
Lars Edenius, Margareta Bergman, Göran Ericsson, Kjell Danell. (2002). The role of moose as a disturbance factor in managed boreal forests. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 550. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.550
Keywords: management; boreal forest; disturbance; forestry; Alces alces; monitoring; herbivory; large ungulates; moose
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We review the interactions between moose (Alces alces) and native tree species in Fennoscandia. The Fennoscandian boreal forests have been intensively managed for wood production over decades. Moose population density is also relatively high in these northern forests. Forest management affects habitat characteristics and food resources from regeneration to final harvest, with the most significant effects occurring early in the stand development. The plant-animal interactions found in such a situation may be different from what has been observed in natural boreal forests with low densities of moose (e.g. in North America). The strong focus on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in forest regeneration in conjunction with a homogenisation of the landscape structure by clear-cutting has favoured moose. Forest development is controlled by man from regeneration to final harvest, and in relation to human-induced disturbances the disturbance by moose is relatively small, but occurs on different spatial levels. At the landscape level, the most prominent effects of moose seem to be suppression and/or redistribution of preferred browse species. At the forest stand level moose primarily induce spatial heterogeneity by browsing patchily and exploiting existing gaps. At the tree level, moose damage trees and lower timber quality, but also create substrate types (e.g. dead and dying wood) valuable for many organisms. Co-management of moose and forest requires good monitoring programmes for both plants and animals, as well as extensive ecological knowledge on the relations between moose and their food plants on different spatial levels.
  • Edenius, SLU, Department of Animal Ecology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: lars.edenius@szooek.slu.se (email)
  • Bergman, SLU, Department of Animal Ecology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: mb@nn.se
  • Ericsson, SLU, Department of Animal Ecology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ge@nn.se
  • Danell, SLU, Department of Animal Ecology, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: kd@nn.se
article id 549, category Review article
Andrei Gromtsev. (2002). Natural disturbance dynamics in the boreal forests of European Russia: a review. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 549. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.549
Keywords: boreal forests; disturbance dynamics; European Russia; fires; windthrow
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In the European part of the Russian boreal zone the dynamics of pristine forests (taiga) has been studied by several generations of researchers. Many studies have examined the patterns and role of fire, windthrow, insect outbreaks and other natural disturbances. An attempt is made to provide a brief review of these studies. The reviewed studies show that lightning strikes were the only natural source of fires in taiga. The frequency of fires varied in various types of pristine landscape from 1–2 per century to 1–2 per millennium. Fires maintained a dynamic equilibrium between compositionally different forest communities or their certain ratio and areal occurrence. Fires favored the regeneration and recovery of pine forests and prevented the replacement of shade-intolerant species (e.g. pine) by shade-tolerant ones (e.g. spruce). Taiga forests generally displayed a mosaic pattern that varied from pioneer plant communities, growing in open burns, to climax communities that were extremely seldom affected by fire. The reviewed studies suggest that fires were a powerful ecological factor in pristine taiga, being largely responsible for the structure and spontaneous dynamics of forest communities. Windfalls were also common in pristine taiga landscapes and they regulated spontaneous dynamics in a gap-mosaic regime, which is most characteristic of spruce forests.
  • Gromtsev, Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 185610, Petrozavodsk, Pushkin st. 11, Russia E-mail: gromtsev@karelia.ru (email)
article id 548, category Review article
Kevin C. Ryan. (2002). Dynamic interactions between forest structure and fire behavior in boreal ecosystems. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 548. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.548
Keywords: boreal forest; disturbance dynamics; stand structure; fire behavior; fire severity
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper reviews and synthesizes literature on fire as a disturbance factor in boreal forests. Spatial and temporal variation in the biophysical environment, specifically, vegetative structure, terrain, and weather lead to variations in fire behavior. Changes in slope, aspect, elevation, and soil affect site energy and water budgets and the potential plant community. These terrain features also have a major influence on fire-caused disturbance through their role in determining moisture conditions and flammability of fuels on hourly, seasonal, and successional time-scales. On fine time scales (minutes to hours), changes in weather, specifically wind and relative humidity, significantly affect a fire’s intensity and aboveground effects. Normal seasonal changes in dryness and periodic drought influence fire intensity and severity principally by affecting the depth of burn and belowground effects. On decades-long time scales changes in vegetative structure affect the mass of fuel available for burning and therefore the potential energy that can be released during a fire. The severity of fire varies in time and space depending not only on the biophysical environment, but also on the location on the fire’s perimeter (head vs. flank vs. rear). Spatial and temporal variation in severity within a fire can have long-lasting impacts on the structure and species composition of post-fire communities and the potential for future disturbances. Characteristic temperature histories of ground, surface, and crown fires are used to illustrate variations in fire severity. A soil-heating model is used to illustrate the impact of varying depth of burn on the depth at which various fire effects occur in the soil profile. A conceptual model is presented for the effects of fire severity on fire-plant regeneration interactions. The conceptual model can be used by restoration ecologists to evaluate the differential effects of controlled or prescribed fires and wildfires and to plan and implement fire treatments to conserve biodiversity.
  • Ryan, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, P.O. Box 8089, Missoula, Montana 59807, USA E-mail: kryan@fs.fed.us (email)
article id 632, category Review article
William F. Hyde, Gunnar Köhlin. (2000). Social forestry reconsidered. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 3 article id 632. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.632
Keywords: deforestation; community forestry; developing countries; forest resources; rural development; welfare
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper reviews the expectations for forestry’s contribution to rural development – and for its special contributions to the most disadvantaged, to women and the landless users of the forest commons. A growing literature challenges some of these expectations; in particular, certain expectations about cultural differences and physical stocks as explanatory factors for patterns of household behavior. This literature could also be used to support a call for sharper definitions of deforestation, improved indicators of the effects of forest resources on the rural poor, and improved design of forest policy interventions. Our paper reviews the literature, suggests some unifying themes, and identifies the critical issues that remain unanswered. The primary contention arising from this literature is that households follow systematic patterns of economic behavior in their consumption and production of forest resources, and that policy interventions in social forestry should be analyzed with regard to markets, policies, and institutions. Markets for forest resources generally exist in some form – although they may be thin. Successful forestry projects and policies require careful identification of the target populations and careful estimation of market and market-related effects on the household behavior of these populations. Institutional structures that assure secure rights for scarce forest resources are uniquely important in a forest enviornment often characterized by open access resources and weak government administration. Social and community forestry, improved stoves, improved strains of multi-purpose trees, and even private commercial forest operations can all improve local welfare, but only where scarcity is correctly identified and the appropriate institutions are in place. An increasing number of observations of afforestation from developing countries around the world is evidence that forestry activities do satisfy these conditions in selective important cases. The critical point for policy is to identify the characteristics of these successful cases that are predictive of other cases where new forestry activities can be welfare enhancing.
  • Hyde, Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia E-mail: wfhyde@aol.com (email)
  • Köhlin, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden E-mail: gk@nn.se
article id 639, category Review article
Klaus von Gadow. (2000). Evaluating risk in forest planning models. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 2 article id 639. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.639
Keywords: harvest scheduling; continuous cover forest; activity scenario
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The purpose of forest scenario modelling is to evaluate multiple management options and to answer what if questions relating to a particular development path of a given forest. Forest scenario planning can reduce uncertainty in management outcomes by anticipating the future in a systematic way, thus reducing the likelihood of unexpected events. It can also improve the chance that future developments will agree with specified objectives. Numerous techniques have been proposed for generating and evaluating scenarios of forest development. Some of the techniques are limited to applications in simple forest production systems while others are suitable for any type of forest management, including individual tree selection systems. Risk is defined as the expected loss due to a particular hazard for a given area and reference period. An expected loss may be calculated as the product of the damage and its probability. Risk analysis, risk evaluation and risk management are formal procedures for quantifying, evaluating and managing risk within a given hazard domain. Applications of risk analysis in forest scenario planning are rare and greater emphasis needs to be placed on hazard prediction. The aim of this contribution is to discuss some aspects of risk analysis, including examples of specific modelling tools. In a forest planning model risk can be considered in the form of specific constraints limiting the total risk in a given time period. Expected hazards can be used to exclude certain risky alternatives and finally, risk can be calculated and used to reduce the value of an objective function coefficient.
  • Gadow, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Institute for Forest Management, Büsgenweg 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: kgadow@gwdg.de (email)
article id 687, category Review article
Janusz B. Zwolinski, David B. South, E. A. P. Droomer. (1998). Pine mortality after planting on post-agricultural lands in South Africa. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 3 article id 687. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.687
Keywords: afforestation; mortality; Pinus patula; Pythium spp.; scalping
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Successful afforestation has been practiced in South Africa for more than a century. Recently, however, problems with afforestation of pines have occurred in the northeastern part of the Eastern Cape Province. Rapid mortality of Pinus patula and P. elliottii have occurred when small container seedlings were planted on old-agricultural soils. Death would often occur within 5 months of planting. Growth of surviving trees was retarded and new needles were chlorotic and stunted. Acceptable survival was obtained when seedlings were planted on virgin grasslands. Apparently, some unseen factor in the post-agricultural soil reduces root growth, increases mortality, and decreases uptake of nutrients. Removal of the infested soil by scalping greatly improves survival and growth as does soil fumigation with methyl bromide.
  • Zwolinski, Northeast Cape Forests, 19 Nassau St., 5470 Ugie, Rep. of South Africa E-mail: janusz.zwolinski@paper.mondi.co.za (email)
  • South, School of Forestry, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-5418, USA E-mail: dbs@nn.us
  • Droomer, Northeast Cape Forests, 19 Nassau St., 5470 Ugie, Rep. of South Africa E-mail: eapd@nn.za

Category : Research note

article id 23071, category Research note
Mattias Finndin, Per Milberg. (2024). The population development of small trees and shrubs after 100 years of free succession of a wooded meadow in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 58 no. 1 article id 23071. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23071
Keywords: conservation; land-use change; nemoral forest; plants; regrowth; wooded grassland
Highlights: Using a unique map of trees and shrubs from 1937, we estimated the mortality of woody species typical of wooded meadows after management ceased in 1923; Both population size and canopy cover of the studied species had decreased during the past 86 years; On the other hand, several tree and shrub specimens endured for a century, pointing to the slow changes involved as well as the potential for restoration.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Wooded meadows are characterised by traditional-historic human use. Deliberate selection of species, pollarding and haymaking has created a complex and biodiverse habitat where small trees and shrubs were prevalent. This study set out to document what happens to such trees and shrubs during succession to forest, the normal fate when wooded meadows are abandoned but also when other open to semi-open patches revert to forest. The study was conducted at a site in southern Sweden where traditional management was abandoned by 1923 when the area was protected for research and allowed to follow natural succession. The current study is a follow-up of a 1937-inventory of small trees and shrubs. The results show a decrease in both population size and canopy cover in the selected species during the past 86 years. Hence, we can expect a loss of these species when wooded meadow are abandoned and left to developed into forests. On the other hand, several tree and shrub specimens endured for a century, pointing to the slow changes involved as well as the potential for restoration.
article id 10679, category Research note
Jari Miina, Mikko Kurttila. (2022). A model for the sap yield of birches tapped by citizen scientists. Silva Fennica vol. 56 no. 2 article id 10679. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10679
Keywords: Betula spp.; non-timber forest product; linear mixed model; crowdsourcing
Highlights: Tree diameter and mean stand height positively affected the sap yield of birches; The sap yield varied between trees, stands, and years; The sap yield model can be utilised in profitability analyses for sap tapping.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The sap yield of birches (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) was modelled as a function of tree diameter (girth) at breast height, as well as site and stand characteristics measured and reported by citizen scientists representing mainly non-industrial private forest owners in the South Savo, North Karelia, and Northern Ostrobothnia regions in Finland. Birches (tree species not recorded) growing on both mineral and peatland sites were tapped during the springs of 2019 and 2020. Citizen scientists were mainly voluntary forest owners who received the instructions and equipment (spouts, drop lines and buckets) for collecting sap from three birches of different diameters in the same birch stand. Citizen scientists were instructed to measure and report the sap yield and girth of the trees, as well as stand characteristics from the forest resource data, if available. Based on the linear mixed model fitted to the data, the sap yield increased with the increasing tree diameter and mean stand height, and varied between years, stands, and trees; between-region variation was not significant. In a birch stand, the simulated total sap yield ha–1 was depended on the average tree size and the stem number ha–1 and was at its highest just before the first commercial thinning and again before the second thinning. The sap model can be used to predict the necessary sap yield in profitability analyses for sap tapping.

article id 10533, category Research note
Daniel Schraik, Aarne Hovi, Miina Rautiainen. (2021). Estimating cover fraction from TLS return intensity in coniferous and broadleaved tree shoots. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 4 article id 10533. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10533
Keywords: terrestrial laser scanning; leaf area; lidar intensity; physically-based; voxel
Highlights: We developed a method to obtain the fraction of TLS pulses’ footprint area covered by a target’s projection area; We tested our method with shoots of Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch; We provide a physically-based framework related to unmeasured variables, and provide a robust statistical framework to deal with uncertainty.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) provides a unique opportunity to study forest canopy structure and its spatial patterns such as foliage quantity and dispersal. Using TLS point clouds for estimating leaf area density with voxel-based methods is biased by the physical dimensions of laser beams, which violates the common assumption of beams being infinitely thin. Real laser beams have a footprint size larger than several millimeters. This leads to difficulties in estimating leaf area density from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) in vegetation, where the target objects can be of similar or even smaller size than the beam footprint. To compensate for this bias, we propose a method to estimate the per-pulse cover fraction, defined as the fraction of laser beams’ footprint area that is covered by vegetation targets, using the LiDAR return intensity and an experimental calibration measurement. We applied this method to a Leica P40 single-return instrument, and report our experimental results. We found that conifer foliage had a lower average per-pulse cover fraction than broadleaved foliage, indicating an increased number of partial hits in conifer foliage. We further discuss limitations of our method that stem from unknown target properties that influence the LiDAR return intensity and highlight potential ways to overcome the limitations and manage the remaining uncertainty. Our method’s output, the per-beam cover fraction, may be useful in a weight function for methods that estimate leaf area density from LiDAR point clouds.

  • Schraik, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7794-3918 E-mail: daniel.schraik@aalto.fi (email)
  • Hovi, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4384-5279 E-mail: aarne.hovi@aalto.fi
  • Rautiainen, Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Built Environment, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland; Aalto University, School of Electrical Engineering, Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, P.O. Box 14100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6568-3258 E-mail: miina.a.rautiainen@aalto.fi
article id 10524, category Research note
Arnis Gailis, Pauls Zeltiņš, Roberts Matisons, Andis Purviņš, Juris Augustovs, Valts Vīndedzis, Āris Jansons. (2021). Local adaptation of phenotypic stem traits distinguishes two provenance regions of silver birch in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 2 article id 10524. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10524
Keywords: Betula pendula; population genetics; genetic parameters; climate-smart forestry; phenotypic traits
Highlights: Two provenance subregions in Latvia – coastal and inland – were distinguished; Silver birch populations in inland region possessed better growth, higher heritability, and phenotypic plasticity; Moderate to high heritability for stem quality was estimated in both regions; Silver birch from inland region possesses higher potential for improvement of adaptability.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Populations of tree species with a wide geographic range, such as silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), show genetic specialization to native environments, while maintaining high phenotypical plasticity. Accordingly, assessment of local specialization is essential for adaptive management. The aim of the study was to detect geographic patterns of local adaptation of growth and stem quality based on two open-pollinated progeny trials in Latvia testing local material. Two provenance regions differing by continentality were distinguished, which also differed in genetic control of growth traits, likely originating from the post-glacial recolonization of vegetation and subsequent natural adaptation. Heritability of the traits was estimated for each of the distinguished regions, indicating differing patterns of genetic adaptation and potential for future selection. Trees from the more continental inland showed superior growth and possessed higher heritability. The coastal provenance region showed slower growth and intermediate heritability of the respective traits. Moderate to high heritability for stem quality traits was estimated irrespectively of region. Overall, better growth and higher heritability suggests that anthropogenic selection within the best inland provenances may constitute better performing and adaptable breeding population compared to the coastal one. Still, overlapping phenotypical variation and heritability of quality traits implies improved stemwood quality for plywood regardless of the provenance region. High adaptive capacity of silver birch genotypes suggests ability to cope with climatic changes, highlighting its potential for climate-smart forestry.

  • Gailis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: arnis.gailis@silava.lv
  • Zeltiņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: pauls.zeltins@silava.lv (email)
  • Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4042-0689 E-mail: roberts.matisons@silava.lv
  • Purviņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: andis.purvins@silava.lv
  • Augustovs, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: juris.augustovs@silava.lv
  • Vīndedzis, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: valts.vindedzis@silava.lv
  • Jansons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute Silava, 111 Rigas street, LV-2169, Salaspils, Latvia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7981-4346 E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv
article id 10491, category Research note
Atte Komonen, Ilkka Puumala, Gergely Várkonyi, Reijo Penttilä. (2021). Wood-decaying fungi in old-growth boreal forest fragments: extinctions and colonizations over 20 years. Silva Fennica vol. 55 no. 1 article id 10491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10491
Keywords: polypores; fragmentation; extinction debt; habitat loss; spruce forest
Highlights: Rare fungi can persist for decades in isolated old-growth forest fragments; The remaining old-growth forest fragments should be urgently protected, even if they are isolated from larger expanses of natural biotopes.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

According to ecology theory, isolated habitat fragments cannot maintain populations of specialized species. Yet, empirical evidence based on monitoring of the same fragments over time is still limited. We studied the colonization–extinction dynamics of eight wood-decaying fungal species in 16 old-growth forest fragments (<14 ha) over a 20-year period (1997–2017). We observed 19 extinctions and 5 colonizations; yet, the distribution of extinctions and colonizations did not differ from the one expected by chance for any of the species. Twenty-six percent of the extinctions took place in two natural fragments amid large forest–peatland complexes. Phellinus nigrolimitatus (Romell) Bourdot and Galzin decreased and Phellinus ferrugineofuscus (P. Karst.) Bourdot increased in abundance (number of logs occupied). The volume of living spruce trees in the forest fragments correlated positively with the number of logs inhabited in five of the study species. Because fragment characteristics did not affect species turnover, it seems that stochastic processes governed colonizations and extinctions. Although the least abundant species in 1997 had declined, and the most abundant species had become more abundant, it appears that specialized wood-decaying fungi can persist for decades in isolated old-growth forest fragments, if suitable dead wood is continuously available.

  • Komonen, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, School of Resource Wisdom, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: atte.komonen@jyu.fi (email)
  • Puumala, University of Jyväskylä, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, School of Resource Wisdom, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland E-mail: ilkka.puumala1@outlook.com
  • Várkonyi, Finnish Environment Institute, Friendship Park Research Centre, Lentiirantie 342 B, FI-88900 Kuhmo, Finland E-mail: gergely.varkonyi@ymparisto.fi
  • Penttilä, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Natural resources, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: reijo.penttila@luke.fi
article id 10262, category Research note
Markus Melin, Heli Viiri, Olli-Pekka Tikkanen, Riku Elfving, Seppo Neuvonen. (2020). From a rare inhabitant into a potential pest – status of the nun moth in Finland based on pheromone trapping. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 1 article id 10262. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10262
Keywords: climate change; forest health; forestry; Lymantria monacha; forest damage; insect; range expansion
Highlights: The nun moth is a significant defoliator of coniferous forests in Central-Europe; In Finland, the populations have grown and expanded northwards; Pheromone trapping confirmed the species’ presence throughout central- and southern Finland; The risk of the nun moth becoming a pest for Finland is real as the area offers endless habitats, and climatic conditions are becoming more favourable; This note describes the results from the first nun moth surveys conducted in 2018 and 2019.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forests are affected by climate change in various ways. This includes abiotic factors such as droughts, but also biotic damage by pest insects. There are numerous examples from cases where pest insects have benefitted from longer growing seasons or from warmer summers. Similarly, new pest insects have been able to expand their range due to climatic conditions that have changed from hostile to tolerable. Such seems to be the case with the nun moth (Lymantria monacha), an important defoliator of coniferous trees in Europe. For centuries, the species has had massive outbreaks across Central-Europe, while it has been a rare inhabitant in Northern Europe. Recently, the nun moth population in Finland has not only expanded in range, but also grown more abundant. This research note describes the results from the first years (2018–2019) of a monitoring program that is being conducted with pheromone traps across central and southern Finland. So far, the northernmost individuals were trapped near the 64 N degrees. However, there were more southern locations where no moths were trapped. The species was present in every trapping site below the latitude of 62 N degrees. More importantly, at some sites the abundance of the nun moth suggested that local forest damage may already occur. Given the current climatic scenarios for Fennoscandia, it is likely that the nun moth populations will continue to grow, which is why systematic surveys on their abundance and range expansions will be topical.

  • Melin, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7290-9203 E-mail: markus.melin@luke.fi (email)
  • Viiri, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; UPM-Kymmene Oyj, UPM Forest, Åkerlundinkatu 11 B, FI-33100 Tampere, Finland E-mail: heli.viiri@upm.com
  • Tikkanen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: olli-pekka.tikkanen@uef.fi
  • Elfving, Natural Resources Institute Finland, Yliopistokatu 6b, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland; University of Oulu, Department of Biology, Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland E-mail: riku.elfving@gmail.com
  • Neuvonen, University of Turku, Biodiversity Unit, Kevo Subarctic Research Institute, FI-20014 Turku, Finland E-mail: seppo.neuvonen@utu.fi
article id 10012, category Research note
Irving U. Hernández-Gómez, Carlos R. Cerdán, Angélica Navarro-Martínez, Dinora Vázquez-Luna, Samaria Armenta-Montero, Edward A. Ellis. (2019). Assessment of the CLASlite forest monitoring system in detecting disturbance from selective logging in the Selva Maya, Mexico. Silva Fennica vol. 53 no. 1 article id 10012. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10012
Keywords: community forestry; forest degradation; tropical forest; Yucatan Peninsula
Highlights: The accuracy of CLASlite to detect forest disturbance from selective logging using Landsat imagery was very low (<19.1%); Selective logging impacts was only detected in one case with the highest logging intensity (7 m3 ha–1); CLASlite shows potential in monitoring forest disturbance from tree biomass impacts greater than 900 m2.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Detecting and monitoring forest disturbance from selective logging is necessary to develop effective strategies and polices that conserve tropical forests and mitigate climate change. We assessed the potential of using the remote sensing tool, CLASlite forest monitoring system, to detect disturbance from timber harvesting in four community forests (ejidos) of the Selva Maya on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Selective logging impacts (e.g. felling gaps, skid trails, logging roads and log landings) were mapped using GPS in the 2014 annual cutting areas (ACAs) of each ejido. We processed and analyzed two pre-harvest Landsat images (2001 and 2013) and one post-harvest image (November 2014) with the CLASlite system, producing maps of degraded, deforested and unlogged areas in each ACA. Based on reference points of disturbed (felling and skidding), deforested (log landings and roads) and unlogged areas in each ACA, we applied accuracy assessments which showed very low overall accuracies (<19.1%). Selective logging impacts, mainly from log landings and new logging road construction, were detected in only one ejido which had the highest logging intensity (7 m3 ha–1).

  • Hernández-Gómez, Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad Veracruzana. Circuito Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, Isleta, Xalapa, Veracruz. C.P. 91000, Mexico E-mail: urielxal@gmail.com
  • Cerdán, Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad Veracruzana. Circuito Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, Isleta, Xalapa, Veracruz. C.P. 91000, Mexico E-mail: ccerdan@uv.mx
  • Navarro-Martínez, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur Av. Centenario km 5.5, Col. Pacto Obrero Campesino s/n. Chetumal, Quintana Roo. C.P. 77014, Mexico E-mail: manavaster@gmail.com
  • Vázquez-Luna, Facultad de Ingeniería en Sistemas de Producción Agropecuaria, Universidad Veracruzana. Carretera Costera del Golfo Km. 220, C. Agrícola y Ganadera Michapan, Acayucan, Veracruz. C.P. 96000, Mexico E-mail: divazquez@uv.mx
  • Armenta-Montero, Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales (CITRO), Universidad Veracruzana. Morelos No. 44 y 46, Zona Centro, Xalapa, Veracruz. C.P. 91000, Mexico E-mail: samaria.am@gmail.com
  • Ellis, Centro de Investigaciones Tropicales (CITRO), Universidad Veracruzana. Morelos No. 44 y 46, Zona Centro, Xalapa, Veracruz. C.P. 91000, Mexico E-mail: eellis@uv.mx (email)
article id 9986, category Research note
Ninni Saarinen, Joanne C. White, Michael A. Wulder, Annika Kangas, Sakari Tuominen, Ville Kankare, Markus Holopainen, Juha Hyyppä, Mikko Vastaranta. (2018). Landsat archive holdings for Finland: opportunities for forest monitoring. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 3 article id 9986. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9986
Keywords: National Forest Inventory; satellite; Landsat time series
Highlights: The 45-year Landsat archive contained 30 076 images for Finland by December 31, 2017; 16.3% of these were acquired within ±30 days of August 1 (northern hemisphere summer), have <70% cloud cover, and a 30 m spatial resolution; Using time series analyses, these data provide unique information that complements other datasets available for forest monitoring and assessment in Finland.
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There is growing interest in the use of Landsat data to enable forest monitoring over large areas. Free and open data access combined with high performance computing have enabled new approaches to Landsat data analysis that use the best observation for any given pixel to generate an annual, cloud-free, gap-free, surface reflectance image composite. Finland has a long history of incorporating Landsat data into its National Forest Inventory to produce forest information in the form of thematic maps and small area statistics on a variety of forest attributes. Herein we explore the spatial and temporal characteristics of the Landsat archive in the context of forest monitoring in Finland. The United States Geological Survey Landsat archive holds a total of 30 076 images (1972–2017) for 66 scenes (each 185 km by 185 km in size) representing the terrestrial area of Finland, of which 93.6% were acquired since 1984 with a spatial resolution of 30 m. Approximately 16.3% of the archived images have desired compositing characteristics (acquired within August 1 ±30 days, <70% cloud cover, 30 m spatial resolution). Data from the Landsat archive can augment forest monitoring efforts in Finland, provide new information for science and applications, and enable retrospective, systematic analyses to characterize the development of Finnish forests over the past three decades. The capacity to monitor trends based upon this multi-decadal record with the addition of new measurements is of benefit to multisource inventories and offers nationally comprehensive spatially-explicit datasets for a wide range of stakeholders and applications.

  • Saarinen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland; School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2730-8892 E-mail: ninni.saarinen@helsinki.fi (email)
  • White, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland; Canadian Forest Service, (Pacific Forestry Center), Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4674-0373 E-mail: joanne.white@canada.ca
  • Wulder, Canadian Forest Service, (Pacific Forestry Center), Natural Resources Canada, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5, Canada ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6942-1896 E-mail: mike.wulder@canada.ca
  • Kangas, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Yliopistokatu 6, FI-80100 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: annika.kangas@luke.fi
  • Tuominen, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Bioeconomy and environment, Latokartanonkaari 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: sakari.tuominen@luke.fi
  • Kankare, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankare@helsinki.fi
  • Holopainen, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markus.holopainen@helsinki.fi
  • Hyyppä, Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, National Land Survey of Finland, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI-02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: juha.hyyppa@nls.fi
  • Vastaranta, School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6552-9122 E-mail: mikko.vastaranta@uef.fi
article id 9901, category Research note
Ilze Matisone, Roberts Matisons, Māris Laiviņš, Tālis Gaitnieks. (2018). Statistics of ash dieback in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 9901. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9901
Keywords: mortality rate; National Forest Inventory; Fraxinus excelsior; permanent sampling plots
Highlights: Dynamics of ash dieback during 2005–2015 were summarized; The area of ash dominated stands decreased twofold; The number of mature ash trees and their standing volume decreased by 53.1 and 69.9%, compared to 2005, respectively; The mortality of trees was higher during the first part of the survey, the decrease of standing volume culminated later.
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Dieback of the common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) has been spreading throughout Europe since the 1990s, causing severe ecological and economical consequences; however, detailed statistics on its dynamics have been published rarely. This paper presents the dynamics of mature ash-dominated stands in Latvia for the period 2005–2015. Data from the national forest inventory and a permanent sampling plot network were summarised. According to the official statistics, the dieback has caused a twofold decrease in area of the ash stands (from 21 891 to 13 011 ha, which respectively comprised ca. 0.8 to ca. 0.4% of the total forest area). The official statistics on standing volume appeared biased, as they did not account for increased mortality. According to the permanent sampling plots, standing volume and stand density have been affected even more, having decreased by 53.1 and 69.9%, respectively, compared to 2005 (the stand density and standing volume of ash in 2015 was 77 individuals ha–1 and 151 m3 ha–1, respectively). The mortality of the trees has not been stable. Stand density decreased faster during 2005–2009 compared to 2010–2015, with mortality rates of 9.6 and 8.2% year–1, respectively. In contrast, the decrease in standing volume in 2005–2009 was slower than in 2010–2015 (mortality rates were 4.7 and 7.7% year–1, respectively) because trees with smaller dimensions were more susceptible to the dieback. Nevertheless, the observed mortality rates clearly indicate negative prospects for ash stands in Latvia.

  • Matisone, Latvian State Forest Research Institute (LSFRI) Silava, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: ilze.matisone@silava.lv (email)
  • Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute (LSFRI) Silava, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: robism@inbox.lv
  • Laiviņš, Latvian State Forest Research Institute (LSFRI) Silava, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: maris.laivins@silava.lv
  • Gaitnieks, Latvian State Forest Research Institute (LSFRI) Silava, Rigas str. 111, Salaspils, Latvia, LV2169 E-mail: talis.gaitnieks@silava.lv
article id 9899, category Research note
Linda Robalte, Diāna Jansone, Didzis Elferts, Roberts Matisons, Āris Jansons. (2018). Bilberry ramet dimensions in relation to stand age in oligotrophic conditions in Latvia. Silva Fennica vol. 52 no. 1 article id 9899. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.9899
Keywords: structural diversity; Vaccinium myrtillus; dwarf shrubs; projective cover; hemiboreal forests
Highlights: Bilberry ramet dimensions (age, diameter, height) and their structural diversity, as well as cover, increased with stand age; Active rejuvenation of ramets was observed in younger stands; The oldest bilberry ramets (>10 years of age) occurred in stands older than 70 years.
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Dwarf shrub layer is an important component of boreal and hemiboreal forest ecosystems that has received little attention, particularly regarding its structural diversity, which, however, could serve as an additional proxy for habitat quality. Dimensions of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) ramets were assessed in two sites in Latvia covered by dry oligotrophic Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands 10–230 years of age. In total, 20 sampling plots (10×10 m) with 156 subplots (1×1 m) were sampled and 630 bilberry ramets analysed. The dimensions of ramets (age, diameter, and height) and cover of bilberry increased with stand age. The age of the studied ramets ranged 2–13 years; 5–6 years-old ramets were most frequent in all stands. The skewness of the distribution of the ramet dimensions shifted with stand age, leaning towards the higher values. Lower structural diversity of ramets was observed in stands 50–100 years of age. The highest diversity of ramet age structure occurred in stands younger than 150 years, whereas the oldest and largest ramets mostly occurred in the older stands (>150 years). Considering structural diversity of ramets, recovery of bilberry after stand-replacing disturbance (e.g. clearcut) was a continuous process, similarly to that observed in tree layer.

  • Robalte, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: robalte.l@gmail.com (email)
  • Jansone, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia; University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas Str. 1, LV 1004, Riga, Latvia E-mail: diana.jansone13@gmail.com
  • Elferts, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia; University of Latvia, Faculty of Biology, Jelgavas Str. 1, LV 1004, Riga, Latvia E-mail: didzis.elferts@lu.lv
  • Matisons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: roberts.matisons@silava.lv
  • Jansons, Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV 2169, Salaspils, Latvia E-mail: aris.jansons@silava.lv
article id 1716, category Research note
Nelson Thiffault, Alain Paquette, Christian Messier. (2017). Early silvicultural guidelines for intensive management of hybrid larch plantations on fertile sub-boreal sites. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 2 article id 1716. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1716
Keywords: vegetation management; survival; growth; scarification; exotic tree species; intensive silviculture; forest functional zoning (TRIAD)
Highlights: Satisfactory growth can be obtained using a wide range of site preparation intensities; There is a net advantage of performing two motor-manual release treatments over a single release; A second release treatment cannot be replaced by more intensive site preparation; Planting depth had no influence on planted seedling growth after 6 years.
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Use of fast-growing tree plantations on dedicated areas is proposed as a means of reconciling fibre production with conservation objectives. Success of this approach however requires fine-tuning silvicultural scenarios so that survival and growth are optimized while management and environmental costs are minimized. This is particularly challenging for hybrid larch (Larix × marschlinsii Coaz), a shade-intolerant species planted on fertile sites in Quebec (Canada) where legislation prevents the use of chemical herbicides. In this context, multiple motor-manual release treatments are often required, with high impacts on costs and social issues related to the scarcity of a qualified workforce. We established a split-split-plot design on a recently harvested site to assess the main and interaction effects of mechanical site preparation (MSP) intensity (five modalities of trenching or mounding), motor-manual release scenario (one or two treatments) and planting depth (0–3 cm or 3–10 cm) on hybrid larch seedling growth and survival six years after planting. Mechanical site preparation intensity and planting depth did not influence seedling growth after 6 years. The lack of significant interaction between MSP and release scenarios indicates that these operations should be planned independently. A more intensive MSP treatment cannot replace a second motor-manual release on fertile sites, as proposed to reduce costs. Our results also show the significant advantage of performing two motor-manual release treatments two years apart (the first one early in the scenario), over performing a single treatment. Our study provides silvicultural guidelines for the establishment of high-yield exotic larch plantations.

  • Thiffault, Direction de la recherche forestière, Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs du Québec, 2700 rue Einstein, Québec, QC, Canada G1P 3W8; Centre d’étude de la forêt, CP 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8 ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2017-6890 E-mail: nelson.thiffault@mffp.gouv.qc.ca (email)
  • Paquette, Centre d’étude de la forêt, CP 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8; Université du Québec à Montréal, Département des sciences biologiques, CP 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8 ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1048-9674 E-mail: alain.paquette@gmail.com
  • Messier, Centre d’étude de la forêt, CP 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8; Université du Québec à Montréal, Département des sciences biologiques, CP 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8; Institut des Sciences de la Forêt tempérée (ISFORT), 58 rue Principale, Ripon, QC, Canada JOV 1V0 E-mail nelson.thiff E-mail: christian.messier@uqo.ca
article id 1549, category Research note
Francesco Chianucci, Luca Salvati, Tessa Giannini, Ugo Chiavetta, Piermaria Corona, Andrea Cutini. (2016). Long-term response to thinning in a beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) coppice stand under conversion to high forest in Central Italy. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 3 article id 1549. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1549
Keywords: continuous cover forestry; thinning; Leaf Area Index; coppice management; Plant Canopy Analyzer
Highlights: Canopy recovery after medium-heavy thinning reveals the prompt response of beech to intensive thinning cycles; Active management practices accelerate the transition from coppice to high forest.
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European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests have a long history of coppicing, but the majority of formerly managed coppices are currently under conversion to high forest. The long time required to achieve conversion requires a long-term perspective to fully understand the implication of the applied conversion practices. In this study, we showed results from a long-term (1992–2014) case-study comparing two management options (natural evolution and periodic thinning) in a beech coppice in conversion to high forest. Leaf area index, litter production, radiation transmittance and growth efficiency taken as relevant stand descriptors, were estimated using both direct and indirect optical methods. Overall, results indicated that beech coppice showed positive and prompt responses to active conversion practices based on periodic medium-heavy thinning. A growth efficiency index showed that tree growth increased as the cutting intensity increased. Results from the case study supported the effectiveness of active conversion management from an economic (timber harvesting) and ecological (higher growth efficiency) point of view.

  • Chianucci, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5688-2060 E-mail: fchianucci@gmail.com (email)
  • Salvati, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Research Centre for the Soil-Plant System, via della Navicella 2–4, 00184 Roma, Italy E-mail: bayes00@yahoo.it
  • Giannini, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy E-mail: tessa.giannini@entecra.it
  • Chiavetta, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy E-mail: ugo.chiavetta@entecra.it
  • Corona, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy E-mail: piermaria.corona@unitus.it
  • Cutini, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy E-mail: andrea.cutini@entecra.it
article id 1518, category Research note
Francesco Chianucci. (2015). A note on estimating canopy cover from digital cover and hemispherical photography. Silva Fennica vol. 50 no. 1 article id 1518. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1518
Keywords: forest canopy; foliage cover; crown cover; fisheye photography; cover photography
Highlights: Comparison of fisheye (DHP) and cover (DCP) photography for estimating canopy cover; Digital photographic estimates validated against artificial images with known cover; Accuracy of cover estimates from DHP is influenced by mean gap size and actual cover; Accuracy of cover estimates from DCP is not influenced by mean gap size and actual cover.
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Fast and accurate estimates of canopy cover are central for a wide range of forestry studies. As direct measurements are impractical, indirect optical methods have often been used in forestry to estimate canopy cover. In this paper the accuracy of canopy cover estimates from two widely used canopy photographic methods, hemispherical photography (DHP) and cover photography (DCP) was evaluated. Canopy cover was approximated in DHP as the complement of gap fraction data at narrow viewing zenith angle range (0°–15°), which was comparable with that of DCP. The methodology was tested using artificial images with known canopy cover; this allowed exploring the influence of actual canopy cover and mean gap size on canopy cover estimation from photography. DCP provided robust estimates of canopy cover, whose accuracy was not influenced by variation in actual canopy cover and mean gap size, based on comparison with artificial images; by contrast, the accuracy of cover estimates from DHP was influenced by both actual canopy cover and mean gap size, because of the lower ability of DHP to detect small gaps within crown. The results were replicated in both DHP and DCP images collected in real forest canopies. Finally, the influence of canopy cover on foliage clumping index and leaf area index was evaluated using a theoretical gap fraction model. The main findings indicate that DCP can overcome the limits of indirect techniques for obtaining unbiased and precise estimates of canopy cover, which are comparable to those obtainable from direct, more labour-intensive techniques, being therefore highly suitable for routine monitoring and inventory purposes.

  • Chianucci, Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria – Forestry Research Centre, viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5688-2060 E-mail: fchianucci@gmail.com (email)
article id 1330, category Research note
Hanne K. Sjølie, Hans Asbjørn Kårstad Sørlie, Bjørn Tveite, Birger Solberg. (2015). The performance of two Swedish N fertilization functions evaluated on data from Norwegian fertilization experiments. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 4 article id 1330. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1330
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Picea abies; forest production; forest fertilization; predictive functions
Highlights: The performance of two predictive Swedish fertilization growth response functions was assessed on data from Norwegian fertilization experiments; One function performed well on the full dataset, but overpredicted the growth response in spruce plots and underpredicted in pine plots; The second function performed well in pine stands, but overestimated the growth response in spruce and in total.
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This study compares the responses of two Swedish 5-year predictive stand-level functions with the observed responses in 721 fertilization experiment plots in Norway fertilized with nitrogen (N). All plots are single-species consisting of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) or Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) fertilized with ammonium nitrate (AN) or urea. The correlations between the observed and the two predicted responses were 0.34–0.40 for all plots taken together. One response function performed well on average, but underestimated the response in pine plots and overestimated the response in spruce plots. The second function overpredicted the response on the full dataset, in spruce plots and old forest, but performed well in pine plots. Both functions overestimated the growth response in high-productive plots. Higher N deposition in Norway than in Sweden may count for parts of the deviations. Testing of fertilization functions on new datasets is rare, but important part of the evaluation of functions. As the functions are not well fit for predicting the growth response in spruce and high-productive plots in our sample, new functions that include N deposition are welcome.

  • Sjølie, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: hanne.sjolie@nmbu.no (email)
  • Sørlie, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: hans.asbjorn.sorlie@slf.dep.no
  • Tveite, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, P.O. Box 115, NO-1431 Ås, Norway E-mail: bjorn.tveite@skogoglandskap.no
  • Solberg, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: birger.solberg@nmbu.no
article id 1275, category Research note
Arshad Ali, Ming-Shan Xu, Yan-Tao Zhao, Qing-Qing Zhang, Liu-Li Zhou, Xiao-Dong Yang, En-Rong Yan. (2015). Allometric biomass equations for shrub and small tree species in subtropical China. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 4 article id 1275. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1275
Keywords: aboveground biomass; allometric equations; carbon storage; biometric variables; shrubs; subtropical forests
Highlights: Diameter (D) and height (H) are strong predictors in species-specific and multispecies models for the aboveground biomass of subtropical shrubs and small trees; Although wet basic density and crown shape may improve the predictive power of aboveground biomass slightly, the labor intensive measurements for wet basic density and crown shape may be disregarded when a large number of individuals are to be surveyed; Our results extend the generality of D-H models for aboveground biomass for large trees to subtropical shrubs and small trees.
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Species-specific allometric equations for shrubs and small trees are relatively scarce, thus limiting the precise quantification of aboveground biomass (AGB) in both shrubby vegetation and forests. Fourteen shrub and small tree species in Eastern China were selected to develop species-specific and multispecies allometric biomass equations. Biometric variables, including the diameter of the longest stem (D), height (H), wet basic density (BD), and crown area and shape were measured for each individual plant. We measured the AGB through a non-destructive method, and validated these measurements using the dry mass of the sampled plant components. The AGB was related to biometric variables using regression analysis. The species-specific allometric models, with D and H as predictors (D-H models) accounted for 70% to 99% of the variation in the AGB of shrubs and small trees. A multispecies allometric D-H model accounted for 71% of the variation in the AGB. Although BD, as an additional predictor, improved the fit of most models, the D-H models were adequate for predicting the AGB for shrubs and small trees in subtropical China without BD data.

  • Ali, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China; Department of Environmental Sciences, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200, KPK, Pakistan E-mail: arshadforester@gmail.com
  • Xu, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: yumsh09@lzu.edu.cn
  • Zhao, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: zhaoyantao1991@163.com
  • Zhang, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: qingzq@yeah.net
  • Zhou, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: 792920738@qq.com
  • Yang, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: xjyangxd@sina.com
  • Yan, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; Tiantong National Forest Ecosystem Observations and Research Station, Ningbo 315114, Zhejiang, China E-mail: eryan@des.ecnu.edu.cn (email)
article id 1321, category Research note
Sofia Bäcklund, Mari T. Jönsson, Joachim Strengbom, Göran Thor. (2015). Composition of functional groups of ground vegetation differ between planted stands of non-native Pinus contorta and native Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies in northern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 49 no. 2 article id 1321. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1321
Keywords: boreal forests; bryophytes; managed forests; introduced species; exotics; lichens; vascular plants
Highlights: Differences in ground vegetation patterns can be linked to tree species, forest stand age and differences in canopy cover; Vascular plant cover was higher in stands of P. contorta than in stands of both native tree species; The overall differences and similarities between P. contorta and the two native conifers were not consistent over the different age classes.
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Intensified forestry increases the interest in replacing native tree species with fast growing non-native species. However, consequences for native biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are poorly understood. We compared cover and composition of major functional groups of ground vegetation between planted stands of non-native Pinus contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm. and native conifers Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. in northern boreal Sweden. We quantified the ground cover of lichens, bryophytes, vascular plants and ground without vegetation (bare ground) in 96 stands covering three different age classes (15, 30 and 85 years old). Our study revealed differences in ground vegetation patterns between non-native and native managed forests, and that these differences are linked to stand age and differences in canopy cover. Total vascular plant cover increased with increasing stand age for all tree species, with P. contorta stands having higher cover than both native conifers. The ground cover of lichens was, although generally low, highest in stands of Pinus sylvestris. P. abies stands had a lower cover of vascular plants, but bare ground was more common compared with P. contorta. Our results suggest that the use of P. contorta as an alternative tree species in Fennoscandian forestry will influence native ground vegetation patterns. This influence is likely to change with time and future research should consider both temporal and landscape-scale effects from shifting tree-species dominance to Pinus contorta and other non-native tree species.
  • Bäcklund, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: sofia.backlund@slu.se (email)
  • Jönsson,  The Swedish Species Information Centre, P.O. Box 7007, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: mari.jonsson@slu.se
  • Strengbom, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: joachim.strengbom@slu.se
  • Thor, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7044, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: goran.thor@slu.se
article id 1114, category Research note
Antonio Villasante, Cristina Fernandez. (2014). Measurement errors in the use of smartphones as low-cost forestry hypsometers. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 5 article id 1114. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1114
Keywords: forest inventory; calibration; accelerometers; forestry tools; relative error
Highlights: We analysed two smartphones (HTC Desire and Samsung Galaxy Note) to determine the errors in the height measurements; The calibration included with the Android applications is insufficient; After appropriate calibration, the smartphone errors are similar to other forest hypsometers (Blume Leiss and Vertex).
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Various applications currently available for Android allow the estimation of tree heights by using the 3D accelerometer on smartphones. Some make the estimation using the image on the screen, while in others, by pointing with the edges of the terminal. The present study establishes the measurement errors obtained with HTC Desire and Samsung Galaxy Note compared to those from Blume Leiss and Vertex IV. Six series of 12 measurements each were made with each hypsometer (for heights of 6 m, 8 m, 10 m and 12 m). A Kruskall Wallis test is applied to the relative errors to determine whether there are significant differences between the devices. The results indicate that the errors of the uncalibrated smartphones significantly exceed those of traditional forestry apparatus. However, calibration is a very easy procedure that can be done by means of a linear regression line between real angles (obtained with a Digital Angle Finder or with a series of measurements taken independently of the experiment), and the angles of the accelerometer. With this adjustment, the smartphones achieve adequate quality levels although the bias was not totally eliminated. The relative errors when pointing with the edges of the terminal show no significant differences compared to Blume Leiss. Applications that use the screen image give better results (no significant differences were detected with Vertex). There is currently no application that offers calibration of the linear regression slope, which is an essential requirement for ensuring the accuracy of height measurements obtained with smartphones.
  • Villasante, Agroforestry Departament, Universitat de Lleida, Av. Rovira Roure 177, 25198 Lleida, Spain ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7549-7424 E-mail: avillasante@eagrof.udl.cat (email)
  • Fernandez, Agroforestry Departament, Universitat de Lleida, Av. Rovira Roure 177, 25198 Lleida, Spain E-mail: cfernandez@eagrof.udl.cat
article id 1136, category Research note
Håkan Lideskog, Back Tomas Ersson, Urban Bergsten, Magnus Karlberg. (2014). Determining boreal clearcut object properties and characteristics for identification purposes. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1136. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1136
Keywords: forestry; forest regeneration; clearcut obstacles; terrain description; terrain conditions; site properties
Highlights: We define the quantitative properties and qualitative characteristics of stumps, stones, slash, and roots, the most important objects interacting with machine activities after clearcutting; We develop a flowchart showing how a computer-aided system using clearcut object identification should be executed.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
After clearcutting, machines traffic the clearcut conducting different silvicultural activities. Many objects on a forest clearcut (slash residues, stones, stumps and roots) may disturb e.g. site preparation and planting. This paper describes properties and characteristics of these objects. A flowchart was developed that describes a possible computer-aided system that identifies the objects, and ultimately, makes a machine avoid or target them. A system for obstacle identification creates conditions for further technical development and (semi)automation of e.g., site preparation, mechanized planting, and stump removal.
  • Lideskog, Division of Product and Production Development, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: hakan.lideskog@ltu.se (email)
  • Ersson, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SLU, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se
  • Bergsten, Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, SLU, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: urban.bergsten@slu.se
  • Karlberg, Division of Product and Production Development, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden E-mail: magnus.karlberg@ltu.se
article id 1126, category Research note
Rebecka Mc Carthy, Per Magnus Ekö, Lars Rytter. (2014). Reliability of stump sprouting as a regeneration method for poplars: clonal behavior in survival, sprout straightness and growth. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 3 article id 1126. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1126
Keywords: Populus spp.; coppice regeneration; vegetative regeneration; short-rotation forestry
Highlights: Clonal differences were found in stump sprout survival; Clonal differences occurred in sprout straightness; It is uncertain if the ability to produce a high number of stump sprouts is beneficial.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The interest in poplars (Populus spp.) has increased globally as a result of the current incentive to expand the use of biomass for energy. So far, knowledge about poplar stump sprouting is generally poor. The objective of this study was to investigate poplar stump sprouting as regeneration method in harvested plantations. A 19-year-old poplar clonal test, including 23 different clones, on former arable land was harvested in the winter. After one year, stumps were assessed for sprout survival, sprout straightness, number of sprouts, sprout height and basal diameter. Differences between clones were found for survival and sprout straightness. Clonal differences were also found in mean size of sprouts (basal diameter and height). However, no differences were found between clones when comparing size of the tallest sprout or number of sprouts produced on stumps. This study indicates that stump sprouts from various poplar clones differ in survival, sprout straightness and mean growth, which should be taken into account when planning for the next tree generation. The study needs to be complemented with other studies to better assess sprouting characteristics for different clones.
  • Mc Carthy, Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden & Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: rebecka.mccarthy@skogforsk.se (email)
  • Ekö, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 49, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: Per.Magnus.Eko@slu.se
  • Rytter, Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-268 90 Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: lars.rytter@skogforsk.se
article id 1125, category Research note
Anssi Krooks, Sanna Kaasalainen, Ville Kankare, Marianna Joensuu, Pasi Raumonen, Mikko Kaasalainen. (2014). Predicting tree structure from tree height using terrestrial laser scanning and quantitative structure models. Silva Fennica vol. 48 no. 2 article id 1125. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1125
Keywords: remote sensing; terrestrial lidar; tree modelling; branch size distribution
Highlights: The analysis of tree structure suggests that trees of different height growing in similar conditions have similar branch size distributions; There is potential for using the tree height information in large-scale estimations of forest canopy structure.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We apply quantitative structure modelling to produce detailed information on branch-level metrics in trees. Particularly we are interested in the branch size distribution, by which we mean the total volume of branch parts distributed over the diameter classes of the parts. We investigate the possibility of predicting tree branch size distributions for trees in similar growing conditions. The quantitative structure model enables for the first time the comparisons of structure between a large number of trees. We found that the branch size distribution is similar for trees of different height in similar growing conditions. The results suggest that tree height could be used to estimate branch size distribution in areas with similar growing conditions and topography.
  • Krooks, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI–02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: Anssi.Krooks@fgi.fi
  • Kaasalainen, Finnish Geodetic Institute, Geodeetinrinne 2, FI–02431 Masala, Finland E-mail: Sanna.Kaasalainen@fgi.fi (email)
  • Kankare, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: ville.kankare@helsinki.fi
  • Joensuu, Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: marianna.joensuu@alumni.helsinki.fi
  • Raumonen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland E-mail: Pasi.Raumonen@tut.fi
  • Kaasalainen, Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mathematics, P.O. Box 553, Tampere, FI-33101, Finland E-mail: Mikko.Kaasalainen@tut.fi
article id 1026, category Research note
Leif Nutto, Ricardo A. Malinovski, Martin Brunsmeier, Felipe Schumacher Sant’Anna. (2013). Ergonomic aspects and productivity of different pruning tools for a first pruning lift of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 4 article id 1026. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1026
Keywords: forest management; wood quality; work science; handsaw; shear
Highlights: Pruning of hardwoods coming from forest plantations is becoming more and more important in Brazil to replace scarce wood from tropical forests; Evaluating productivity of different pruning tools is essential for the economic output of plantations managed for high quality wood; Pruning activities of forest workers can be classified as “hard” or “very hard work”. Depending on the tools used physical long-term damages may be prevented.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
For the substitution of wood from tropical rainforests pruning of Eucalyptus for producing valuable hardwoods in short rotation plantations has become important. Existing tools and ergonomic aspects of pruning were not yet well analysed under these conditions. The objective of the study is to evaluate the productivity and ergonomics of three different pruning tools in a pruning lift up to 3 m in height. The trees used in the study came from an 18-month-old clonal Eucalyptus grandis stand planted in a 5.0 x 2.8 m spacing. Two manual pruning tools and an electric shear were tested for productivity by using time studies. Ergonomic aspects were evaluated by two test persons using pulse meter equipment. The highest productivity could be shown for the electric shear (236 trees per working day), followed by the manual shear (196 trees/day) and the handsaw (180 trees/day). The heartbeat rate of the two test persons ranged from a level of “very hard work” for the manual tools to “middle hard” and “hard work” for the electric shear. The workload level to achieve the productivity currently reached in practice using purely manual tools is extremely high, exceeding the permanent working capacity of the operators and leading to physical degradation on the long run.
  • Nutto, Department for Forestry, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Pref. Lothário Meissner, 632, Curitiba, PR, Brazil E-mail: lnutto.ufpr@gmail.com (email)
  • Malinovski, Department for Forestry, Laboratory of Forest Operations, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Prefeito Lothario Meissner, 900, Curitiba, PR, Brazil E-mail: ricardo@colheitademadeira.com.br
  • Brunsmeier, Chair of Forest Utilization, University of Freiburg, Werthmannstraße 6, 79085 Freiburg, Germany E-mail: martin.brunsmeier@fobawi.uni-freiburg.de
  • Schumacher Sant’Anna, Department for Forestry, Laboratory of Forest Operations, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Prefeito Lothario Meissner, 900, Curitiba, PR, Brazil E-mail: felipe@colheitademadeira.com.br
article id 974, category Research note
Kristina Ahnlund Ulvcrona, Lars Karlsson, Ingegerd Backlund, Urban Bergsten. (2013). Comparison of silvicultural regimes of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) in Sweden 5 years after precommercial thinning. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 3 article id 974. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.974
Keywords: direct seeding; forest production; corridor thinning; biomass harvest; PCT
Highlights: Management regimes can serve different purposes such as biomass production, pulp and timber production or a combination of those; 30 tons biomass or 38–45 m3 stem volume ha–1 could be derived by schematic corridor thinning (70%) at year 20; Producing large amounts of biomass early in the rotation period does not exclude a conversion into pulp and timber production.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Early effects (stem volume, mean diameter at breast height weighted against basal area (Dgv) (Dgv), biomass and damage frequency) of different silvicultural regimes 18-19 years after direct seeding of lodgepole pine in northern Sweden were analysed. A Conventional regime, (i) precommercial thinning (PCT) to 2200 stems ha-1, was compared to: (ii) High biomass production (15 300 stems ha-1, no PCT) with and without corridor thinning at year 20, (iii) production of Large dimension trees (PCT to 1700 stems ha-1), (iv), Combined high biomass production and production of conventional round wood (PCT to 4500 stems ha-1). PCT was done 15 yrs after direct seeding for all PCT treatments. Local biomass functions showed that the regimes aiming at High biomass production displayed ca 144-157% more biomass and 134-143% more stem volume than the Conventional and Large dimension regimes (ca 21 tons and 31 m3 ha-1). Dgv for the 1000 (9.2 cm) and 2000 (8.3 cm) largest trees ha-1 appeared unaffected by regime. By schematic corridor thinning (70% of the total area) at year 20 in the High biomass regime, 27-32 tons of biomass ha-1 and 38-45 m3 ha-1 could be derived while still having a Dgv of the 1000 largest trees ha-1 of about 8 cm. Therefore, this study indicates that it is possible to produce and harvest large amounts of biomass and stem volume early in the rotation period without excluding later pulp and timber production. This initial regime comparison should be continued over time.
  • Ahnlund Ulvcrona, SLU, Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: kristina.ulvcrona@slu.se (email)
  • Karlsson, SLU, Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: lars.karlsson@slu.se
  • Backlund, SLU, Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ingegerd.backlund@slu.se
  • Bergsten, SLU, Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: urban.bergsten@slu.se
article id 960, category Research note
Shou-Qin Sun, Liang Peng, Gen-Xu Wang, Yan-Hong Wu, Jun Zhou, Hai-Jian Bing, Dong Yu, Ji Luo. (2013). An improved open-top chamber warming system for global change research. Silva Fennica vol. 47 no. 2 article id 960. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.960
Keywords: climate change; temperature; open-top chamber; OTC-cable system; forest ecosystem
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This study is an assessment of an improved temperature warming system developed to enhance global warming research-based forest ecosystem and soil ecophysiological experiments. The architecture couples a standard open-top chamber (OTC) with a heating cable. A 16 m wire cable with an 18 W m-1 and 288 W h-1 power rating was coiled around a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe 2.5 m in length and 3.5 cm in diameter. The pipe was reshaped into a circle and fixed inside the OTC at a height of 15 cm. PVC pipe distance to plants was 10 to 15 cm while distance to OTC inner walls was 15 cm. The cable was constructed from a heating source with an alloy resistance wire, an aluminum foil and copper wire shielded layer, a crosslinking polyethylene inner insulator, a PVC coating, and a tinned copper grounding wire. After the cable is powered up, air and soil inside the OTC-cable system is heated by conductivity. Temperature is manipulated according to the voltage and resistance of the cable. The OTC-cable system was developed to examine plant reaction to an increase in air and soil temperatures by 2.84 °C and 1.83 °C, respectively. Temperature values are adjustable by changing cable and PVC pipe length. It offers a new, affordable, low energy consumption and low running cost method by which to study climate change effects on forest ecosystems. This method is especially useful for application in forest ecosystems of many developing countries or in many remote areas of developed countries where the feasibility in supplying sufficient power from local power grids is questionable.
  • Sun, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9, Block 4, South Renmin Road, Chengdu, China, 610041 E-mail: shouqinsun@imde.ac.cn (email)
  • Peng, Horticulture and Landscape College, Hunan Agricultural University, Furong District, Changsha, China, 410128 E-mail: keith215@126.com
  • Wang, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: cookiedot@sina.cn
  • Wu, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: free2001@tom.com
  • Zhou, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: haitaosun@sohu.com
  • Bing, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: 78186181@qq.com
  • Yu, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: dongdyu@sohu.com
  • Luo, Key Laboratory of Mountain Surface Processes and Ecological Regulation, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China E-mail: 1254157095@qq.com
article id 60, category Research note
Dominik Röser, Blas Mola-Yudego, Robert Prinz, Beatrice Emer, Lauri Sikanen. (2012). Chipping operations and efficiency in different operational environments. Silva Fennica vol. 46 no. 2 article id 60. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.60
Keywords: wood-fuel logistics; forest machinery; bioenergy supply
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This research analyses the productivity of energy wood chipping operations at several sites in Austria and Finland. The aim of the work is to examine the differences in productivity and the effects of the operational environment for the chipping of bioenergy at the roadside. Furthermore, the study quantifies the effects of different variables such as forest energy assortments, tree species, sieve size and machines on the overall productivity of chipping. The results revealed that there are significant differences in the chipping productivity in Austria and Finland which are largely based on the use of different sieve sizes. Furthermore, the different operational environments in both countries, as well as the characteristics of the raw material also seem to have an effect on productivity. In order to improve the chipping productivity, particularly in Central European conditions, all relevant stakeholders need to work jointly to find solutions that will allow a greater variation of chip size. Furthermore, in the future more consideration has to be given to the close interlinkage between the chipper, crane and grapple. As a result, investments costs can be optimized and operational costs and stress on the machines reduced.
  • Röser, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: dominik.roser@metla.fi (email)
  • Mola-Yudego, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: bmy@nn.fi
  • Prinz, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 68, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: rp@nn.fi
  • Emer, University of Padova, Department of Land, Agriculture and Forest Systems, Legnaro (PD), Italy E-mail: be@nn.it
  • Sikanen, University of Eastern Finland, School of Forest Sciences, Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ls@nn.fi
article id 92, category Research note
Adam Felton, Erik Andersson, David Ventorp, Matts Lindbladh. (2011). A comparison of avian diversity in spruce monocultures and spruce-birch polycultures in southern Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 5 article id 92. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.92
Keywords: biodiversity; conservation; sustainable forestry
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The replacement of some spruce monocultures with stands composed of planted Norway spruce (Picea abies) and naturally regenerated birch (Betula spp.) has a range of potential benefits, but the implications for biodiversity are generally unknown. Here we conduct a paired replicated study in southern Sweden of the avian biodiversity found within Norway spruce monocultures, and within Norway spruce stands possessing approximately 20% birch. Our research leads us to three findings. First, avian diversity was significantly higher in the spruce–birch polycultures. Second, spruce–birch polycultures exclusively attracted broadleaf-associated bird species and retained the majority of conifer-associated bird species found in the spruce monocultures. Third, avian biodiversity within the spruce–birch polycultures did not incorporate threatened taxa. We suggest that in addition to the apparent benefits for stand level diversity, widespread use of spruce–birch polycultures could provide a means of softening the matrix for broadleaved-associated species, while concurrently providing an increased broadleaf base from which future conservation actions could be implemented. Our results are relevant to multi-use forestry, and recent policy initiatives by forest certification agencies which aim to increase broadleaf-associated biodiversity within conifer-dominated production forest landscapes.
  • Felton, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: adam.felton@ess.slu.se (email)
  • Andersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ea@nn.se
  • Ventorp, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: dv@nn.se
  • Lindbladh, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Alnarp, Sweden E-mail: ml@nn.se
article id 118, category Research note
Audrius Menkis, Remigijus Bakys, Vaidotas Lygis, Rimvydas Vasaitis. (2011). Mycorrhization, establishment and growth of outplanted Picea abies seedlings produced under different cultivation systems. Silva Fennica vol. 45 no. 2 article id 118. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.118
Keywords: forest nursery; cultivation system; ectomycorrhizal fungi; Picea abies seedlings
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In forest nurseries seedlings are commonly produced using different cultivation systems which may have a profound effect on the extent of root colonisation by ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi and, consequently, on subsequent performance of the outplanted seedlings under field conditions. In this study, we compare effects of bare-root and containerised cultivation systems on mycorrhization, establishment and growth of nursery-produced Picea abies. One hectare experimental plantation was established on poor fertility sandy site. In total, 1250 seedlings of each treatment were planted in rows as ten individual replicates. The results of this study showed that production of P. abies seedlings using containerised system can yield abundant ECM colonisation of seedling roots and significantly improve seedling survival in the field. Some reduction in height increment may occur during the first years as a possible cost for support of ECMs. Study demonstrated that selection of proper cultivation system might result in similar or higher mycorrhization and survival rates of outplanted seedlings than achieved by expensive and laborious artificial mycorrhization.
  • Menkis, Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: audrius.menkis@slu.se (email)
  • Bakys, Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: rb@nn.se
  • Lygis, Laboratory of Phytopathogenic Microorganisms, Institute of Botany at the Nature Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania E-mail: vl@nn.lt
  • Vasaitis, Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: rv@nn.se
article id 136, category Research note
Tomasz D. Mazgajski, Michal Zmihorski, Katarzyna Abramowicz. (2010). Forest habitat loss and fragmentation in Central Poland during the last 100 years. Silva Fennica vol. 44 no. 4 article id 136. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.136
Keywords: afforestation; fragmentation; landscape history; forest continuity; deforestation; ancient forest
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The process of habitat fragmentation consists of two components – habitat loss and fragmentation per se. Both are thought to be among the most important threats to biodiversity. However, the biological consequences of this process such as species occurrence, abundance, or genetic structure of population are driven by current, as well as previous, landscape configurations. Therefore, historical analyses of habitat distribution are of great importance in explaining the current species distribution. In our analysis, we describe the forest fragmentation process for an area of 178 km2 in the northern part of Mazowsze region of central Poland. Topographical maps from the years 1890, 1957 and 1989 were used. Over the 100-year period, forest coverage in this area changed from 17% to 5.6%, the number of patches increased from 19 to 42, while the area of the forest interior decreased from 1933 ha to 371 ha. The two components of fragmentation were clearly separated in time. Habitat loss occurred mainly during the first period (1890–1957) and fragmentation per se in the second (1957–1989). Moreover, we recorded that only 47.7% of all the currently (in 1989) afforested areas constitute sites where forests previously occurred (in 1890 and 1957). For forest dwelling organisms characterized by low dispersal abilities, the effective forest coverage seems to be a half of the real forest area in the studied landscape. New afforestations should be planned especially to increase those patches which contain ancient forest, where various plants and animals sensitive to fragmentation may have survived.
  • Mazgajski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Museum & Institute of Zoology, Wilcza 64, PL 00-679 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: mazgaj@miiz.waw.pl (email)
  • Zmihorski, Polish Academy of Sciences, Museum & Institute of Zoology, Wilcza 64, PL 00-679 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: mz@nn.pl
  • Abramowicz, Department of Ecology, University of Warsaw, Banacha 2, PL 02-097 Warsaw, Poland E-mail: ka@nn.pl
article id 228, category Research note
Aku Riihelä, Terhikki Manninen. (2008). Measuring the vertical albedo profile of a subarctic boreal forest canopy. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 5 article id 228. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.228
Keywords: boreal forest; albedo; validation; canopy transmission
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The validation of airborne and satellite-derived albedo measurements suffers from the fact that the surface albedo of forest is difficult to measure in-situ over large areas. The goal of this study is to examine whether or not the estimation of the surface albedo of a forest stand from ground level measurements is possible. In addition, knowledge about the vertical behavior of albedo, and therefore transmitted solar radiation, is important in the modeling of interactions of sunlight with the forest canopy. Such modeling is useful for forest growth estimations among other things. To achieve these goals, an albedometer set-up capable of vertical albedo profiling has been used to obtain data from a boreal forest stand in Northern Finland during periods in summer 2006 and winter 2007. The results show a strong relationship between the data and fitted power-law regression curves. Power-law regression fits best likely because of the radiation transmission characteristics of boreal forest.
  • Riihelä, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00200 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: aku.riihela@fmi.fi (email)
  • Manninen, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00200 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: tm@nn.fi
article id 269, category Research note
Christian Kiffner, Elisabeth Rössiger, Oliver Trisl, Rainer Schulz, Ferdinand Rühe. (2008). Probability of recent bark stripping damage by red deer (Cervus elaphus) on Norway spruce (Picea abies) in a low mountain range in Germany – a preliminary analysis. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 269. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.269
Keywords: forest management; logistic regression; wildlife management
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Red deer (Cervus elaphus) can cause considerable damage to forest stands by bark stripping. Here, we examined the probability of bark stripping of susceptible Norway spruce (Picea abies) during winter in relation to local environmental characteristics in the western Harz Mountains, Lower Saxony, Germany. We present the results of a multiple logistic regression model for recent bark stripping damage by red deer which we developed from two systematic cluster sampling inventories after two winter periods along with associated meteorological data and records of bagged deer. Our model suggests that the risk of bark stripping increased significantly (P  0.05) with rising slope angle, cumulating snow depth and increasing index values of red deer population density. Spruces growing in closed forest stands were debarked at a higher probability than spruces located close to forest edges. Further on, spruce stands on eastern slopes had a lower probability of bark damage than spruce stands on northern slopes. Other tested variables (altitude, length of daily solar irradiation, duration of snow cover, age of spruce stand within the age range of 16–50 years) had no significant effect on the probability of new bark stripping. We conclude that red deer in the western Harz Mountains seem to use bark as food resource at preferred locations and in times of low food availability. To improve fit and predictive power of bark stripping models we recommend including stand characteristics. We propose to reduce the population size of red deer in order to diminish bark stripping damages to an economically acceptable level.
  • Kiffner, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: ckiffne@gwdg.de (email)
  • Rössiger, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: er@nn.de
  • Trisl, Planungsbüro Trisl, In der Schleene 7, 36037 Waake, Germany E-mail: ot@nn.de
  • Schulz, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Ecological Informatics, Biometry and Forest Growth, Büsgenweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: rs@nn.de
  • Rühe, University Göttingen, Büsgen-Institute, Department of Forest Zoology and Forest Protection incl. Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Büsgenweg 3, 37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: fr@nn.de
article id 311, category Research note
Dan Bergström, Urban Bergsten, Tomas Nordfjell, Tomas Lundmark. (2007). Simulation of geometric thinning systems and their time requirements for young forests. Silva Fennica vol. 41 no. 1 article id 311. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.311
Keywords: bioenergy; forest technology; multi-stem
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
In Fennoscandia, large areas that have not been subjected to pre-commercial thinning (PCT), and thus support dense stands, are becoming suitable for harvesting biomass. However, efficient systems for harvesting biomass from young stands have not yet been developed. In order to optimise biomass harvesting it is here hypothesized that the handling unit should not be a single tree but a corridor area, i.e., all trees in a specific area should be harvested in the same crane movement cycle. Three types of corridor harvesting approaches (using accumulating felling heads for geometric harvesting in two different patterns) were compared in terms of time required to fell a corridor of standardised size. Corridors are defined as strips of harvested areas between conventional strip-roads. Harvests were simulated in two types of stands, first thinning (FT) and delayed PCT stands, in which the spatial positions of the trees had been mapped. The differences in simulated time consumption per corridor were minor when the only variable changed was the corridor pattern. However, there were ca. 2-fold and 3-fold differences in simulated time consumption per corridor between the harvesting approaches for the FT stand and the PCT-stand, respectively. Furthermore, area handling (felling head accumulating all trees corridor-wise, with no restrictions on the accumulated number of trees except for a certain load limit) was found to give up to 2.4-fold increases in productivity compared to a single-tree (reference) approach for the FT stand. In conclusion, the simulation results clearly show the benefits of applying area-harvesting systems in young, dense stands.
  • Bergström, SLU, Dept. of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: db@nn.se (email)
  • Bergsten, SLU, Dept. of Forest Ecology and Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ub@nn.se
  • Nordfjell, SLU, Dept. of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: tn@nn.se
  • Lundmark, SLU, Vindeln Experimental Forests, Svartberget Field Station, SE-922 91 Vindeln, Sweden E-mail: tl@nn.se
article id 324, category Research note
Matti Katila. (2006). Empirical errors of small area estimates from the multisource National Forest Inventory in Eastern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 40 no. 4 article id 324. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.324
Keywords: k-nearest neighbours estimation; Landsat ETM ; multisource forest inventory; synthetic estimation
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
The precision of multisource national forest inventory (MS-NFI) estimators and simple synthetic estimators based on NFI field data only was assessed employing an independent inventory data set of several small areas in Eastern Finland. There were seven test units of size 100 km2 and three test units of size 1 km2 for which a systematic field sampling was carried out. The ‘improved’ MS-NFI method yielded the most precise estimates for mean volume and mean volume of pine and spruce: relative root mean square errors (RMSE*) were 5%, 12% and 15% for 100 km2 test units and 13%, 27% and 40% for 1 km2 test units respectively. The stratified MS-NFI method was best for broad-leaved volume estimation. Synthetic estimation based on the NFI9 field plots post-stratified with coarse scale forest variable maps from NFI8 resulted in RMSE*s comparable to those of the ordinary MS-NFI in areas of 100 km2 for mean volume and mean volume of pine and spruce. The amount of variation between the field inventory estimates for the test units explained by the MS-NFI estimators remained the same or increased when the size of the area increased from of 1 km2 to 100 km2 and up to 2000 km2. The validation of the largest areas was made against the NFI9 field inventory estimates for groups of municipalities in the study area.
  • Katila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FI-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mk@nn.fi (email)
article id 631, category Research note
Pekka Ripatti. (2000). Use of log-linear models in forecasting structural changes in Finnish non-industrial private forest ownership. Silva Fennica vol. 34 no. 3 article id 631. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.631
Keywords: forest policy; forecasting; non-industrial private forestry; log-linear models; ownership changes
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
This paper presents how log-linear models can be used for modelling and forecasting structural changes of Finnish non-industrial private forest ownership. Two cross-sectional sets of data, which were collected in conjunction with two separate surveys by means of mail questionnaires in 1975 and 1990, were employed. A total of six non-industrial private forest holding and ownership attributes are forecast focusing on the earlier pace of structural change. The results show that the pace of change in the forecast attributes appears to be less than it would be when derived from extrapolation of the earlier trends. The results of the study can be applied to forest policy and forestry extension planning, by providing a more realistic outlook of the future structure of non-industrial private forest ownership.
  • Ripatti, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pekka.ripatti@metla.fi (email)
article id 678, category Research note
Ian A. Nalder, Ross W. Wein. (1998). A new forest floor corer for rapid sampling, minimal disturbance and adequate precision. Silva Fennica vol. 32 no. 4 article id 678. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.678
Keywords: boreal; moss; bulk density; variability; forest floor; corer; western Canada
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
We describe an effective and inexpensive device for sampling forest floors. It is based on a rechargeable, battery-powered drill that drives a sharpened steel coring tube. The corer is simple to fabricate, is lightweight (3.5 kg) and can be used easily by one person to obtain intact, natural volume cores of the forest floor. It has been used extensively to obtain samples in 114 boreal forest stands of western Canada. We found that coefficients of variation were typically 30% for forest floor organic matter and bulk density, and tended to be higher in Pinus banksiana stands than in Picea glauca and Populus tremuloides. Ten samples per stand gave adequate precision for a study of forest floor dynamics and autocorrelation did not appear to be a problem with five-metre sampling intervals. In addition to sampling forest floors, the corer has proven suitable for sampling moss and lichen layers and mineral soil down to about 20 cm. A similar powered system can also be used for increment boring of trees.
  • Nalder, University of Alberta, Department of Renewable Resources, 442 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3 E-mail: inalder@gpu.srv.ualberta.ca (email)
  • Wein, University of Alberta, Department of Renewable Resources, 442 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3 E-mail: rww@nn.ca

Category : Discussion article

article id 23053, category Discussion article
Back Tomas Ersson, Linnea Hansson, Jussi Manner, Per Sandström, Johan Sonesson. (2023). Forest management in northern Fennoscandia: the need for solutions that mitigate conflicts during forest regeneration and increase the use of continuous cover forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 57 no. 3 article id 23053. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.23053
Keywords: mechanical site preparation; reforestation; reindeer husbandry; indigenous rights; natural resources conflict; Sámi; Sápmi
Highlights: In Sápmi, increased use of continuous cover forestry (CCF) can reduce the frequent conflicts between forest industry and reindeer herding communities; Nordic forestry needs to develop new technical solutions for gentle and lichen-adapted mechanical site preparation during CCF in Sápmi; Such site preparation technology will promote pioneer tree species’ germination and growth, and increase the forest industry’s acceptance of CCF.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Today, conflicts often occur in northern Fennoscandia (also known as Sápmi) between forestry and reindeer husbandry. Continuous cover forestry (CCF) is requested by both reindeer herding communities and the general public and is becoming more common, but the forest industry criticizes CCF for lower wood production. Mechanical site preparation (MSP) increases regeneration success and, thus, increases wood production in CCF. To reduce the conflict between forestry and reindeer husbandry, MSP in Sápmi should destroy as little ground lichen as possible. Today, there are no solutions for gentle and lichen-adapted MSP in CCF. Thus, there is a strong need to develop and test new technical solutions that increase regeneration success in a lichen-adapted way during CCF in Sápmi. We suggest that MSP solutions be developed which are gentle, work selectively and function in shelterwoods, gap cuts, and selection cutting stands. We envision that these solutions could fill the gap between the desired adaptivity on the part of the reindeer herding communities and the desired efficiency on the part of the forest industry. Such MSP technology would contribute to increased acceptance of CCF in the forest industry, higher biodiversity, and considerably reduce the conflict between forestry and reindeer herding communities.
  • Ersson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), School of Forest Management, SE-739 21 Skinnskatteberg, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2442-7482 E-mail: back.tomas.ersson@slu.se
  • Hansson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9788-1734 E-mail: linnea.hansson@skogforsk.se
  • Manner, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4982-3855 E-mail: jussi.manner@skogforsk.se
  • Sandström, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Forest Resource Management, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0977-0071 E-mail: per.sandstrom@slu.se
  • Sonesson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Uppsala Science Park, SE-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2018-7496 E-mail: johan.sonesson@skogforsk.se
article id 10350, category Discussion article
Maja Peteh. (2020). A synthesis of the characteristics of current national, regional and international forestry journals. Silva Fennica vol. 54 no. 3 article id 10350. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10350
Keywords: forestry; geographical coverage; journal title list; scientific publishing
Highlights: Currently, 451 forestry-related journals are published worldwide (41.7% in Europe, 37.3% in Asia) in 32 different languages (47.9% in English only); 6 categories have been defined for the geographical coverage of a journal (55.5% of which have been defined as national and 18.2% as international); The journals could increase their visibility and value by improving their websites and submitting relevant information to international indexing databases.
Abstract | Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info

One of the main objectives of the International Union of Forest Research Organization’s WP 9.01.06 (Forest Science Publishing) is to clarify the range of forestry-related journals in the context of the overall objective of supporting authors and readers to deepen their knowledge of forestry. This study extended an earlier list of forestry journals using the ISSN database and the CAB abstracts. The study included 451 journal titles, each categorized by ISSN, publisher, language of publication, website, and geographical coverage (i.e. national, regional, international, or three mixed intermediate categories), as well as information on indexing in Web of Science, Scopus, DOAJ, and SherpaRomeo. The included journals are published in 61 countries and in 32 different languages. Those categorized as international are mostly published in English. 21.7% of the journals are indexed in Web of Science and 34.1% in Scopus. 95.6% of the titles are published online or in the print+online publishing model, but only 57.0% of the titles are published in Open Access, of which only 33.7% are indexed in DOAJ.

  • Peteh, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Večna pot 83, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia; Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna pot 2, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9636-1155 E-mail: maja.peteh@gozdis.si (email)
article id 270, category Discussion article
Seppo Rouvinen, Jari Kouki. (2008). The natural northern European boreal forests: unifying the concepts, terminologies, and their application. Silva Fennica vol. 42 no. 1 article id 270. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.270
Keywords: human influence; biodiversity; natural ecosystems; natural forests; protection; terminology
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Recent emphasis on conserving the biodiversity has stressed the value of natural ecosystems in saving the species from extinction. In the Fennoscandian region the conifer-dominated boreal forests form the largest single ecosystem. The forests have been under varying intensity of human influence for decades or centuries. Recent attempts have tried to seek the last remaining natural forests to be included in the protection programmes. However, due to long and widespread human influence, finding and defining the natural forests has proven to be extremely difficult, not only because they are so rare but also because the concept of natural forest is vague. These difficulties are partly seen through the diverse terminology used. We first review the varying terminology as seen in recent studies. Secondly, we propose the basis for defining the natural forest and show some intriguing and challenging difficulties are involved in the concept. These difficulties are at least partly related to inherent strong and long-term dynamic component in boreal forest ecosystems that is manifested over several temporal and spatial scales. Finally, we outline a more general terminology with associated indicators and measurements that might be used in the classification and terminology. Conceptual clarification is necessary, for example, to compile ecologically justified and representative global, national and regional forest statistics. Many currently applied definitions of “forest” and “natural” that are applied in the context of forest statistics overlook ecologically important components of natural forests, and thus provide quite misleading or inadequate data of existing diversity patterns in these ecosystems.
  • Rouvinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sr@nn.fi
  • Kouki, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jari.kouki@joensuu.fi (email)
article id 527, category Discussion article
Jyrki Kangas, Ron Store. (2002). Socioecological landscape planning: an approach to multi-functional forest management. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 4 article id 527. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.527
Keywords: forest planning; landscape ecology; multicriteria analysis; sociocultural sustainability
View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Kangas, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.kangas@metla.fi (email)
  • Store, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
article id 573, category Discussion article
Matti Koivula, Jari Niemelä. (2002). Boreal carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in managed spruce forests – a summary of Finnish case studies. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 573. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.573
Keywords: management; logging; succession; boreal; forestry; landscape; Carabidae; clear-cutting; edge; retention felling
View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Koivula, Department of Ecology and Systematics, Division of Population Biology, P.O. Box 65, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: matti.koivula@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Niemelä, Department of Ecology and Systematics, Division of Population Biology, P.O. Box 65, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: jn@nn.fi
article id 571, category Discussion article
S. C. DeLong. (2002). Using nature’s template to best advantage in the Canadian boreal forest. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 571. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.571
Keywords: biodiversity; ecosystem management; sustainable forestry; natural disturbance; British Columbia
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  • DeLong, Ministry of Forests, 1011 4th Ave, Prince George, BC, Canada V2L 3H9 E-mail: craig.delong@gems1.gov.bc.ca (email)
article id 610, category Discussion article
Risto Päivinen, Perttu Anttila. (2001). How reliable is a satellite forest inventory? Silva Fennica vol. 35 no. 1 article id 610. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.610
Keywords: forest inventory; remote sensing; satellite images
View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Päivinen, European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: risto.paivinen@efi.fi (email)
  • Anttila, European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pa@nn.fi

Category : Commentary

article id 6985, category Commentary
Eshetu Yirdaw, Markku Kanninen, Mohamed Elfadl, Daniel Tsegai. (2017). Special issue: Drought and Dryland Management – a commentary. Silva Fennica vol. 51 no. 1B article id 6985. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.6985
Keywords: restoration; desertification; land degradation; rangelands; croplands; dry forests; landscapes
Full text in HTML | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Yirdaw, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: eshetu.yirdaw@helsinki.fi (email)
  • Kanninen, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: markku.kanninen@helsinki.fi
  • Elfadl, Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), Department of Forest Sciences, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: mohamed.elfadl@helsinki.fi
  • Tsegai, UNCCD Secretariat, Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1, 53113 Bonn, Germany E-mail: dtsegai@unccd.int
article id 461, category Commentary
Sari Palmroth. (2009). Boreal forest and climate change – from processes and transport to trees, ecosystems and atmosphere. Silva Fennica vol. 43 no. 4 article id 461. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.461
Keywords: carbon; climate; growth; forests; ecology; book reviews
Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
Book review: Hari, P. & Kulmala, L. (eds.). 2008. Boreal Forest and Climate Change. Advances in Global Change Research 34. Springer. 582 p. ISBN 978-1-4020-8717-2.
  • Palmroth, Duke University, Nicholas School of the Environment, Box 90328 Duke University, Durham, USA E-mail: sari.palmroth@duke.edu (email)
article id 547, category Commentary
Timo Kuuluvainen. (2002). Introduction. Disturbance dynamics in boreal forests: defining the ecological basis of restoration and management of biodiversity. Silva Fennica vol. 36 no. 1 article id 547. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.547
Keywords: boreal forests; management; biodiversity; disturbance dynamics; restoration; ecology
View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info
  • Kuuluvainen, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: timo.kuuluvainen@helsinki.fi (email)

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